B A S E Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Focus on:

Plants used in traditional medicine in the archipelago. A review Matthew Saive (1), Michel Frederich (2), Marie-Laure Fauconnier (1) (1) University of Liège - Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech. Laboratory of Chemistry of Natural Molecules. Passage des Déportés, 2. BE-5030 Gembloux (Belgium). E-mail: [email protected] (2) University of Liège. Department of Pharmacognosy. Liège (Belgium).

Received 23 June 2019, accepted 1 april 2020, available online 22 April 2020. This article is distributed under the terms and conditions of the CC-BY License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)

Introduction. In the Comoros archipelago, as in many places in , traditional medicine is the first reflex people have when it comes to finding a cure. This work illustrates the diversity of remedies found in this group of islands. The species potentially effective from a pharmaceutical point of view can be targeted through the comparison of different databases. The present study also illustrates the importance of preventing the loss of traditional knowledge based on hundreds of years of observations. Literature. The information in this paper originates from databases built by ethnobotanists as well as peer reviewed scientific articles. In addition, some information also come from work done by locals working with recognized organisms. Conclusions. The scientific literature cites 207 different species that are used for traditional practices in the Comoros archipelago, among which 9 are endemic. These species were compared to the pharmacopoeias of other islands and surroundings from the Indian Ocean in terms of similarities and differences between targeted ailments. Only 3% of the cited species present similarities in use among the islands of the Indian Ocean and surroundings. Keywords. Traditional medicines, ethnobotany, Indian Ocean, Comoros.

Les plantes utilisées en médecine traditionnelle dans l’archipel des Comores (synthèse bibliographique) Introduction. Dans l’archipel des Comores, comme dans de nombreuses régions d’Afrique, le premier réflexe adopté par les populations quand il s’agit de se soigner est la médecine traditionnelle. Ce travail illustre la diversité des remèdes à base de plantes que l’on retrouve dans cette région du monde. C’est à l’aide de travaux similaires à celui-ci que des espèces potentiellement intéressantes pour le monde pharmaceutique et cosmétique peuvent être identifiées. De plus, ce type d’étude contribue à la préservation d’un savoir ancestral en voie de disparition. Littérature. Les informations mentionnées dans ce travail sont issues de bases de données construites par des ethnobotanistes ainsi que d’articles scientifiques validés par les pairs. Une partie des données proviennent aussi de travaux réalisés par des locaux en collaboration avec des organismes reconnus. Conclusions. La littérature scientifique concernant la pharmacopée traditionnelle de l’archipel des Comores cite 207 espèces différentes. Parmi ces espèces, 9 sont endémiques de l’archipel. La totalité des espèces a été comparée aux autres iles de l’océan Indien ainsi qu’aux régions avoisinantes du point de vue des usages respectifs. À l’issue de ce travail, il s’avère que seulement 3 % de ces espèces sont utilisées de manières similaires dans ces différentes régions. Mots-clés. Médicament traditionnel, ethnobotanique, océan Indien, Comores.

