The biota of the Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment: reconstruction and restoration

1 2 H. F. Rccher , P. A. Hutchings and S. Rosen:i 1Dcpal'liiiCIII of EcosystCIII Ma n <~g t : nt C i ll , nivcrsity or New En ~ l ttnd, Allllidalc. N ·w 215 1 1Ausmdinn M u ~~-, ,n, P.O. !lox A2M5, South, NSW 1!000 ''~h 1 e Rn s ~;>n Pty Ltd, l ii~tol' inn and l ltt·it,lgc Consultam, 7GA Ct~rling l m ·d Road, Epping, SW 2 121

ABSTRACT

Despite 200 years of European settlement, the Hawkesbury·Nepe<~n catchment sustains a rich and diverse fauna. This Is a consequence or extensive sandstone envlronmenls largely unsuited for development that escaped the elctenslve habitat modifications affecting the rau ha or the grassy wood­ lands on the Cumberland Plain and Southern Tablelands, The most slgnJUcant Impacts followed the clearing and fragmenta tion or the vegetation lor agriculture. Changed fire regimes, the naturallt

INTRODUCTION th1·cm to th e illlt.:griL )' of the we t tropics. In tl1e ('Ontcxt of ('ontinc llta l degradation, t~ n d F ~w continCil lS have been <~s n ol dominated hy mtt i V(' Vl'getat ion and over h;~lf th rabbit Oryctolngll.t ('1/nimhts, Emopcan rox is Crown Lnnd111anag-crl for water and ml iLtrc Vll lf>es vttl/H'S a nd d omestic Glt Fe/i.1 millS, a nd coltllrrv:ll il,n (Conybcare 1970). poor lll (lllllg'ell1C l11 of dolllCl;tic, agricuftut'id and industrial c heulic

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) 3 4 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1 -2) Augus/1993 l1 ;1 Vt~ been recorded from the Uawkcsbury· the usc of fire, hnd largely determined the type Nepean ca tchment (iuformation in ogger and structure <•f vegetation within the catch ­ I~Ht 2; Hoski n t'l (1 (. 199 1; Strahan 1983). ln ment b)' the time or European t \)lonization in addition <1 llllllllwr o[ marin(' mammals visit 178R (Head !989). McDonald (1992) the Haw kc!i h11ry Ri ver e~ w a q' and nearby ptlitlLS LO t'l "myriad of OCCUpati

PIII/I' I (r'fl{m.,i/! /XIRf). En ti lled ''Cn>gt· Valley, SW, I R;\3- 1887''. l lcld in 1he Mi1dwll l.ilmn y (MLISI) fo). 1 his pho1o ~hows Lht: l allt t·r;c:~ dcmt>ly lining tht' ,-ivn banks and the s1riking ~;u , dswne cse

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) 5 Plate 2. Emilled "Wingecanibcc River, c. 1885. Parsonage in distance - near llerrima". lle ld in the Mitchell Library (MLISPF). This photo ilhtsl rates wet sclcrophyll fot·est along the shore and extensive dcariug ror pasLUt·c in the m iddle distance.

Plr1/u J. En tilled "Ncpean River, NSW c. 1881 ". Held in the Mitchell Libt·ar·y (MUSPF). This photo illustrates the dense foreshore forest which would have characterized the emire liawkesbury·Nepean system prior to rapid clearing by European settlers.

