Orthography Development for Creole Languages Decker, Ken
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University of Groningen Orthography Development for Creole Languages Decker, Ken IMPORTANT NOTE: You are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's PDF) if you wish to cite from it. Please check the document version below. Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Publication date: 2014 Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database Citation for published version (APA): Decker, K. (2014). Orthography Development for Creole Languages. [S.n.]. Copyright Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). The publication may also be distributed here under the terms of Article 25fa of the Dutch Copyright Act, indicated by the “Taverne” license. More information can be found on the University of Groningen website: https://www.rug.nl/library/open-access/self-archiving-pure/taverne- amendment. Take-down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Downloaded from the University of Groningen/UMCG research database (Pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. For technical reasons the number of authors shown on this cover page is limited to 10 maximum. Download date: 01-10-2021 ORTHOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT FOR CREOLE LANGUAGES KENDALL DON DECKER The work in this thesis has been carried out under the auspices of SIL International® in collaboration with the National Kriol Council of Belize. The writing of this thesis has been carried out under the auspices of the University of Groningen, with assistance from the Center for Language and Cognition Groningen (CLCG). Groningen Dissertations in Linguistics 124 ISSN: 0928-0030 ISBN: 978-94-6203-631-4 ISBN: 978-90-367-7257-0 (electronic version) © 2014, Kendall Decker Printed by: CPI – Koninklijke Wöhrmann, Zutphen, The Netherlands ORTHOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT FOR CREOLE LANGUAGES PhD thesis to obtain the degree of PhD at the University of Groningen on the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. E. Sterken and in accordance with the decision by the College of Deans. This thesis will be defended in public on Thursday 20 November 2014 at 16.15 hours by Kendall Don Decker born on 14 April 1955 in Henderson, Kentucky, USA Supervisor Prof. J. Nerbonne Co-supervisor Dr. C.S. Gooskens Assessment committee Prof. A.H. Neijt-Kappen Prof. P. Muysken Prof. G.T. Jensma To Belize Acknowledgements HIS research, and my journey to this dissertation, has covered decades, dozens of countries, and innumerable friends, family, and T colleagues. Each has contributed in some way to my work and to enrich my life. I am grateful to all of them. First and foremost, this research was not possible without the generosity of the people of Belize. A person’s language is a precious part of his or her identity. To be allowed to participate in the conversion of that language from an oral medium to a written form is a great honor. My wife, Sandy Decker, and I are so grateful for the friendships and acceptance by so many in Belize. In particular, I want to thank Governor General Sir Colville Young, Silvaana Uds, the late Rev. Rodney Gordon, Brad Pattico, Myrna Manzenaras, Yvette Herrera, the people of Gracie Rock, and the late Hilda Gentle. Next, I want to thank John Nerbonne, who has been my supervisor for the writing of this dissertation. Without his invitation to complete this dissertation through the University of Groningen, and without his guidance, this book would not have happened. I also want to thank the co-promoter, Charlotte Gooskens, and the members of the reading committee: Goffe Jensma, Pieter Muysken, and Anneke Neijt-Kappen, for finding the time in their busy schedules to read this dissertation. I am also grateful to SIL International and my supervisors over the years, Cal Rensch, Don Hekman, Dave Brooks, Ken Schmitt, Nico Doelman, Paul Frank, Freddy Boswell, Steve Quakenbusch, and Carl Grove who have supported and trusted me in my research. Other SIL colleagues have provided much encouragement, companionship, and guidance over the years: the Pakistan survey team, Dave Holbrook, Andy Keener, David Frank, Paul Lewis, Ted Bergman, Paul and Cindy Crosbie, Wayne Dye, Pat Kelley, Mark and Elke Karan. It is such an honor and joy to work for such a great organization and with such dedicated people. “But for the grace of God” and my Band of Brothers, where would I be? Sailor Dave, Winch, David E., David Michael, TJ, Capt. Keith, and Dr. Matt; you men have been fresh water to my life. What more can I say to you vii guys? You are always there for me. There are many other friends and family, too numerous to list, who have supported me, and my family, in many ways over the years – thank you. Finally, my faithful wife and companion, Sandy, and daughter Tirzah; you, more than all others know the price and treasures of these years. Your support has made it all possible. And, Tirzah, remember that much of this was done for you. Many times when I did not think I could go on, it was for you that I kept going. viii Contents CHAPTER 1 ......... Introduction to orthography development .................... 