1. INTRODUCTION 2013; Rakotoniaina et al., 2018). The earliest records of plant use for medicine, among other habits and As long as humankind can remember, have beliefs, were found in ancient and are estimated been part of Human’s development. In addition to the to date from 2500 BCE (Kelly, 2009). Even though the management of the carbon equilibrium, they can be a way plants are used has been changing, their use is still source of food, medicine, cosmetics, fabric, energy, a common practice nowadays. In the 19th century, as as well as of construction materials (Cartier, 1994; science and medicine progressed, traditional uses of Bouloc, 2006; Hoffman et al., 2007; Soidrou et al., plants in medicine provided an ever-growing source 118 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Saive M., Frederich M. & Fauconnier M.-L. of inspiration for the development of new drugs and called biodiversity hotspots. The Indian Ocean is treatments (Farnsworth, 1966; Heitzman et al., 2005; home to many biodiversity hotspots as 25% of the Katiyar et al., 2012), starting with the isolation of world’s biodiversity can be found there, as well as in morphine from Papaver somniferum L. by Friedrich subsaharan Africa (Gurib Fakim, 2011). Sertüner in 1806 (Brownstein, 1993). Among the large number of different species found These discoveries were the early stages of what in the western part of the Indian Ocean, many are would become the birth of ethnopharmacology in 1967 endemic. Mauritius, Réunion, Rodrigues, Seychelles, (Heinrich, 2015). This field of study is defined as “the the Comoros archipelago and Madagascar together interdisciplinary scientific exploration of biologically are home to 11 endemic plant families, including at active agents traditionally employed or observed least 310 endemic genera, leading to a total of around by man, putting in relation plants, fungi, animals, 10,000 endemic species (Rasoanaivo, 2011). microorganisms, minerals, the way people use them While several studies on Madagascar, Reunion and the biological and pharmacological effects of Island, Mauritius and Rodrigues review current those ingredients. It is a discipline tightly linked to knowledge in ethnobotany in these areas, it is ethnobotany and phytochemistry” (Holmstedt, 1991). surprising to note that despite the incredible potential The ethnobotanical part of this discipline led to the of the Comoros archipelago, no study has been devoted gathering of huge amounts of data. In order to simplify to them. the access to that immense source of knowledge, People from the Comoros archipelago live in ethnobotanists have been creating many very complete rural areas. Poverty and difficult access to a modern databases such as: NAPRALERT (United States health care system have led them to develop their of America); PHARMEL (Belgium); PRELUDE own health system based on natural products. The (Belgium); PROTA (The Netherlands); Kew MPNS cultural background of these people, being a mix of (Great Britain); MNHN (France). These databases African Bantu and Arab-Muslim, gave to this region contain information that can prove very interesting of the world a diversified and rich knowledge when for laboratory scientists in order to target the species it comes to traditional medicine. The conservation of on which detailed analyses should be implemented this knowledge is based on an oral transmission from (Farnsworth, 1994). one generation to the next (Kaou et al., 2008; Soidrou Ethnobotany has proven to be effective for the et al., 2013). discovery of important medicine: e.g. in Madagascar, We thus focused on this part of the world in this Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don has been used tradi- work for the previously mentioned reasons, that are: tionally to treat many pathologies, such as pancreatic – it is known as a biodiversity hotspot and the birthplace pain, colitis, chest pain, heartburn and gastritis (Razaf- for many different species (Tatayah, 2011); indraibe et al., 2013; Randriamiharisoa et al., 2015). – due to its location, it has had the cultural influences Phytochemical studies were conducted on this species of many ethnicities (Kaou et al., 2008; Soidrou et al., and led to the discovery of many alkaloids such as 2013); vindoline I, vindolidine II, vindolicine III, vindolinine – lastly, only very little data compilation has been done IV as well as vinblastine and vincristine. Among these on the botanicals used in traditional medicine in this alkaloids some are used nowadays as anti-cancer part of the world. drugs in modern medicine (Tiong et al., 2013; Dugé de Bernonville et al., 2015). Other plants, originating Mainly peer reviewed documents were taken into from different places have been subject to similar account and most of the ethnobotanical information can investigations and led to the discovery of interesting be linked to one or several vouchers stored in herbaria. new compounds. As an example, in the Reunion Island, As some work was done by locals, in collaboration Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. is used traditionally to treat with a recognized botanic conservatory (CBNM – many benign and malignant ailments (e.g. aspergillo- Conservatoire botanique national de Mascarin), these sis, scabies, fungal infections). After a phytochemical data were also taken into account. study was undertaken, compounds such as asiatico- In the end, this work has led to the creation of an side, brahmoside, brahminoside or kaempferol were exhaustive list of plant species and their traditional identified (Hashim et al., 2011). Thus, C. asiatica was uses, based on all available and significant literature. proven to be useful against serious immune disorder The perspective of development, risks and limitations diseases. Even though not all compounds and mecha- linked to the use of plants from the Comoros archipelago nisms have been investigated and studied in depth, this in traditional medicine are also discussed. species is currently used as an ingredient in patented To find the information mentioned in this article, phytomedicines (Rangel, 2009). systematic bibliographic research was conducted in The two species mentioned above come from the PRELUDE database as well as in Google Scholar. places known for their wide biodiversity, which are As the first database already targets ethnobotanical Ethnopharmacology in the Comoros archipelago 119 information the keyword used was Comores. The pluviometry of Moroni (located west of Anjouan keywords used to do the research in Google Scholar Island, near the sea) only reaches 2,700 mm per year. were the following: Comoros archipelago, Moheli, The average pluviometry of Moheli, Grande Comore Mwali, Mayotte, Maore, Anjouan, Ndzuwani, Grande and Mayotte reach respectively 2,100 mm, 2,300 mm Comore, Nagzidja linked to ethnobotany, traditional and 1,250 mm per year (OMM, 2018). Differences in practices, traditional medicine, cosmetics. This process pluviometry can also vary within the islands: e.g. in led to the identification of 100 bibliographic references. Mayotte, the south of the island measures rainfall below 1,300 mm per year and the north of the island regularly records rainfall reaching more than 2,000 mm per year 2. CONTEXT AND STUDY AREA (Boullet, 2016). All these characteristics within the archipelago and within the different islands are some In a context where exports equal a tenth of the imports of the reasons for the wide biodiversity (Rasoanaivo, (13,8 M $ versus 129,6 M $) in 2007 (UNCTAD, 2011). 2011), it is crucial to find new ways to finance the region. One way to reach that goal is to seek high 2.2. Flora added values in available goods. In this case, the rich and diverse flora of the archipelago has been targeted. The flora of the Comoros archipelago has not been As mentioned by El Hilaly et al. (2003) and Mhame studied in depth, in opposition to other islands in the (2004), folk medicine can be an asset helping the Indian Ocean (Morat & Lowry, 1997; Pascal et al., financial status of a region. Through the discovery 2001; Pascal, 2002). Floristic studies of the Comoros of valuable plant species for the pharmaceutical and archipelago began in the first part of the 20th century, cosmetic business, the import and export balance could when Voeltskow published “Flora und Fauna der be influenced towards a healthier situation. It is vital Komoren. Reise in Ostafrika in den Jahren 1902–1905” for the exploitation of these goods to be carried out in (Vos, 2004) in which he identified 935 a sustainable manner or else this type of work cannot species, including 416 endemic species. His work was guarantee solid change in the long term (Abdurazag completed by a more recent project aiming to identify et al., 2003). the flora of the Comoros archipelago. The main studies made in Comoros were carried out by Moinjoin in 2.1. Geography and climate 1981, Adjanohoun in 1982 and the PLARM (study of the characteristics and composition of aromatique and The Comoros archipelago lies in the northern region medicinal plants) project (Adjanohoun et al., 1982; of the Mozambique Channel. It is composed of four Gurib Fakim & Guého, 1999). More recently, studies main islands, respectively Grande Comore (950 km²), of Kaou et al. and Soidrou et al. were added to this Anjouan (378 km²), Mayotte (370 km²) and Mohéli list (Kaou et al., 2008; Soidrou et al., 2013). The latest (216 km²). In addition, around 60 islets are found in botanical studies for the Comoros archipelago estimate the surrounding seas, especially south of Mohéli and the number of species as being over 2,000 (indigenous in the Mahoran lagoon. The archipelago is the result and introduced) (Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Pascal, of the separation of the Malagasy and African plates, 2002; Barthelat & Boullet, 2005; Barthelat & Viscardi, between the Miocene and the late Pleistocene, which 2012). led to the creation of this volcanic pack of islands (Nougier et al., 1986). Due to their volcanic origin, these islands present a hilly landscape with summits 3. METHODS reaching 2,361 m (Mount Karthala) for Grande Comore, 1,595 m (Mount Ntringui) for Anjouan, Targeting significant literature to provide valuable 790 m (Mzé Koukoulé) for Moheli and 660 m (Mount data for those who will use it afterwards is of Benara) for Mayotte (Quod et al., 2000). The climate paramount importance. Likewise, we must highlight is tropical, with a hot and rainy season from December that within the identified posology mentioned in the to April, during which the monsoon prevails and is literature, some remedies are more strongly linked characterized by an average temperature reaching to rites than to biological material, which calls for a 27 °C during the day. The dry season starts in May cautious review on how the species are used. The and ends in November, with an average temperature ideal criteria in the ethnobotanical literature are, reaching 23 °C during the day. The pluviometry of according to Trotter & Logan (1986), as follows: the the different islands is strongly influenced by their database should be significant, the scope should be relief as clouds tend to form and stay in places with comparable and complete, the plant specimens must high altitudes. On mount Karthala, rainfall can reach be properly identified, vouchers need to be stored for up to 5,000 mm per year, whereas the average yearly further verification and, if possible, activity tests in 120 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Saive M., Frederich M. & Fauconnier M.-L. the field should have been carried out so as to prove also called Relative Importance Index (RI). Similar to the potency of the concerned remedy. Considering the RII mentioned previously, it is based on the relative how little ethnobotanical work has been done in the number of use-categories (RNU); however, it does not Comoros archipelago, only a few articles meet the take the body systems into account, rather it integrates criteria mentioned above. Therefore, the selected data the relative frequency of citation (RFC). In this present originate from peer reviewed articles or from work done work, it is not possible to determine the RFC as there by recognized organizations such as the Conservatoire is no survey linked to the data in table 1 (Tardío & botanique national de Mascarin (CBNM) in Pardo de Santayana, 2008). On its own, the RNU can be collaboration with local inhabitants. considered as an indicator of the type of ailment that is In fine, the data collected consist of the family name, more of a concern for the inhabitants of the archipelago. the scientific name, the endemism of the plant as well All the ailments mentioned in table 1 were sorted into as the targeted ailment and the part of the plant used 86 uses (data not shown); then the following formula when available (Table 1). The collected data were then was applied to the data set: studied so as to identify any type of consensus on the way the species were used in the Comoros and in the = NUS × RNU 100 surrounding islands. NUmax Based on the work carried out on the collected information, it was observed that in the Comoros where NUs = number of mentions of a specific use, archipelago, as well as in the other islands of the NUmax = maximum number of specific uses mentioned Indian Ocean, the number of uses per species varies within the whole data set. widely. As this phenomenon was observed worldwide by many ethnobotanists, several data reduction tools have been developed to enhance the significance of 4. DATA COLLECTION the work. First to develop these tools were Trotter & Logan in 1986, then Prance et al. (1987) mentioned the All the collected data have been gathered in table 1. A concept of quantitative ethnobotany. Following on from total of 207 different species from 80 different families this, many researchers have used different approaches have been mentioned in the literature, when it comes to towards developing the significance of the data they the traditional use of plants of the Comoros archipelago. have collected. Most indicators require information Among these families, the most frequently found are such as the number of informants, number of ailments (9%), (7%), (5%), per species, number of mentions for each species or and Malvaceae (5%) (Table 1). treatment; this type of information is found when doing When applying the two different indicators on the in field observations. As this work is a review, only the data in table 1, the following information stand out. body system impacted and the number of health issues Leptadenia madagascariensis Decne. and Ocimum targeted per species were available, leading to the canum Sims. both affect 7 body systems, however, selection of the indicators as follows. L. madagascariensis is claimed to treat 7 health issues, Considering these elements, the RII (Relative giving a RII of 41.67 where O. canum is claimed to treat Importance Index) was established for each species 19 different health issues, leading to a RII of 63.10. Ergo using the work of Bennett & Prance (2000). This the latter is more versatile and could be studied in many indicator reflects the versatility of a species based on the different contexts. For our data set, the highest value, normalized number of pharmacological properties and the average and the lowest values are respectively: 100 the normalized number of body (BS) systems it affects, for Bidens pilosa L., 18.9 for the average and 1.79 for using the following formula: Canaga odorata (Lam.) Hook.F. & Thomson, Struchium sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze, Commelina africana L., BST HIS Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd., Chrysopogon zizanioides RII = + × 50 BSS HIM (L.) Roberty and Cestrum nocturnum L. The common link between the 6 very low RII species resides in the where BST = total number of body system as mentioned fact that they are only used for cosmetics and therefore in the literature (12) (Bennett & Prance, 2000), BSS = do not impact body systems. Based on this indicator, the body system specifically targeted by the concerned plants to be targeted in further studies could be: B. pilosa, species, HIS = number of health issues claimed to be Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers., Adansonia digitata L., managed by a specific species, HIM = maximal number Cassia occidentalis L. and all locally available Aloe of health issues claimed to be managed by a specific species. These plants have in common the fact that species within this data set. they are used traditionally for many different ailments In 2003, as explained by Tardío & Pardo de Santayana targeting many body systems, thereby enhancing the (2008), Pardo de Santayana developed a new indicator chances of having some significant biological activity. Ethnopharmacology in the Comoros archipelago 121 ./.. References Adjanohoun, 1989; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Vijayvergia, & Tanwer Singh 2014; Panara et al., 2016; Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun, 1989 Adjanohoun, 1989 Adjanohoun, Sussman, 1980; 1989; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun, 1989; Gurib Fakim 2004 & Brendler, Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun, 1989; Gurib 2004; Jain Fakim & Brendler, & Srivastava, 2005; Kaou et al., 2008 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 2004; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Poullain et al., 2004; Jonville et al., 2008; Kaou Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 1.79 5.95 11.90 21.43 31.55 23.21 15.48 27.98 38.10 25.00 23.81 19.64 37.50 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques traditionnelles. Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature Use/symptoms (plant parts) Colitis (L), abdominal syndrome haemorrhoids (B) pregnancy disorder (ND), menstrual flow (ND) (ND), female fertility boils (WP) Fatigue (ND), purgative and asthma (L), menstruation disorder (F) Stomach pain (L), diuretic kidney stones (ND), liver disease (ND), gonorrhoea (L), pregnancy follow-up (B) Sexual incapacity (Bl), sexual asthenia erectile dysfunction (Bl), impotency (Bl) internal parasitism (oxiure, ascaris, tenia) (ND), amoebiasis colibacillus (ND), cysticercose cococsidiosis maggot (ND), giardiase gingivitis odontalgia toothaches (ND), tooth decay (ND) Benign positional vertigo (L), deworming (ND), febrifuge astringent (ND), diarrhoea dysentery lice sedative (ND), antispasmodic hypotensive (L), epilepsy cardiac pain (ND) Contusion (ND), bruise sprain swelling lumbago (ND), sciatica epilepsy (ND) cardiac pain Lumbago (R), redness (L) (ND), dizziness (B), syncope malaria (L) Vertigo Bad luck (L), impotence (R), rheumatism orchitis (ND) Cosmetic (Fl) Dizziness (L), leucorrhoea stomach pain (L) (S), diarrhoea malaria (L), diabetes intestinal parasites stomach pain (L) Stomach pain (Sd)