6 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) August 1993 from days to millennia. T he capacit y of 1991) [ot·med a plateau over l 000 m in humans to initiate changes that arc ffectively eleva ti on to the wcsr or Sydney, the Blue permanent in th framework of governments Mountains, and the lower Hornsby and (days to years) and the working lives of individ­ Woronora plat aux to the north and south uals (de adcs) needs to be recognized when (Healy 1972). The centrally sited Cumber­ plans arc developed for lhe management land Plain, unde rl ain by Wianamatla of biophysica l systems as complex as a river shales, remained low and with little tOpo­ catchment. graphi diversity. f'caturcs such as the LapslOne Monocline and the courses of rivers Geology through the escarpment arc estimated to have originated 15-8 million yc<~r BP and may be T he fiawkesbury- Nepean River catchment re-activated pre-Jurassic features (Pickett and takes in an area of 2.2 million hectares that Bisho p 1992). encloses the to the north and west (Hall 1927; Con ybeare 197 6; Herbert T he uplifted sediments have been deeply cut 1983). T he catchment has an elevational range by the Hawkcsbury-Nepean Ri ver and its from sea level to 1 362 m (Mt Bindo) (see Figs tributaries. T h result is a topographically 1-3 for the location or places named in the diverse landscape with exposed sandstones, text). Geologically the catchment is dominated shales, granites and basalts (Hall 1927; by Permian sandstones, shales and coal Branaghan and Packham 1967). Extensive measures overlain by Triassic sediments (Healy Quaternary and T ertiary alluvial deposits 1972). There are minor igm:ous intrusions occur on the Cumberland Plain, south of through the sediments (Nashar 1967). T he Coulbur n and around Putty (Conybearc 1976). oldest of the Triassic sedim nts is the Narra­ While climates have been wetter and drier, been Group comprised of conglomcrates, lithi and warmer and colder, throughout its long and quartz salidstone, and shales that outcrop history of uplifting and erosion, the catchment below the more extensive and dominaLin g has nevet- been glaciated. The abs nee of Hawkesbury Sandstones. Uplifting during th glaciation, a his1ory of fi res, and the topo­ late T erLi ary (8-3 million year BP), perhaps graphic and edaphic diversity of the catchment with later tectonic activity (Roy and Thorn have contributed to the evolution or a diverse

Plat~ •1. Entitled" oulh Cre k c. 1910". lteld in the 1\•l itchell Library (MIJSI'F). T his photo illustrates a dean South Cree k, nllhough there has been extensive dearing along the river hank with what a p pears to he inuoduccd willow trees in the background o n the sho•·cline.

August 1993 Austra lian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) 7 and species rich vegetation. T he more than scale uf resolu tion. T I!CI'efore, the history oF 2 000 species of native plants make it one or the the fauna of Lhe llawkesbuqi·N , pean is rnost divers-.: bota nical regions in described in broad vegetation units based (Beadle et al. 1982). T h diver·sity of the land­ primarily 0 11 Lopograpllical, edaphk and sea pe and the r ichness of the flora is refl ected geological features (Tabk J). in the richness of the fauna. Tablt I. l'rincipal vcgeLauon fm·•nations. •

VEGETATION OF THE CATCHMENT TFRRI·.SI RIAl. Low S/u ub La.m/.1 (heaths) 011 h1 oad sandswnc· plateaux; Prior to European seulernent rnon· than Tall Slt1t11J Land.! along the ro<•SL: 95 per cent of the catchment was wooded. Lot" OfJcll Woodlmut.1 emiL ForP\If ull s~uds l o llt' •·idges H eath (s hrub commurrities) occurred along ;Hid 5lopes, usu!dl y wiLh a heal h un(terstorc); ridges on sha llow or waterlog-ged soils a nd Tall Op~ 11 Woodla~z ds ami t •u•t .ll.l will1 a grassy extended into E·ucaly/Jl t t .~ wood lands as a shrub undcr~tnrey nu tichc:r soils o n tlw C111nbedand Pl~iu and thc .Sou thern ·rablel;lnds; or understorey v getation layer. Small fresh­ Tall Opm Forn ll wirh a shrub or n1 i uforc~ t water bogs, swamps and ha nging swamps undc•·~ t orry on wc;rter slopes and along Rtdl i<-s '1ud occurred whtrever drai nage was imp ded or creek~ . nsually in associat.lon wi rh uutl'icnt-rich ~~~u ~ there was freshwater seepage. There appea rs derived !hun shalt· or b,ls:•lt our crop~ . to have b e n extensive wet areas. reed beds and AQ~I A ' IIC : lagoons or billauongs along the Upper Frcshw:\ler: Tlaw ktsbury and the Neptt:rn a nd the lower lligh elev:niotl l•oK~• swwnfJ$, lwugmg swampo~ 1111!1 reachrs of their m(\jor tributari ~s . 'l'hcsl! occurred .ti YP(IIII~; in asS()Ciation with paperbarks Mela./f!tJca and Low clcvarion spnng.r, nuuii!/J.f, lrJgonns, 11/Mshr~• .rt,·am.~ she-oaks C(IS1Wrina . A variety of Ire hwa ter a11d 11 11~ 1 .1; plants occurred in creeks, river:;, bogs and Esnn1rine : lagoons. There were extensive beds of ribbon Phytnplalllrlon,· weed Vallisneria gigrmtea in lhc Nepean a nd i \ /g(l/ COllllllllltlllts 011 rorlty Joreshorr.r; Sragmss /m/1; Upper Hawkesbury Rivers and their tribuLaries Mangrotll' fmr.\Lt: (sec Bur ton 1992 and references tht: rc:in for a SCtllma1 sh. tnore delailcd description of the vegetation ill the catchment and its histOI'ical changes). •T!'IIllinology follows Spcr ht rt ttl. ( 1971).