1 1.1 Grammatology 2 1.2 Orthographies, language management, and Creole languages 3 1.2.1 Writing and linguistics 3 1.2.2 Orthography development and language management 6 1.2.3 Orthography development and endangered languages 7 1.2.4 Orthography development and Creole languages 8 CHAPTER 2 ......... Theory of orthography design ..................................... 11 2.1 Sociolinguistic conditions 12 2.1.1 Stewart’s and Fishman’s scale of language types 13 2.1.2 Lewis and Simons’ Sustainable Use Model 15 2.2 Classification of writing systems 22 2.3 Alphabetic orthography models 25 2.4 Principles of orthography design 29 2.4.1 Maximum motivation 31 2.4.2 Maximum representation of speech. 33 2.4.3 Maximum ease of learning 35 2.4.4 The Morphological Principle 38 2.4.5 The Etymological Principle 38 2.4.6 The Readability Principle 39 2.4.7 Maximum transfer 39 2.4.8 Maximum ease of reproduction. 41 2.5 Multidialectal orthographies 42 2.5.1 Unilectal orthographies 43 2.5.2 Union orthographies 44 2.5.3 Systematic multidialectal orthographies 44 2.5.4 Incomplete orthographies 45 2.5.5 Non-standardized orthographies 45 2.6 Summary 46 CHAPTER 3 ......... Practice of orthography development ......................... 47 3.1 Language management 48 3.1.1 A brief history of language management 49 3.1.2 Intentional language management efforts 53 3.2 Language and the speech community 55 3.3 The function of writing 59 ix 3.4 The procedure of orthography development 60 3.4.1 Community ownership 61 3.4.2 Language role assessment 64 3.4.3 Orthography awareness assessment 65 3.4.4 Linguistic analysis 66 3.4.5 Exploratory phase 68 3.4.6 Tentative orthography design 70 3.4.7 Testing phase 74 3.4.8 Working orthography design 75 3.4.9 Trial production and use phase 75 3.4.10 Re-assessment and revision phase 76 3.5 Summary 77 CHAPTER 4 ......... Case studies of orthography development .................. 79 4.1 A brief history of writing 79 4.2 Early development of written French 84 4.3 Writing systems in the last century 90 4.3.1 The Mixe of Mexico 91 4.3.2 The Yemba of Cameroon 93 4.3.3 The Basque of Spain and France 94 4.3.4 The Matigsalug Manobo of the Philippines 97 4.3.5 The Kaingang of Brazil 98 4.3.6 Discussion of the five case studies 100 CHAPTER 5 ......... Belize Kriol ............................................................... 107 5.1 Introduction to the history of Belize Kriol 107 5.2 Sociolinguistic environment of Belize Kriol 109 5.2.1 Negative attitudes towards Kriol in Belize 110 5.2.2 Positive attitudes toward Kriol in Belize 111 5.3 A brief history of language management in Belize 113 5.4 Linguistic elements of Belize Kriol relevant for orthography development 117 5.5 Phonological description and variation 122 5.5.1 Vowels 122 5.5.2 Consonants 125 5.6 Suprasegmental features 131 5.7 Morphological considerations 132 5.8 Lexical variation 133 CHAPTER 6 ......... Creole orthography design and standardization ....... 137 6.1 Application of orthography design principles 137 6.2 Five orthography designs 139 6.2.1 The IPA-oriented Phonemic Model 139 6.2.2 The Historical-Etymological Model 140 6.2.3 The Modified English Model 141 6.2.4 The English-oriented Phonemic Model 142 x 6.2.5 The Non-standardized Etymological and Phonemic Model 143 6.3 Orthography testing 144 6.3.1 Orthography test design 144 6.3.2 Sound-symbol choices for the English-oriented Phonemic Model 150 6.3.3 Test organization 159 6.4 Orthography test results 161 6.5 Orthography design workshop 162 6.5.1 Decision-making for consonants 165 6.5.2 Decision-making for vowels 175 6.6 Orthography use 177 6.7 Orthography redesign 179 6.7.1 Consonant revisions 180 6.7.2 Vowel revisions 181 6.8 Summary 181 CHAPTER 7 ......... Discussion and conclusions....................................... 183 7.1 Principles of sound-symbol choices 183 7.2 Lessons learned: language and orthography development 185 7.3 Proposal for further language management of English-lexicon Creole languages of the Caribbean 191 7.3.1 San Andrés 194 7.3.2 Nicaragua 195 7.3.3 St.