L.*** (L.f.) Pers.*** L.*** (L.) (Vahl) (Vahl) L.*** L.*** (Lam.) Hook.f. L.*** (L.) Juss. ex L.*** Species Asystasia gangetica T.Anderson*** Alangium salviifolium Wangerin*** Aerva lanata Schult.*** Allium cepa occidentale Anacardium Annona muricata Annona reticulata Annona senegalensis Annona squamosa Monanthotaxis glaucocarpa (Baill.) Verdc.* Cananga odorata Thomson*** & Aphloia theiformis Benn.*** Coriandrum sativum List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices — 1. Table Family Acanthaceae Alangiaceae Amaranthaceae Amaryllidaceae Anacardiaceae Annonaceae Aphloiaceae Apiaceae 122 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Saive M., Frederich M. & Fauconnier M.-L. ./.. References 1886; Gurib Fakim & Daruty, 2004; Mchangama & Brendler, Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Gurib 2004; Kaou Fakim & Brendler, et al., 2008; Godara 2015 Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Vijayvergia, & Tanwer Singh 2014; Rakotoarivelo et al., 2015; Panara et al., 2016 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun, 1989; Gurib Fakim, 2002; Gurib 2003; Rabearivony et al., 2015; Samoisy & Mahomoodally, 2015 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun Sussman, 1980; et al., 1982; Gurib Fakim, 1990; Jain & Srivastava, 2005; Kaou et al., 2008 1.79 7.74 5.95 5.95 11.90 11.90 11.90 29.17 13.69 41.67 19.64 36.90 70.24 27.38 60.12 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) Fever (W), chest pain (ND), heart pounding stomach (B), headache (ND), (W), acne (W) Headache (W), acne cosmetic (W) Fever (S), malaria (L) (W) convulsion (ND), rheumatism colic (S), diabetes (ND), help expel the placenta after childbirth (ND) Redness (L) (W), stomach pain (W) Cosmetics (Fl) (W) (L) (W) (L), purgative Tonic Colitis (L), abdominal syndrome (L) Arthritis (R), low back pain orchitis (ND), localized (R) Aphrodisiac (Sd), anthelminthic (F) Fresh cut (L), fever (R), menstrual disorders (ND), diarrhoea dysentery (L) , boils (F), asthma vomiting (S), dandruff, Cervicalgia (L) Blepharitis (L), blindness eye disease trachoma abscess (L), cyst furuncle pimple skin lesion diseases (L), lupus abdominal pain (R), stomach colic gastritis (R), heartburn gastralgia arthritis (L), articular pain (L), cramps kidney pain (R), myalgia sciatica (L) Arthritis (L), joint pain rheumatism sciatica redness (L), stomach pain (L) Joint pain (FB) Ague (ND), fever (L), malaria dizziness rheumatism diarrhoea (L), skin (L, St), wounds anthrax eye (R), eczema (R), diarrhoea (L), amoebic disease (WP), dysentery malaria (WP), typhoid (WP) (Vatke) (Vatke) (L.) L.*** Choux* Gaertn.*** L.*** A.Berger* (End) A.Berger* (L.) L. * L.*** L.*** (Forssk.) Vahl*** (Forssk.) L.*** sp.*** sp.*** List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species Carissa edulis Leptadenia madagascariensis Decne.*** Petchia erythrocarpa Leeuwenb.*** Plumeria rubra Secamone astephana Tylophora Pothos scandens catechu Areca Cocos nucifera Hyphaene coriacea Aloe Aloe mayottensis Acmella oleracea R.K.Jansen*** Ageratum conyzoides 1 (suite 1). Table traditionnelles. Family Araceae Arecaceae Asphodelaceae Asteraceae Ethnopharmacology in the Comoros archipelago 123 ./.. References Adjanohoun et al., 1982; 1886; Gurib Fakim Daruty, 2004; Pourchez, & Brendler, 2011 Adjanohoun, 1989; Gurib 2004; Fakim & Brendler, Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Bartolome et al., 2013 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Kaou et al., 2008 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Kaou et al., 2008 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Kaou et al., 2008 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 1.79 5.95 5.95 5.95 11.90 40.48 20.83 100.00 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) Diearrhoea (L), headache hypertension (ND), epigastric pain (L), nausea vomiting stimulant (ND), astringent scurvy (ND), sudorific skin infections (ND) Cuts (L), worms (WP), headache (ND), sore throat (L) water retention (WP), irritation (ND), poisoning dysentery jaundice (L) (WP), pharyngitis diabetes hypertension (WP), toothache (ND), urinary tract infections stomach pain (L), febrifuge (WP), nervous system problems (ND), haemorrhoids (ND), insect bites conjunctivitis (L) (WP), malaria dysmenorrhea (WP), convulsions (ND), parturition (ND) , cough (WP), nosebleed (WP) (L), intestinal illness diarrhoea (St) (L) (Fl) Antalgic (R), migraine (children) (R) Diabetes (L) Diarrhoea (WP) Dysmenorrhoea (L), hypermenorrhoea sterility (S) infertility (S) (L), impotence bleeding nosebleed (L) Child severe headache (R) Headache (R) and mycosis (Li) Dermal reaction linked to allergies Cosmetics (Fl) Diabetes (L) Diarrhoea (WP) Haemorrhoids (L)