Along the Hawkesbury and in Brisbane HISTORIC CHANGES TO THE Water and Piuwa ter, forests d orninatt:d by gre)' HAWKESBURY-NEPEAN CATCHMENT and river 11"\;:tngroves Avicmnia marina and 1\egiceras cvrniculatmn occupied shallow inter­ 'fhere i li ttle informatio n about the biota of tida l sand and mudflats with fringing subtidd by Zo tera caj;rirxn·ni hut na n settlellll:tll. The T riassic sediments and in Lhc shallower water and Posidonia austmti~ in more recem a ll uvial d eposits that dominate th e deeper, more marine wate r. In places the catchment comain few fossils. Howeve1·, it can mangroves were fringed by salt marshes Lh a t be a~sumcd that Aboriginal occupation was graded into forests of paperbarks a nd she-oaks, accompanied by increased fire frequencies a nd backed by eucalypts. T he rocky foreshores of tha t their impact on rhe biota o [ the catchment the lower Hawkesbury, Broken Bay, Cowan can not be des ribed as minimal sens11. Wa ter, a nd PiLLWllter McDonald ( 1992) (see for example J ones I 969; supported a lgal communrlres that were Hug hes and Sullivan 1981, 1986 at1d 1'efer­ probably similar to those curre ntly there and enccs therein). which have been documented by Adam et tJ.l. (1988), Hutchings and Recl1er (1977), Moss Effects of Aboriginal OccupatioiJ (1983), and West et al. ( 1985). Bunon (J 992) suggests that the regular use Although the vegetation of the catchme nt is of fire by Aboriginals led to a grassy under­ diverse with pla nt species and distinctive com­ ~ tore y on shale country and to a shrubby munities reflecting cha nges in aspect, understorey on sa ndstone. T his was probably elevation, to pogra phy and edaphic conditions, the resuiL or frequent low-intensity burns set a coarser division is a pproprialt: for describing for a variety of reasons including t·reating a the vertebraLe fauna. Invertebra tes respond to ''green pick" to attract game, tlriving gattte small scale cha nges in the vegetation and some when hunting and cnc:ouraging the growtlr of may be rcslrictecl to individua l species of rood plants Qoncs 1969). Open woodlands plants, but the information available for may a lso have been maintained b}' other invertebrates does not allow descriptious at this means, as illustrated by the report of Governor

B Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) Augus/1993 I 1- a: 0z

Ftg. 1. Maps 1-3: The Hawkesbu1·y-Ne pean c;uchlnC' nl m•ca witll sites nlclllioncd in Lhc lt'Xl lm·;ued. Mnp I. I. Mc Donald River, 2. , 3. Haw kesbury River, 4. Nt·pciin .River, 5. N:nti River, 6. Warrag11mba Dan1, 7. Caumtr;t n~tn , 8. Cot clcaux 1)<1111, 9. Avon Dam, I 0. Nepean River, I I . Cox's Rivl'r,

August 1993 Australian Zoologist. Vol. 29(1-2) 9 SCHEYVILLE

F1g. 2. M::tp 2. 1. ~ J cDona ld Rtl"cr, 2. Colo Rivet·,:~. Cn 11~i Creek, 4 . .Bushells L1goon , 5. Grose Rivct, fi. So u1h Creek.

10 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) August 1993 ROSEVILLE

Fi~. 1, 1\'lap ~. 7. 1\ la ugl'(lYl' C:r{'t•k, H. 1\•lu l ~ lallcl , 1:3. ll• uuklyn. I I, I\1<1 1':(111<11'H C1e••k, 15. I'!II'UJ I3,,). 16. C:a •t•t·l H11y, 17. l'ill ll'nll'l , 1~ . t:nw;111 Walcl . ltl Bc tuw:l Watt'! ~. ~0 . Juno 1'11illt , ~I. Crnn11 1 Ll cek. 22. fi~hpU 11 d C:rt:c·k.

