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The Physics of Wind-Blown Sand and Dust

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The Physics of Wind-Blown Sand and Dust The physics of wind-blown sand and dust Jasper F. Kok1, Eric J. R. Parteli2,3, Timothy I. Michaels4, and Diana Bou Karam5 1Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA 2Departamento de Física, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil 3Institute for Multiscale Simulation, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany 4Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, CO USA 5LATMOS, IPSL, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, CNRS, Paris, France Email: [email protected] Abstract. The transport of sand and dust by wind is a potent erosional force, creates sand dunes and ripples, and loads the atmosphere with suspended dust aerosols. This article presents an extensive review of the physics of wind-blown sand and dust on Earth and Mars. Specifically, we review the physics of aeolian saltation, the formation and development of sand dunes and ripples, the physics of dust aerosol emission, the weather phenomena that trigger dust storms, and the lifting of dust by dust devils and other small- scale vortices. We also discuss the physics of wind-blown sand and dune formation on Venus and Titan. PACS: 47.55.Kf, 92.60.Mt, 92.40.Gc, 45.70.Qj, 45.70.Mg, 45.70.-n, 96.30.Gc, 96.30.Ea, 96.30.nd Journal Reference: Kok J F, Parteli E J R, Michaels T I and Bou Karam D 2012 The physics of wind- blown sand and dust Rep. Prog. Phys. 75 106901. 1 Table of Contents 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 4 1.1 Modes of wind-blown particle transport ...................................................................................................... 4 1.2 Importance of wind-blown sand and dust to the Earth and planetary sciences ............................................ 5 1.2.1 Impacts of mineral dust aerosols on the Earth system ......................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Impacts of aeolian processes on Mars, Venus, and Titan .................................................................... 6 1.3 Scope and organization of this review ......................................................................................................... 8 2. The physics of wind-blown sand (saltation)....................................................................................................... 10 2.1 The four main physical processes of aeolian saltation ............................................................................... 10 2.1.1 Initiation of saltation: the fluid threshold .......................................................................................... 10 2.1.1.1 The possible role of lift forces in initiating saltation ................................................................ 12 2.1.1.2 Interparticle forces .................................................................................................................... 12 2.1.1.3 Semi-empirical expressions for the fluid threshold .................................................................. 12 2.1.2 Particle trajectories ............................................................................................................................ 14 2.1.2.1 Turbulent fluctuations ............................................................................................................... 16 2.1.3 Saltator impacts onto the surface and the splashing of particles into saltation .................................. 17 2.1.3.1 Characteristics of the rebounding particle ................................................................................ 17 2.1.3.2 Characteristics of splashed particles ......................................................................................... 18 2.1.4 Modification of the wind profile by saltation .................................................................................... 20 2.1.4.1 Wind profile in the absence of saltation ................................................................................... 20 2.1.4.2 Modification of the wind profile through drag by saltating particles ....................................... 22 2.2 The path of saltation to steady state ........................................................................................................... 23 2.3 Steady state saltation .................................................................................................................................. 23 2.3.1 Is particle lifting in steady state due to aerodynamic or splash entrainment? .................................... 25 2.3.2 Characteristics of steady state saltation ............................................................................................. 27 2.3.2.1 Particle speed ............................................................................................................................ 28 2.3.2.2 Height of the saltation layer ...................................................................................................... 29 2.3.2.3 Saltation mass flux .................................................................................................................... 30 2.3.2.4 Wind profile and aerodynamic roughness length during saltation ............................................ 32 2.3.2.5 Size distribution of saltating particles ....................................................................................... 35 2.4 Saltation on Mars, Venus, and Titan .......................................................................................................... 35 2.4.1 Saltation on Mars............................................................................................................................... 37 2.4.1.1 The puzzle of active martian sand transport ............................................................................. 37 2.4.1.2 Typical saltation trajectories on Mars ....................................................................................... 38 2.4.2 Saltation on Venus and Titan ............................................................................................................ 38 3. Sand dunes and ripples ....................................................................................................................................... 39 3.1 The physics of sand dunes and ripples ....................................................................................................... 39 3.1.1 Dunes ................................................................................................................................................. 39 3.1.2 Ripples ............................................................................................................................................... 41 3.1.3 Aeolian versus underwater bedforms ................................................................................................ 42 3.1.4 Factors limiting dune size .................................................................................................................. 42 3.1.5 Factors controlling bedform morphology .......................................................................................... 42 3.1.5.1 Experimental investigation of ripples in directionally varying flows ....................................... 44 3.1.5.2 The complex shape of giant dunes ............................................................................................ 44 3.1.5.3 The role of stabilizing agents for bedform morphology ........................................................... 44 3.1.6 Dune dynamics .................................................................................................................................. 45 3.1.6.1 Scaling relations for barchan dunes and their consequences .................................................... 45 3.1.6.2 Long-term evolution of dunes as proxy for climatic changes ................................................... 45 3.1.6.3 Collisions and wind trend fluctuations as factors for dune size selection ................................. 45 3.1.6.4 Further insights from field investigations ................................................................................. 46 3.1.6.5 Experiments under water as an approach to investigate (aeolian) dune dynamics ................... 46 3.2 Numerical modeling ................................................................................................................................... 46 3.2.1 Morphodynamic (also continuum) model for aeolian dunes ............................................................. 47 3.2.1.1 Wind field over dunes ............................................................................................................... 47 3.2.1.2 Continuum model for saltation flux .......................................................................................... 48 3.2.1.3 Avalanches................................................................................................................................ 49 2 3.2.1.4 Model validation and contribution to understanding dune dynamics ....................................... 49 3.2.2 Discrete (CA) models for aeolian dunes ............................................................................................ 51 3.2.2.1 Toward a physically based model for dunes ............................................................................. 52 3.2.2.2 Other models ............................................................................................................................
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