(L.) grandis (L.) DC.* (DC.) (DC.) (Lam.) (Vahl) R.M. (Vahl) Kunth*** (Hemsl.) (Vahl) (Vahl) Baill.* (End) subsp. L.*** List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species triplinervis Ayapana King & H.Rob.*** Bidens pilosa Crassocephalum bojeri Robyns* Elephantopus mollis Helichrysum fulvescens (not in INPN and MPNS) pyrifolia Microglossa Kuntze*** Crassocephalum bojeri Robyns Solanecio angulatus C.Jeffrey* Sphagneticola trilobata Pruski* Struchium sparganophorum Kuntze*** diversifolia Tithonia A.Gray*** colorata Vernonia (DC.) C.Jeffrey* Impatiens auricoma 1 (suite 2). Table traditionnelles. Family Balsaminaceae 124 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Saive M., Frederich M. & Fauconnier M.-L. ./.. References Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Maregesi et al., 2013 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Jain & Srivastava, 2005; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Abe & Ohtani, 2013 2004; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Gurib Fakim, 1990; Kaou et al., 2008 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Gurib Fakim et al., 1997a; 2004 Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Nicolas, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Gurib 2004 Fakim & Brendler, Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 7.74 5.95 5.95 9.52 11.90 11.90 11.90 11.90 13.69 38.69 21.43 13.69 26.79 27.38 25.60 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) Skin smoothing (B), cosmetics (B) (L) (S), dermal reaction mycoses (S) Allergy healing (L), analgesic (L) Wound Sadness (L) Fresh cut (L), abscess (R) , facial neuralgia (ND), ulcers (R), eye infections (L) (R), orchitis, rheumatism (Re), psoriasis skin infection (Re), boils (Re) Oxytocic (L) (B) Internal parasitism (F), malaria (L) Haemorrhoids (L) (B), psychomotor disability (children) (L), urogenital infection (S) (L), gingivitis (WP), dental pain (WP) Chronic fatigue (ND), neuralgia tonic (ND) Intestinal parasites (F), swollen spleen (Fl) (R) Fever (ND), epilepsy (ND) Anaemia (L), asthenia Oxytocic (L) healing agent (ND), antiseptic disinfectant Wound pain (ND), cicatrizing (ND), vulnerary burns (Pp), diffuse sores (ND) Fever (Li), work overload (S), sinusitis (L), nasal congestion gonorrhoea (L), asthma (WP) Muscular pain (L), rheumatism malaria psychomotor disability (children) (L), malaria (WP)

(Thunb.) (Burm.f.) L.*** (Sonn.) L.*** (L.) R. Br.*** H. Perrier* L.*** Lam.* (L.) Willd. ex Willd. (L.) (L.) Ker Gawl.* ixiocarpa (L.) Lam.*** (L.) Blume*** L.*** var. var. List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species myxa Cordia Domin* (F.Muell.) subcordata Cordia zeylanicum Trichodesma R.Br.*** Commiphora arafy Calophyllum inophyllum orientalis Trema Carica papaya Drymaria cordata Schult.** aethiopicum Mystroxylon Loes.*** coccineum Combretum Lam.*** catappa Terminalia Commelina africana Ipomoea batatas Ipomoea obscura Ipomoea pes-caprae 1 (suite 3). Table traditionnelles. Family Boraginaceae Burseraceae Calophyllaceae Cannabaceae Caricaceae Caryophyllaceae Celastraceae Combretaceae Commelinaceae Convolvulaceae Ethnopharmacology in the Comoros archipelago 125 ./.. References Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun, 1983; Gurib Fakim, 1990; Lartigau & Fakim Gurib Roussin, 2002; 2004; Mchangama Brendler, & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Seebaluck et al., 2015 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Ekoumou, 2003; Gurib Fakim 2004; Kaou et al., & Brendler, 2008; Soule et al., 2014 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 5.95 7.74 7.74 7.74 5.95 5.95 5.95 11.90 11.90 31.55 82.74 35.12 21.43 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) Headache (L), fever (L) Postpartum treatment (L), fatigue during pregnancy (Li), vomiting (Li), vaginal infection (L) soreness (Sa), acne (Sa) Earaches (L), sprains fever (ND), headache heartburn (L), urinary inflammation fungal infections (ND), inflammations (ND), bronchitis eye irritation abdominal irritation (L), cholera (ND), indigestion flatulence (L), rheumatism (ND), muscle pain varicose ulcer evolved diabetes (ND), psychomotor disability (children) (L), swollen feet (ND), wounds fractures (L), fatigue (L) Scabies (Tu) Malformation (WP), diarrhoea (S) (L), lower back pain (L) orchitis (WP), colitis (ND), fever (L), redness allergy Foot fleas (WP) and burns (R) Cosmetics (traditional tinctures) (ND), gonorrhoea (ND) Pain (L), soreness (L) Rheumatism (L) Orchitis (F) Inflammation (L) Laxative (WP), diarrhoea urogenital infection abdominal pain (WP), gonorrhoea (WP) Spinal curvature (WP), back pain (WP) (L.) (Baill.) Bojer* (L.) L.*** L.** Aiton*** H.Perrier* (Lam.) (L.) Merr.*** L.*** Baker** sp.* List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species Jacquemontia tamnifolia Griseb.* peltata Merremia Kalanchoe pinnata Pers.*** Kedrostis charantia Momordica bulbifera Dioscorea Euclea mayottensis (End) lanceum Erythroxylum (End) Acalypha lyallii Aleurites moluccanus Willd.*** trewioides Argomuellera Pax & K.Hoffm* Euphorbia hirta Euphorbia prostrata 1 (suite 4). Table traditionnelles. Family Crassulaceae Cucurbitaceae Dioscoraceae Erythroxylaceae Euphorbiaceae 126 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Saive M., Frederich M. & Fauconnier M.-L. ./.. References Kaou et al., 2008 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Lartigau Roussin, 2002; Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Soule et al., 2014; Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Kaou et al., 2008 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Saive et al., 2018 Gurib Fakim, 2011; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Rabearivony et al., 2015; Saive et al., 2018 Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun 1947; Terrac, et al., 1982; Kaou 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Gurib Fakim, 1990; Fortin et al., 2002 Adjanohoun 1947; Terrac, et al., 1982; Kaou 2008; Soule et al., 2014; Saive 2018 5.95 5.95 11.90 42.26 19.05 25.00 38.69 17.86 44.05 44.64 70.83 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) Malaria (S) (L) (W) Fresh cut (La), muscle pain (F), gingivitis abscesses boils (F), vomiting (L), malaria haemostatic (La), fractures swelling (F), influenza (ND), acne (Sa) Inflammation (L), abscess (L) (O), constipation haemorrhoids (L), Laxative (O), purgative local analgesic (ND), malaria (WP) Headache (R), migraine antispasmodic (ND), hiccup abdominal pain (R), stomachache gastric ulcer (R) Redness (L) Sadness (L), cough (B), bronchitis (ND), dysentery lupus (ND), tuberculosis (ND) gonorrhoea syphilis ulcers (ND), conjunctivitis (ND) Orchitis (B), malaria (L), diarrhoea (S) (L) Anaemia (Sd), oral inflammation (L), scabies (ND), tensions influenza (L), inflammation blepharitis blindness cataract (L), conjunctivitis glaucoma trachoma malaria abscess (Sd) Blisters (L), brucellosis (Fl), depurative (ND), dermatomycosis (L), eczema erysipelas herpes (Sd) impetigo itch (Sd) (L), mange nettle-rash pelada purpura (Sd) (L), tinea capitis vitiligo whitlow (ND), hypertension (L) (Sd) (L), dandruff Depurative (L), diuretic oxytocic dystocia antispasmodic (ND), hiccup diarrhoea (L), stomachaches constipation (L) (R), headache (ND), malaria (WP) , inflammation (L) (ND), diabetes fever (L) (Sd), bleeding (W), allergy (W), acne (L) rheumatism (R), gonorrhoea asthma conjunctivitis (WP)