August 7993 Australian Zoologist. Vol. 29(1-2) 11 Phill ip to Lord Sydney that. Aborigi11als o ft e n Creek catchme nt ~1 11d Wood ( I mm) reported set fires at the base of large trees which tht:y on a site 0 11 the 13:a rrenjoey Pe ninsula, Pill­ len burning ca 11sing the 1rces to fall wate r. T h · m ~j o rit y or m anmtals idcntilled (llRNSWa). S11ch fires were used to smoke out from remains found in th ·sc d e posits were possun Js from tn' <.: hl)llows (Kohe n and species typical of g rassy woodlfl nds (Tables 2, Ltltll pcr·r l 9H7). :n. Among the anirnab ide ntified were eastern grey kangaroo Macropus gigan /eus, red-necked While it is probable tl·wt open woodlands wallaby M. nifop;!'I:W'tts , a nd conrmott wot1Jba1 with a grassy understorcy on l'i w Cum berland Vombattt.s u:rsinus. Pl11 in , the Horlisby Pial au x, the Sou thern 'fablclands and em riche r soils throughout Table 2. Olfle nmrsupaals of gaa SS)' woodl;mds in ca$lca'a1 the saudstonc country were the resu lt o f Australi11. Aboriginal bun1ing practices, il is harder to Species Stal11~ reco1tcile Aboriginal occupa tion with the shrubby understorcy 0 11 JJ;awkesbury !::as (~J'll Q110JI /)nJJit!IIIVIVI'llllll/~ r.xliii!'IOla and ·tone. Sa ndstO ilt' vc:gcl t'l l ion i nor pro· mninl:1nd* Cwnnann Dunnan S•11iulh~p.ril mum•a Common dttctive a nd presently ustains only spiil'SC 'l'la)•laci lll' 'r/t)•lllclnttl ()mJouphoiJJJ ~:xtin cr populations of na1ive wildlife (Rt:clter, pcrs. Long-nosed f\ :J ndicoot Pn•amrln /lflllll!t I Jcdinin~:~ *­ ob ·. ). This is a conseque nce of the nutricnl Sour hem Browu flnuc.licoo1 IJoudcm uhcw/us Bndang<·rctl*­ poor and shallow sand 'l ouc soils and the rapid Ko<1 ta Phascolarcto.r cinrr~11.1 l~nflang1·n; rl ot* Cc)muJon Wombat Vombatus w :1i1111f Common'~ drainage and evaporation of water. fl is I he re· S 11 g;11· Glider PrlitJtrtts btCtJiceJ•s < :ommon ~·* fore unreasonable to expect tha t Aboriginals Bru s h- 1~ilcd l'o5su m Trirlwsw11s 1111lJwwlo Collliii(Jal** would have occupiC'd dry andstone habitats F'eathertail Clida.:> t· Acrobat~.\ pygmarttJ Conamonlj;'" 'J'n~Jlla nia n Bettong IJe/longitJ gaimard1 Extinct on on a pcrrntlnent bHsis or in large nu111bcrs. mainland"' Aborigina l occupation was probably cuncen­ Rufous Bcttong 11tpyrpry11uws refMcfllS J::udangcr<'d"' Lratecl along the mttior river and estuaries Hnd Red· ncckcd Wallaby Mctri'IJ/IIIS '11jbgTisew Cpanan1111** o n t ht: best soils where food was relatively ~:ras a ern Urcy Kang<~roo M. gigtw.ttw Common"* abunciHut. '~ Kn(lwn to have occurr d 011 1lw Cnmherland Plain. **Ex lil!1l in the llawkcsbury-Ncpc.ln Cntd1111t:tat. 11 is unlikely that sandstone vegeta tion was burnt by Aborigina ls o n a regula r basis o the r The presence of koala Plwsr.olm·ctos ri1wreus than to clear egeta tion a long movcntcnt and yellow-bellied g lide r PPimtn.LS a11.slralis in corrido rs o r lo create openings for er ~rn o n ies. Lh e d e posits is inclicalive o f ferlile soil , while No douh1 there were accidental burns when the remain of grealt>r g liders PetaH·roides volrw.s fires set in grassy woodlands escaped into .indicates that hunling al ·o ocwrr~.:d in tall s;. nclslone hnbilats and, if burnt frequently open-forests. Be nson's (1981) d · cription o f (i.e., o ne or Lwo year int rvtlls), a g rassy undeJ·­ the.: vcgeLa tio n of 1hc Uppc.:r Mtlngrove Creek storey with few shrubs can be establish d on catchme nt is consiste nt with 1hi s inlerpt·etation. Hawkesbury [';:~ndstonc (Reche r , pcrs. obs.). According to Be nson, the all u vial Hats of T he impressio n in the ead y accounts of som e Mangrove Creek to its junclion wit h the explorers (reported in Benson 2111d I lowell 1990; Hawkesbury Rive r supported a tall opct\-Coresl .J ervis J936; White J97 1) of a diffe re nt a nd more of Dean's bh1 e gum H. deanei at1d rough-barked open vcgelalion on th sandstone may be a apple AngojJiwrajlori.bu.nda.. On drier sites with consequence of European travellers choosing exposed sha les there is an open­ I he easiel\t (most direct and most open) routc·s forest of forest red g tt an E. teretico1'1"Lis and thin­ 10 follnw. These would have coincided wit.h the leaved stringybark E. Pttgenoides. Benson (1981) tracks followed by Aboriginals that were fire reported that both associations had a u open Jnai111 <1 in~.:d . Other explorers in luding Evans understorey a nd shrub layer with a grassy and Hunter however compl:'tined 1) f dense ground cover that was ma intained by lire and undergrowth in sandstone country (Eva ns in grazing. Although the tree canopy would have Mackaness 197tl; Hunter 1 97~. p. 138). been higher before logging· a nd clearing by Europeans, lhe strucrure o f bo th associations Whe re Abnrig in

