Heroism, Gaming, and the Rhetoric of Immortality
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Heroism, Gaming, and the Rhetoric of Immortality by Jason Hawreliak A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the Thesis requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2013 © Jason Hawreliak 2013 I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii ABSTRACT This dissertation examines rhetorics of heroism and immortality as they are negotiated through a variety of (new) media contexts. The dissertation demonstrates that media technologies in general, and videogames in particular, serve an existential or “death denying” function, which insulates individuals from the terror of mortality. The dissertation also discusses the hero as a rhetorical trope, and suggests that its relationship with immortality makes it a particularly powerful persuasive device. Chapter one provides a historical overview of the hero figure and its relationship with immortality, particularly within the context of ancient Greece. Chapter two examines the material means by which media technologies serve a death denying function, via “symbolic immortality” (inscription), and the McLuhanian concept of extension. Chapter three examines the prevalence of the hero and villain figures in propaganda, with particular attention paid to the use of visual propaganda in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Chapter four situates the videogame as an inherently heroic, death denying medium; videogames can extend the player’s sense of self, provide quantifiable victory criteria, and allow players to participate in “heroic” events. Chapter five examines the soldier-as-hero motif as it appears in two popular genres, the First Person Shooter, and Role-Playing Game. Particular attention is paid to the Call of Duty series and The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim . Chapter six outlines an “epistemological exercise,” which attempts to empirically test the claims made in the previous chapters via Terror Management Theory, an experimental paradigm which examines the relationship between mortality, self-esteem, and ideology. The conclusion discusses how videogames can contest prevailing views of the heroic, and calls for a departure from contemporary game design practices. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As with any major project, this dissertation could not have been completed without the help and tireless support of many people. In more ways than one this is a collaborative project, and so I’d like to thank the following for their assistance and patience over the past six(!) years. First, thanks to the University of Waterloo’s department of English Language and Literature for supporting projects and pursuits not conventionally associated with the discipline. I’ve felt privileged to be a part of what I think is a truly special group of faculty and students. Thanks also to Neil Elgee and the Ernest Becker Foundation for providing me with a venue for sharing my work early on and for providing me with much needed feedback. This dissertation would not be what it is without their kind support. In a very literal, direct way, this dissertation could not have been completed without the help of Mark Zanna and Steven Shepherd. As a layperson in the methods of empirical research, their timely and patient assistance in both designing our experiments and analyzing the results is much appreciated. A special thanks to Steve, who was responsible for analyzing all of our data and for explaining it to us in a comprehensive (and comprehensible) manner. I also owe a debt of gratitude to my external examiners, Ian Milligan and Sheldon Solomon, for asking thoughtful and extremely helpful questions during the defense. Both have given me a great deal to think about for future projects. In particular, thanks to Sheldon for being supportive and for encouraging a layman’s journey into Terror Management Theory. A special thanks to my committee members, Neil Randall and Michael MacDonald, who not only provided essential and timely feedback on my chapters, but who are in many ways responsible for my decision to pursue Game Studies as an academic career. Michael’s propaganda course gave me my first opportunity to analyze a videogame in an academic iv environment, and for that I will be forever grateful. Moreover, the value of his comments on my chapters cannot be overstated. Neil’s encouragement to go out on a whim and present a Game Studies inspired paper at the last minute was a defining moment in my academic career. Since then, he has also provided me with unending support in countless ways, especially through fantastic conversations and through the Games Institute’s various projects, particularly First Person Scholar . I have been very lucky to have such a knowledgeable and supportive committee. The most heartfelt and sincere of thanks to my supervisor, mentor, and friend, Marcel O’Gorman, who took me under his wing early on and introduced me to the ideas of Becker. In many ways my work is an offshoot of his, and any successes I’ve had are the result of his tireless dedication and guiding hand. Marcel let me tag along to give my first, shaky conference talks, and never offered anything but encouragement and invaluable feedback. My work as his research assistant has also been an essential part of my academic career. He truly went above and beyond in every way possible and I can only hope to one day be the kind of scholar and person he is. Of course, none of this would be possible without my family, who have supported me throughout in every way imaginable. Thanks to my brother, Mike, and my cousin, Dave, for helping me keep my sanity during this process. You guys were more help than I’m sure you know. A very special thanks to my parents for always making me feel that I could pursue any path I wanted, and for never hesitating to help me when I needed it. I can’t thank you enough for always being there for me and for providing me with the stability I needed to get through this. Most of all, thank you a thousand times to my best friend (and now wife!) Crystal. I can never adequately express how much your love and encouragement have helped me every step of the way. I wouldn’t have been able to do this without you. Your support, kindness and patience throughout will always stay with me. I’ve been truly blessed to have you in my life. v DEDICATION For Crystal, my partner in crime and best friend. Your love and support have sustained me throughout. I am eternally grateful to have you by my side as we embark on this journey together. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS AUTHOR’S DECLARATION……………………………………………………....ii ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………iv DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………vi TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………....vii LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………….ix INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………..……….1 CHAPTER ONE: HEROISM AND THE RHETORIC OF IMMORTALITY…….18 1. Kleos and the Iliad ’s heroic code……………………………………… 20 2. Platonic and Aristotelian conceptions of the heroic…………… ………37 3. Joseph Campbell and the hero’s psychological function………. ………53 4. Heroism and the denial of death………………………………...............66 CHAPTER TWO: THE DEATH DENYING FUNCTION OF (NEW) MEDIA......85 1. Being-towards-death…………………………………….........................87 2. Supplementarity through technics…………………….............................93 3. The ghost(s) in the machine……………………………………………112 4. Extensions of man……………………………………….......................117 CHAPTER THREE: HEROISM AND VILLAINY IN PROPAGANDA………....131 1. Definitions and history of propaganda…………………………………133 2. Constructing the villain and finding a scapegoat………………………144 3. The hero at war and on the homefront…………………………………161 4. PSYOPS and contemporary propaganda………………….....................167 CHAPTER FOUR: VIDEOGAMES: THE HEROIC MEDIUM……….................180 1. Play…………………………………………………………...................181 a. Play and culture………………………………………...............185 b. Caillois’ “rubrics” of play……………………………................190 i. Agon (competition)……………………………..............191 ii. Alea (chance)…………………………...........................196 iii. Mimicry (simulation)…………………………………..200 vii iv. Ilinx (vertigo)…………………………………………..202 c. Immersion……………………………………………………...205 d. Procedural rhetorics of heroism and immortality...……………213 e. Narrative and the heroic motif…………………………………228 CHAPTER FIVE: “A SAVIOR THROUGH BLOOD:” THE RHETORIC OF WAR HEROISM......................................................................................................239 1. The military entertainment complex ...………………………………..242 2. Answering the call in the good war…………………………………...248 a. Narratological rhetoric………...………………………………252 b. Procedural rhetoric………...………………………………......264 c. Ludological rhetoric………...………………………………....268 3. Skyrim and The Elder Scrolls series….…….………………………….274 a. Narratological rhetoric………...…………………………….....277 b. Procedural rhetoric……………………………..……………...284 c. Ludological rhetoric……………………………………..…….292 CHAPTER SIX: TERROR MANAGEMENT THEORY IN TECHNOCULTURE AND GAMING………………………………………..…. 298 1. TMT: Overview and methodology…………………………………….300 2. Selected literature review……………………………………………...303 3. Two experiments in terror management theory……………………….310 a. E1: Technology and the denial of death……………………….311 b. E2: Gaming and the denial of death…………………………...313 i. Methodology and procedures………………….……….315 ii. Results………………………………………................319