virosa (L.) Roxb.*** L.*** Crantz*** L.*** L.*** (Roxb. ex subsp. L.*** Bojer*** (L.) Millsp.*** L.*** List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species Flueggea virosa G.L.Webster*** curcas Jatropha Manihot esculenta Ricinus communis Securinega virosa Baill.* Willd.) furialis Tragia Abrus precatorius Caesalpinia bonduc Cajanus cajan Cassia alata Cassia occidentalis 1 (suite 5). Table traditionnelles. Family Fabaceae Ethnopharmacology in the Comoros archipelago 127 ./.. References Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Kaou et al., 2008 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Kaou et al., 2008; Saive 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Kaou et al., 2008 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 9.52 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 7.74 5.95 7.74 5.95 11.90 37.50 17.86 13.69 23.21 32.74 23.21 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) Dermatomycosis (L), eczema herpes impetigo itch mange (L), purpura tinea capitis vitiligo whitlow (L), paronychia diarrhoea (WP), back pain (L) dandruff Eye diseases (L), pain (ND), Hyperactivity (children) (Fl) Rheumatism (R), orchitis (ND), localized pain (R) Impotence (Li) Orchitis (Co) (Sd) (R) (S) (L), dermal reaction (S), mycoses Allergy Pain of the limbs inside bone (arms and shins) (L) Acne (W) Stomach pain (L) (L) (W), acne Bleeding (L) (W), ache allergies diarrhoea (WP) Blisters (F), cough (B) (L), toothache (B), fracture (R), contusions (L), loss of appetite (Sd), backache (R), redness (B) (L) (W), acne (B) (L) (W) (L) Toothache Abscess or furuncle (Sd), panaris (Sd) Malaria (S) (L) Infected throat (S), pharyngitis (S) Redness (L) (L) Rhinorrhoea (L), rhinitis (allergic) Parturition (L), diarrhoea (WP), vaginal infection malaria (S), dismenorrhoea (WP), leucorrhoea (WP)

G.Don* Gaertn.** L.*** Baker* Willd.* E.Mey. ex E.Mey. (Roth) DC.* L.*** L.*** Delile*** (G.Mey.) (G.Mey.) (Burm.f.) Hook.f.*** (Delile) Lock* Vatke* Spreng*** L.*** List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species Cassia singueana Cassia tora arbutifolia Dalbergia Desmodium ramosissimum Entada rheedei Hymenaea verrucosa Lonchocarpus madagascariensis Polhill* (Vatke) indicus Pterocarpus viscosa Senna singueana indica Tamarindus vogelii Tephrosia adenantha Vigna Marechal & al.* Flacourtia indica Merr.*** Flagellaria indica Apodytes dimidiata Arn.* Leucas grandis Ocimum americanum 1 (suite 6). Table traditionnelles. Family Flacourtiaceae Flagellariaceae Icacinaceae Lamiaceae 128 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Saive M., Frederich M. & Fauconnier M.-L. ./.. References Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Hassane et al., 2011 Gurib Fakim et al., 1997b; Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Lartigau Roussin, 2002; Gurib 2004; Fakim & Brendler, Kaou et al., 2008; Hassani et al., 2012; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Soule et al., 2014 Saive et al., 2018 Gurib Fakim et al., 1997a; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Soidrou et al., 2014 Kaou et al., 2008 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 7.74 5.95 5.95 63.10 61.90 45.83 65.48 17.86 25.60 29.76 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) abdominal pain (WP), stomach gastric ulcer stomach ulcer (WP), colic antispasmodic (ND), migraine (WP), fever malaria shortness of breath body aches (WP), ear washings mumps angina stomach cramps (WP), diarrhoea dysmenorrhea insomnia (WP), anxiety (WP) Gingivitis (L), aphthous stomatitis diarrhoea epilepsy (ND), cough (WP), whooping hypertension nose bleeding (ND), headache vaginal infection (L), malaria (S), fever (L), haemorrhoids dysmenorrhoea (WP), leucorrhoea (WP), abortive (WP) prolapsed (L), uterine prolapses uterus disease Vaginal vertigo (L), dizziness faint syncope giddiness fever (S) (L), malaria abdominal pain (ND), stomach (ND), pelvic pain (L), antispasmodic (ND) Cough (L), colic (ND), flatulence rheumatism furuncle (ND), sprain painful swelling constipation vaginal infection (ND), malaria (R) , influenza (ND) stomachaches (WP), diarrhoea (ND), intestinal worms vaginal infection (L), abdominal gripes (WP), dysuria laxative hiccup (ND) Redness (L), stomach pain headache (L) Furuncle (ND), injuries insomnia (L), cough influenza (ND) Insomnia (L), nightmares (L) Dermatomycosis (L), eczema herpes impetigo itch mange (L), purpura tinea capitis vitiligo whitlow (L), paronychia (L) dandruff Malaria (L) Urogenital infection (L) (Lour.) (Lour.) L.*** L.*** L.*** Sims*** Willd.*** L.* L.*** List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species Ocimum canum Ocimum gratissimum Ocimum suave Plectranthus amboinicus Spreng.*** Plectranthus madagascariensis (Pers.) Benth.*** serratifolia Premna trifolia Vitex Cassytha filiformis Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume*** Laurus nobilis 1 (suite 7). Table traditionnelles. Family Lauraceae Ethnopharmacology in the Comoros archipelago 129 ./.. References 2004; Mchangama & Vos, Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 2004; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Jain & Srivastava, 2005; Abe Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; & Ohtani, 2013 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Gurib Fakim et al., 1997a; Lartigau Roussin, 2002 2004; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Durasnel et al., 2014; Saive 2018 Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Jain & Srivastava, 2005; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 5.95 5.95 5.95 1.79 5.95 11.90 11.90 39.29 23.81 17.86 13.69 32.74 13.69 71.43 13.69 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) ulcer (W), skin disease antiseptic (B), painful Varicose menstruation (F), diarrhoea (B), emollient for sprains diabetes (W), redness (Sa) eczema (W), headache (ND), urinary disorder Child’s stomach disease (ND) Acne (Sd) Epigastric (B), rheumatism (WP) (L) Sciatica (B) Conjunctivitis (ND), wounds and burns weaning (Sa) Scabies (R), fever (ND), beauty mask (ND) Psychomotor development delay (L) Panaris (L), paronychia dysmenorrhoea hypermenorrhoea (L), anxiety (ND), stress nervous disorder abortive (ND), headache (L) (Fl) Impotence (R), constipation diarrhoea (WP) Fever (F), cough (ND), diarrhoea renal inflammation cystitis (ND), depurative asthma malaria dysentery (B), wounds (ND), urinary problems herpes pains (ND), eye disease mumps fatigue (ND), diffuse deworming (F), redness skin infection (F) Cosmetics (W) (L) Allergy Painful periods (B), heavy stomach pain (B) (L) Throat illness (WP), urinary tract infection (WP) (Lam.) (L.) Mast.* (L.) Kurz*** Roxb.* (L.) Kurz*** L.* Kosterm.* Aiton*** L.*** Lam.*** Mill.*** Juss.* L.*** (Lour.) (Lour.) List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species Litsea glutinosa C.B.Rob.*** Ocotea comoriensis (End) Persea americana Barringtonia asiatica Barringtonia racemosa Spreng.*** Lomatophyllum purpureum & Schinz*** T.Durand Strychnos spinosa Ammannia multiflora Lawsonia inermis fruticosa Woodfordia Adansonia digitata Carpodiptera africana cuneifolia Grewia Heritiera littoralis Hibiscus surattensis 1 (suite 8). Table traditionnelles. Family Lecythidaceae Liliaceae Loganiaceae Lythraceae Malvaceae 130 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Saive M., Frederich M. & Fauconnier M.-L. ./.. References Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; DaSilva et al., 2009; Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Adjanohoun et al., 1982; 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 Kaou et al., 2008 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Gallori et al., 2001; Gurib 2004; Fakim & Brendler, Kaou et al., 2008 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Saive et al., 2018 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 1.79 5.95 7.74 5.95 11.90 15.48 41.67 23.81 17.86 19.64 17.86 13.69 29.17 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) (R) (S), dermal reaction mycoses acne (L) Allergy Abscess (L), boils furuncle herpes skin lesion skin disease (L), lupus erysipelas arthritis (ND), articular pain (ND), muscular inflammation spinal curvature backache (ND), redness (Fl) Panaris (L) (R) Redness (L) and mycosis (S) (Fl) Dermal reaction linked to allergies Abscess (R) Rheumatism (ND), abdominal pain (L), hypotensive depurative (ND) (ND), cough premenstrual tension (ND) Wounds Haemorrhoids (ND), vertigo (L), orchitis (B), hydrocele (B) Orchitis (Sd) Sadness (L), heartburn (W), childhood eczema (R) Impotence (R), orchitis (ND), pain in the lower body (R) Cosmetic (Fl) Cough (WP) Aborting agent (L), dermatitis antifungal (F), antimicrobial healing wounds (F), malaria diarrhoea (F) (ND), skin infection (ND) Warts Abortive (ND), abdominal pain (ND) Fever (L) A. (Tul.) (Lam.)