12 Austra/fan Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) August 1993 Table J. M amm als rccovctc:d from archacnlo~ i c ;JI ~ ites. fauna of the Cumberland Plain and Southern

l .uratio n Tablelands with that of 1h e better known Upper woodland faunas of the Northern Tablelands Mangtovc lla.rr ·njoex

1' 11 A~CO I .ARCI llli\1 e~ tim a te d the number of Aboriginals in the P/uMcolarctf/.f riun~111 X coastal art!a from Botany Ba y to Bro ke n Bay al D ASVU II tnAI' 1 500 people (i 11 McDonald 1992). Ko hen /)ruyurus lllflrrdalu\ X ( I 986 in McDonald 1992) s1im a ted that 500 D. sp. X to J 000 people occupied the western Cumber­ Alll~c/lllliiS StUfliiiSOI!ii X la nd .Plain at the time of Emopean seulemcn1. A. .

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) 13 -

14 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) Augus/1993 in numbers. Attenbrow (pcrs. romm.) reports diminished <1 nd as earl }' as 1802 GoV1:l'llor that koala remain art> rarely found i11 Ki ng i SS 1 H~d orders l0 rQntrol timber ge·'tting archaeological sites. T his would indicate either on rhe Hawkcsbur)' (HRN ' We). Among other rhat ko a l <~s were n (') l eaten or that, as suggested things the regulation was designed to stop the by Lunney, their numbers were low. K ot~ l as clearing of vegetatiou <~ l o n g river bank, and would have been a particularly easy prey for protect navigable waters. However, by 1826 Aboriginal hunters. most of the all uvial land along the IJ awkes­ bury- epean had been cleared and was being Europetw Colonization w ltivated (Powell I 988). River b t~ nks were undermined and coll apsed int o the river T he pauern of Europc

1'/a/t 5 (ujJ/JOJllr jJ(Igr). Entitt,·cl "l'crch fis hing on the Grose Jnn u;rr) t !ll~". f ield in 1\litl'hell Litmtq • (I.!UCPO 30353). f his photo illnstnttc.s the long-rcW)tttitccl rlchm:ss of the aqunLic t•wsystern of I he ll awkc•s hu r)'·N~· pt'an, :rnd the secluded Jt'< n:aticmal v.tluc ncar an alrracly tarse r.i ty.

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) 15 ...