(Roxb.) Jacq.*** L.*** Lam.*** L.*** (L.) Willd.*** Baker*** (Leandri) C.C. Diels* (End) L.*** Sm.*** (L.) D.Don.*** Cav.*** L.f.*** L.* Species Hibiscus tiliaceus Sida rhombifolia Sida stipulata Sida urens Thespesia populneoides Kostel.*** rhomboidea Triumfetta Clidemia hirta mauritianum Tristemma J.F.Gmel.*** sericea Turraea Xylocarpus moluccensis M.Roem.* Cissampelos pareira capitata Triclisia Acacia farnesiana Mollugo nudicaulis leptophylla Tambourissa DC.*** Ficus cocculifolia Ficus hispida montana Trophis Berg.* List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices 1 (suite 9). Table traditionnelles. Family Melastomataceae Meliaceae Menispermaceae Mimosaceae Molluginaceae Monimiaceae Moraceae Ethnopharmacology in the Comoros archipelago 131 ./.. References Adjanohoun Pernet, 1957; et al., 1982; Lartigau Roussin, 2002; Gurib Fakim & 2004; Mchangama Brendler, & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Kaou et al., 2008; Saive 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Blanchy et al., 1993 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Soule et al., 2014 Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun, 1989 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Gurib Fakim et al., 1997a Kaou et al., 2008 1886; Mchangama & Daruty, Abe & Ohtani, Salaün, 2012; 2013 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 5.95 5.95 5.95 7.74 5.95 61.31 41.07 19.64 13.69 55.36 30.95 15.48 17.86 27.38 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques aux liées littérature dans la mentionnées des plantes Liste — Use/symptoms (plant parts) Sting of centipede (Sd), better lactation (ND), deworming constipation (ND), wounds ulcers stress bruising (ND), arthritis asthma hiccups nodes fresh cut (ND), choleretic liver disease (L), antispasmodic (ND), eye disease (Sa), redness (L) Orchitis (L), stomach ulcer (ND), pain bloody diarrhoea (ND), dysentery fresh cut fortifying malformation (ND), malaria (L) Redness (F), headache stomach pain malaria (F) pain (L) Headache (L), women sterility diffuse Digestive (L), antispasmodic (ND), antiseptic astringent diarrhoea (L), stomach disorders dizziness (ND), colitis diabetes (ND), dysmenorrhoea toothache (B), gingivitis (B), infected wound (ND), malaria intestinal worm (L), inflammation (ND), cholera (ND) Articular pain in the lower part of body (FB), fatigue (L), (Fl), redness articular pain (R), cough (F) (FB), purgative headache (Fl), toothache (F) Pelvic pain (L) (Li) Furuncle (L), abscess loss of appetite (Li), purgative Acne (Fl) (L) Tonic Astringent (ND), childhood eczema (ND) Haemostatic (L) Febrifuge (L), scurvy (F), caterpillar sting (F) Diarrhoea (WP), caterpillar sting (L), diarrhoea dysmenorrhoea (WP), cough (L), urogenital infection (ND), haemorrhoids (L) Baker* L.*** (L.) Merr. & (L.) Merr. S.Moore* Houtt.*** L.*** L.* L.*** Jacks. ex Lam.*** L.** L.*** sp.*** sp.*** List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species Moringa oleifera Musa Myristica fragrans Eucalyptus Psidium guajava Syzygium aromaticum L.M. Perry*** diffusa Boerhavia Mirabilis jalapa Jasminum nummularifolium comorensis Noronhia (End) Ophioglossum reticulatum planifolia Vanilla Andrews*** bilimbi Averrhoa Oxalis corniculata 1 (suite 10). 1 (suite Table traditionnelles. Family Moringaceae Musaceae Myristicaceae Myrtaceae Nyctaginaceae Oleaceae Ophioglossaceae Orchidaceae Oxalidaceae 132 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Saive M., Frederich M. & Fauconnier M.-L. ./.. References Pascal et al., 2001; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Pernet, 1957; Gurib Fakim & 2004 Brendler, Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Kaou et al., 2008 Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Soidrou et al., 2014; Soule et al., Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 5.95 7.74 7.74 5.95 1.79 7.74 11.90 11.90 20.83 19.64 34.52 22.62 13.69 19.64 13.69 17.26 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques liées littérature dans la mentionnées des plantes Liste — Use/symptoms (plant parts) Impotence (R) Redness (S), acne (S) Antiemetic (ND), stomach pain gastric ulcer ulcer (ND), colitis gastritis heartburn Abcesses (ND), furuncles (ND) Blisters (WP), oedema brucellosis hypertension (WP) Diarrhoea (L) (S) (W), cough (W) Impotence (R), malaria (L), diarrhoea (L) (S) (W), (ND), gynaecological diseases (ND), diabetes (L), hypertension intestinal parasites (L), tooth diseases (S), influenza (ND), redness (L) (W) Allergy Cosmetics (R) Injury (S) (L), cut wound chap scars (L), bleeding (S) epistaxis nosebleed (L) (L), dermal reaction mycoses (L) Allergy Bleeding (ND) umbilical wound (F), liver disease (St) (Sg), gonorrhoea (Sg) Oxytocic (ND), prevent miscarriage (ND) Urinary infection (ND), night incontinence (L), tonic (L) Migraine (WP), headache (WP) Antalgic (S), migraine anxiety (ND), stress nervous disorder (ND) (L.) H.St.

L.*** Roxb.* Schumach. & L.*** Fresen.* (L.) Pers.*** L.* L.*** (L.) Gaertn.*** L.*** sp.*** List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species Pandanus mayotteensis John* (End) Sesamum indicum Phyllanthus amarus Thonn.*** Phyllanthus casticum P.Willemet.*** Phyllanthus nummulariifolius Poir.*** Phyllanthus tenellus Piper Scoparia dulcis Chrysopogon zizanioides Roberty*** Cynodon dactylon Eleusine indica Zea mays Phymatosorus scolopendria (Burm. f.) Pic. Serm.*** Portulaca oleracea Portulaca quadrifida Clematis simensis 1 (suite 11). 1 (suite 11). Table traditionnelles. Family Pandanaceae Pedaliaceae Phyllanthaceae Piperaceae Plantaginaceae Poaceae Polypodiaceae Portulacaceae Ranunculaceae Ethnopharmacology in the Comoros archipelago 133 ./.. References 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Saive et al., 2018 2004 Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Gurib Fakim et al., 1997a; 2004 Fakim & Brendler, Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Gurib 2004 Fakim & Brendler, Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun Pernet, 1957; et al., 1982; Gurib Fakim & Guého, 1994; Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Soule et al., 2014 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Kaou et al., 2008 Saive et al., 2018 Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., Sussman, 1980; 1982; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Jain & Srivastava, 2005; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Abe et al., 2013; Sreekeesoon & 2014 Mahomoodally, 2004; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, Jain & Srivastava, 2005 5.95 5.95 7.74 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 11.90 11.90 15.48 21.43 19.64 31.55 57.14 54.17 RII - Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) Haemorrhages (ND) Fever (Fl) (L) Fortifying gum and teeth (ND), colic constipation painful periods (ND) (R) (S), dermal reaction mycoses acne (W) Allergy (Fl) (L), malaria Bladder problem (ND), gastric pains (ND) pain (S) Oxytocic (R), sterility (S) (L), impotence diffuse (L) Skin infection (ND), abscesses (ND) Sexual asthenia (ND), impotency (ND) Fever (L), fatigue backache (L), haemorrhoids (L) Inflammatory fever (L), jaundice (F), typhoid panaris asthma (F), indigestion (L), hiccups chronic constipation cephalalgia (L), stomach ache nosebleed (ND), poisons colitis (L) diarrhoea (L), malaria influenza dysmenorrhoea (F), hypermenorrhoea (F) infection (L) Vaginal Malaria (L) Redness (L) (W) Acne (W) Hyperactivity in children (Fl), child fever (L) (Sd) (R), upset stomach (L), painful ear skin infection deworming (child ren) (L) (R), oxytocic (WP), arthritis (R) (Sd), cramp muscular inflammation (WP), myalgia sciatic sprained joint (WP), aching joints (WP) (L), headache (ND) Vertigo

(Baker) (L.) (Christm.) L.*** (L.) Jacq.*** (Forssk.) (Baill.) L.*** L.*** L.* Jacq.* L.*** Lour.* List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species Bruguiera gymnorhiza Lam.*** Rosa chinensis Canthium bibracteatum Hiern* speciosa Guettarda Paederia foetida Pentas lanceolata Deflers*** madagascariensis Vangueria J.F.Gmel*** Citrus aurantium Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle*** Citrus medica Citrus nobilis boiviniana Vepris Mziray*** Santalum album halicacabum Cardiospermum L.*** Dodonaea viscosa 1 (suite 12). Table traditionnelles. Family Rhizophoraceae Rosaceae Rutaceae Santalaceae Sapindaceae 134 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Saive M., Frederich M. & Fauconnier M.-L. ./.. References Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Kaou et al., 2008; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Kaou et al., 2008 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 Saive et al., 2018 Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Adjanohoun et al., 1982 7.74 5.95 5.95 1.79 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 5.95 7.74 11.90 11.90 32.74 19.64 38.69 45.83 41.07 13.69 RII Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature — Use/symptoms (plant parts) Redness (W) (R), skin smoothing (R) Arthritis (ND), rheumatism back pain (R), tonic (Li), diffuse pain (R), orchitis (ND), loss of appetite (Li), stomach (F), redness (F) Mycoses (F), irritations due to continuous rubbing (F) Haemorrhoids (B), hydrocele orchitis localized pain (B). Prevents miscarriage (B) Lower back pain (R) Cosmetics (Fl) Ear pain (F), suppurative otitis cough (Fl) (L), asthma respiratory disease (Fl) (L), emphysema phlegm diarrhoea (WP), gonorrhoea urethral flow (WP) oral mycoses (L) Children’s Abdominal pain (L), stomach ache gastric ulcer pain (ND), rheumatism (ND), articular (L), arthritis (L), colitis ulcer (ND), muscular inflammation sciatic joint pain antispasmodic (ND), diarrhoea (WP), cough (WP) joint pain linked to childbirth (FB) Hypermenorrhoea (R), fatigue (L), stomachache postpartum pain (L), blisters oedema depurative (ND), diuretic hypertension (L) infection (L) Vaginal Redness (Fl) Malformations (S) (W) Acne (W), allergy (R) (S), dermal reaction mycoses (S) Allergy pruritus (L), leucorrhea (L) Vulvar (L.) Engl.* L.*** Scop.*** L.* L.* Planch.* L.*** L.*** L.*** L.* G.Don.*** Sonn.*** (Gaertn.) Noot.* Willd.*** L.*** Desc.* List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Species Litchi chinensis Paullinia pinnata Sapindus saponaria Mimusops comorensis (End) Quassia indica Smilax anceps Cestrum nocturnum Datura metel Solanum mauritianum Solanum nigrum Ravenala madagascariensis Sonn.*** Lantana camara Lantana trifolia Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Vahl*** Cissus quadrangularis Leea guineensis Leea spinea Rhoicissus revoilii 1 (suite 13). Table traditionnelles. Family Sapotaceae Simaroubaceae Smilacaceae Solanaceae Strelitziaceae Verbenaceae Vitaceae Ethnopharmacology in the Comoros archipelago 135

, When it comes to the RNU, it seems that the ; main concern of the inhabitants of the Comoros archipelago are ailments linked with the following bouton ; ***:

, (Rz) symptoms: diarrhoea (RNU = 100), eczema and

plante entière skin conditions (RNU = 100), abdominal pain

résine (RNU = 86.84) and rheumatism (RNU = 81.58). This information is interesting for further research in ethnopharmacology when focusing on diseases linked to these symptoms. (FB) flower buds — References Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018 Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012 Saive et al., 2018 , (Re) resin — ; **: same use in different regions ; **: same use in different fruits, utilisé seulement dans les Comores , (WP) whole plant — 5. TENDENCIES AND CULTURAL pulpe CONSENSUS RII 21.43 53.57 5.95 Inventaire National », 25/03/2019) et INPN (« Inventaire tubercule Based on table 1, information on the consensus was

, (F) fruits — also collated, leading to the following noteworthy , (Pp) pulp — points:

huile – 56 species with one or more specific uses cotylédon are known to be used only in the Comoros , (Tu) tuber — , (Tu) archipelago. Among these the one most mentioned

styles is: Pandanus mayotteensis H.St.John. The dried , (O) oil — l’espèce est endémique à une ou plusieurs iles de l’archipel ; *: used only in the Comoros — roots of this species are ground together with the

liane roots of Woodia fruticose (L.) Kurz, Desmodium Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature liées aux pratiques Liste des plantes mentionnées dans la littérature

Medicinal Plant Names Services ramosissimum G.Don., Triclisia capitate Baillon — , (Co) cotyledon — and Monanthotaxis glaucocarpa (Baill.) Verdc. , (St) styles — The powder obtained is used as a decoction bulbe and drunk two times a day for seven days. This , (Li) liana —

stigmate preparation is used to treat impotence (Pascal

latex et al., 2001; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive et al., 2018); , (Bl) bulb — – Only 6 species are used for the same purpose in several islands of the Indian Ocean, thus showing écorce

, (La) latex — an agreement on use between traditional healers. , (Sg) stigmas — différents usages dans différentes régions de l’océan Indien et ses environs usages dans différentes différents Among these, the ones most mentioned are:

graine Averrhoa bilimbi L. and Acalypha lyallii Baker. In indice d’importance relative. feuilles the Comoros archipelago, the fruits of A. bilimbi : (B) bark — are used to treat itching; they are crushed with Use/symptoms (plant parts) Injuries (Rz), dermatosis (ND), bruising cough (L), paronychia (Rz) Constipation (Rz), fever backache pharyngitis abscess (L), boils furuncle pustules skin disease snake bites (Rz), vaginal prolapsed uterine prolapses uterus diseases (Rz), urogenital infection (ND), choleretic pelvic pain (Rz) Redness (L) water and ashes to make a paste that is applied to the affected area (Daruty, 1886; Mchangama , (Sd) seed —

, (L) leaves — & Salaün, 2012; Abe & Ohtani, 2013). Acalypha

sève lyallii is used as a leaf decoction to massage the body to treat rheumatism (Adjanohoun et al., Roscoe*** (L.) Roscoe 1982; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Seebaluck mêmes usages dans différentes régions de l’océan Indien et ses environs mêmes usages dans différentes champignon

L.*** et al., 2015). ; End: the species is endemic to one or several islands of archipelago — , (Sa) sap — – 145 species are used widely in the Indian Ocean tige

; RII: Relative Importance Index — and surroundings, including the Comoros

les différentes espèces ont été vérifiées avec les bases de données MPNS (« les différentes archipelago islands, for many different ailments. abréviations des parties plantes

, (Fu) fungi — Among these the one most mentioned is:

List of plants mentioned in the literature linked to traditional practices Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Leaf decoctions Species longa Curcuma Zingiber officinale Zingiber zerumbet ex Sm.*** fleur

, (S) stem — are used to treat eczema, anasarca, ear diseases

pas de données and wounds. Roots are used to treat dizziness, eye diseases, rheumatism and stiffness. Stems rhizome are used to manage fever in India. In the islands of the Indian Ocean, stems and roots are used , (Fl) flower — as laxative and emetic as well as to treat cysts,

1 (suite 14). Table traditionnelles. Family Zingiberaceae species were verified using the MPNS database (“Medicinal Plant Names Services,” March-25-2019) and INPN (“INPN - Inventaire National du Patrimoine The different Naturel,” March-31-2019) — », 31/03/2019) du Patrimoine Naturel regions of the Indian Ocean and surroundings — uses in different different of the Indian Ocean and surroundings — plant parts abbreviations — floral rhizome — (ND) no data — bladder catharsis and gonorrhoea. The leaves 136 Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 2020 24(2), 117-141 Saive M., Frederich M. & Fauconnier M.-L.

are used to treat boils, rheumatisms, eczema In Madagascar, a bark decoction is drunk to treat and impetigo (Sussman, 1980; Adjanohoun et viral hepatitis, malaria, stomach pain and diarrhoea. al., 1982; Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Jain The bark is also used as a bitter ingredient in some & Srivastava, 2005; Mchangama & Salaün, alcoholic beverages, which are considered as strongly 2012; Abe & Ohtani., 2013; Sreekeesoon & aphrodisiac. Leaves are used to treat skin infections Mahomoodally, 2014). and are consumed as decoctions to treat hypertension (Schmelzer & Gurib Fakim, 2008). In the Reunion Throughout the classification in table 1, these 145 Island, an infusion of Hypercum lanceolatum Lam. species are found the most frequently. yellow flowers is considered as refreshing, meaning Even though C. halicacabum is the most often that it helps manage fever as well as heartburn caused mentioned (7 sources), it does not have the widest by the ingestion of hot and spicy food. This infusion variety of uses (RII = 54.17), ergo there is a certain is also considered helpful against urinary tract consensus for the specific uses of this plant. inflammation and will often be used as a depurative On the other hand, Plectranthus amboinicus and to regulate menstruations (Lavergne, 1989). These (Lour.) Spreng. has fewer sources (6) but has many plants are found in the Comoros archipelago; however, different uses (RII = 65.48), therefore pointing towards no use reports are mentioned there. a higher versatility; e.g. a total of 21 traditional uses As expected, plants with fewer mentioned medicinal for this plant have been mentioned in the literature. uses are more likely to be used the same way in different In the Comoros archipelago, it is used as a cure for places, in comparison to plants with multiple medicinal ailments ranging from a simple cough to colitis uses. Acalypha lyallii is only used for rheumatism in and flatulence, as well as rheumatism, malaria and the Indian Ocean, whereas B. pilosa is known for furuncles. In Madagascar, leaves are added in meals many uses in the Comoros archipelago but has even as a food complement and are also used in decoctions more uses in the surrounding islands. Out of the 207 or in fumigation to treat colds (Nicolas, 2012). In the different species mentioned in the present work, only Reunion Island, leaves of P. amboinicus are used in 27% are used exclusively in the Comoros archipelago baths, infusions and for massage, to treat the symptoms for a variety of purposes, 3% are used in the Comoros caused by the chikungunya virus (fever, sore muscles archipelago and in several islands and surroundings of and articulations) (Minker, 2007). the Indian Ocean for the same purposes and 70% are When it comes to similarities between different used in the Comoros archipelago and in other islands regions, the species Moringa oleifera Lam. (RII = and surroundings of the Indian Ocean for comparable 61.31) is used in the Comoros archipelago to treat or different purposes. For the latter category, its size asthma, hiccups and spasms among other uses can be explained by the fact that many non-endemic (Table 1) (Adjanohoun et al., 1982; Gurib Fakim & species have been transported through the years and Brendler, 2004; Mchangama & Salaün, 2012; Saive have diverse origins. Therefore, they might be used et al., 2018). In Mauritius and Seychelles, this species is very differently in the different areas of the world linked to the treatment of throat related infections. For where they are found. the anti-spasmodic effect of M. oleifera, people from When looking at different ethnobotanical studies Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, as well as peoples carried out in the Maurice archipelago, Mauritius Island from the Comoros archipelago tend to agree. As for the and Rodrigues Island are studied separately. On the other uses mentioned in the Comoros archipelago, other other hand, most of the studies that were performed in places have their own use versatility: only inhabitants the Comoros archipelago did not separate the different of Rodrigues and Seychelles use this species to treat islands; in the present work however, separating the high blood pressure, coughs and as an abortifacient, islands is important as some species are endemic to only whereas in Madagascar, Mauritius and Rodrigues it is one or two islands of the archipelago: e.g. Syzygium used to treat helminthiasis; in Mauritius, this plant is humblotii Labat & Schatz and Eugenia choungiensis also used to treat nervous disorder, ear infections and Byng & N.Snow have been reported to be endemic fever and in Seychelles, this species is consumed as to Mayotte. Syzygium tringiense Byng & N.Snow is a refreshing drink (Pernet, 1957; Adjanohoun, 1983; known to be endemic to the island of Anjouan (Byng Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004). et al., 2016) and Gyrostipula comorensis J.-F. Leroy In some cases, some plants are used in other islands was only endemic to Grande Comore and Mohéli but of the Indian Ocean and surroundings and are part its endemicity has been widened to include Anjouan of the flora of the Comoros archipelago, but are not (Mouly, 2009). As these species are not found in all known to be part of the Comorian pharmacopoeia. the Comorian islands, the archipelago should therefore Therefore, these species are not mentioned in table 1. not be studied as a whole but rather be investigated E.g.: Cabucala erythrocarpa (Vatke) Markgr. is in its separate parts. When a clear separation between endemic to Madagascar and the Comoros archipelago. the geographic regions is made, the collected data have Ethnopharmacology in the Comoros archipelago 137 a higher impact when integrated into ethnobotanical or another to the population from which it originated indicators such as the informant agreement ratio. (McManis, 2003; Rasoanaivo, 2011). Identification of species of interest for modern medicine is not the only reason to study the relationship the local people have with the flora that 6. CONCLUSIONS surrounds them. Other factors such as biodiversity management and protection (Nazarea, 1999), as This review is an attempt to gather and examine well as the preservation of ancestral knowledge are numerous species used in the traditional pharmacopoeia two important objectives for ethnobotany studies, of the Comoros Islands. Since the 19th century, especially as traditional knowledge is mostly shared ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology have been an through oral tradition. Due to the growing access important part of the drug and cosmetic industry. Based to modern medicine, the interest for traditional on that affirmation, the study of biodiversity hotspots, medicine tends to disappear; therefore, the number especially the ones found on islands seems essential as of traditional healers and their knowledge plummet. they present a high concentration of different species Ethnobotanists store plant specimens in herbaria, in a defined area. In addition, the ethnobotanical work gather information on the uses of species and thereby done in these places on Earth will allow us to maintain preserve ancestral knowledge from extinction (Kaido the knowledge developed by the people who have been et al., 1997). working with these species for centuries and who have The fact that plants have been used for centuries had the time to test the effectiveness of the remedies as medicines does not mean they are harmless. empirically. In the present work, 207 species were Their presumed innocuousness is based on hundreds identified as part of the traditional pharmacopoeia of of years of empirical observations (Fennell et al., the Comoros archipelago. Some species are already 2004). Just as for modern medicines, there can be known worldwide for their properties. However, many some deleterious effects. Due to the way traditional are still to be studied in order to validate their biological knowledge is transmitted, adverse effects are not activities. always fully understood and serious poisoning due The specific uses for the different species mentioned to traditional medicines is not uncommon. In South herein can be compared to other databases and then Africa, the estimated mortality due to traditional using the previously mentioned tools, species that are medicines ranges between 10,000 and 20,000 cases more likely to be really effective and interesting for per year. This huge variability is due to a lack of medicinal and cosmetic purposes can be identified precise data. Indeed, many cases of poisoning and integrated into more hands-on studies. These which are not recorded could possibly be linked to differences and similarities will probably be of interest traditional medicine (Thomson, 2000; Popat et al., when this database is compared to data from around 2001). the world, giving more clues as to which species are As mentioned previously, some species are likely to produce new cures. traditionally used for numerous diseases, which means that these species are under a strong anthropic Acknowledgements pressure due to their biological value (Adjanohoun, 1983; Gurib Fakim, 1990; Lartigau Roussin, 2002; The authors are grateful to the University of Liège (Belgium) Gurib Fakim & Brendler, 2004; Mchangama & for allowing us to gain access to all the information required Salaün, 2012). If there is no management of these for an exhaustive study of the subject. plants, there are chances that they will become extinct (Rasoanaivo, 2011). 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