depict whales and a whalillg station was esta b­ crossed rhe Nepean and invad ed rhc lished ea rly in the 1 ~Jt h century at Mosman on mountains (HRNSWcl, King, lOth Ma rch . Whales were La ke n from both 180 I). BlaxJand had established a ra bbi I near shore (proba bly southe rn right Eubalaena warren on his pro pe rty at Luddcnham a nd by ttustmhr a nd hum pback Mr!gaptf!'ra n.vvaeangliae 1833 the animals were thriving ( H~rrvard wltales) and al sea. T he nu111be rs of wha les 1943). Probably these animals did not survive, pm esscd declined fro m the 1850s o nwarrls, but throug h the 19 th century acclianization although the re was a brief revivaJ in the 1 H90s societies were active in the inrroch1c:tion o[ (Australia n Euc.:yd o pedia 1958; Dakin 1938). exotic species. Brow 1r tro ut Salmo irullf/ were Southe rn right :111cl huruphac k whale:, a re listed introduced via Tasmania a nd Victori<1 into the ;-tS enda ngered in New South Wa les (Natio na l Wollondilly, Upper Ncpean aud N;:nta i Ri vers Pa rks and Wildlife Service Act, J974 , Schedule iu 1888 (Roughley 1966). ' fhc xotic fau11 a was 12), but since the J980s hav been sighted comple rm:nted by a garden of ('X()tiC plant r g ul

16 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) August 1993 PlaJe 6. Entitled "The weir on the Nepcan at Wallada, .June 19 18'', Held in the Miu;hell l.ibntry (ML CPO 18 159). Weirs on the Nepean deepened the l'iver.

Plate 7. £miLled "The Nepe::m River ;tl Wallacia, june I 9 18". lle ld in the Mitchell Library (ML GPO 181 54). This photo sluMS that by 191!lthe river was being used c:xtensil'ely for recreation, itnd the native vegetation had been cleared ft·om hoth b;tnks and convened to cow pastut·cs.

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) 1i' increased erosio n and de posit ion rates the Fauna Pa11cl and released in sandstone parks (Hughes and S dlivau 198 1). Changt:s in Lhc with littl(' regard t.o the suitability or otherwise ratchlncnt fo ll

18 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) August 1993 Accompa t• ying these d evelopme nts wa the IMPACT OF EUROPEAN massi vc growth of Sydn<'y' population SETTLEMENT fro m less than o ne milliou in 1939 to over 3.5 T he impact of European activi£ic·s on Aust­ million in 1993 a nd the spread of the city rali a's bio ta did not escape early no tice. 'l'h into the catchment of the Hawkesbury­ proclamations a nd regulatio ns of Govenw• N~pea n . King to conserve forest and protect foreshores are the earliest cxpre sions of onccrn. The ·n,e environmental changes withiu lbc ne d to protect wildlife was deba ted in the New Hawkcsbury-Nepcat1 catchment that affect its South Wales lcgisla LUrc and legislation passed fauna canno t been seen in isolation from the in the 1860s (Reed 1991). Altho ug h initial growth of Sydney and the increasing urb~miza­ concern was for introduced game species, pro­ rion of the C lllnbe rland Pla in, the Central le tion was soon extended to nativt.! wildl ife Coast a nd along the u-ansportation corrido rs seen as bene fi cial to agriculture (e.g., in:ser.:t· thro ugh the Hornsby Plateau, the Blue eating birds). By way of contrast, bounties were Mountains, the m awarra Di trict and the paid on fruit-ealing birds and a Noxio us Bird!> Southern T able la nds. Altho ugh problems with Destt"u ction Society fot·med at Hulga in 1890 water quali ty in the Hawkesbury-Nepean and (Anon. a 1892). I3y the turn o f the century its tributaries were evide m as early as the species (e.g., betton gs, wallabies), tha t had 1830s, the incre;;tsing a 111 o unts of domestic been hounded as pests only ten years earlie r, ewagc d i charged into the caL hmenr's water- were being protected to conserve them from ways have had a m ~jor impact 0 11 water quality extincliort (Recher and Lim 1990). However, s i~tce the 1960s (Collis L978; Oliff cmd .Brown concerted efforts were still directed at some 1978). As a ny long-time residem wo uld a ttest, species considered pest , e.g., 270 fl ying foxes there bas a lso been a progressive decline in air WCI"C poisoned on o ne property near Goulburn qualit)' within the Sydney Basin fmm the in 1914 (Ano n. b 19 14). l 970s, but as )'Ct there are no obvious e f"f'e ·t lt1 1R92 Alex Ha milton prese n ted a paper to on native vegetatio n. the Royal So iety of New South Wales in which he identi["ied the thn:t.: principal ca use: of the T hroug ho ut this period water quality con­ decline of A u ' tralia's biota as a con equt> nce of tinued to be a ffected by rosio t• and siltation European settleme nt {Hamilwn 1892). T hese from road constructio n , residential and urban were; developmcttt, but at increased rates as the I . habilat destnwlion,fra.grnentation cmd tuod{fic:n.­ Sydney m etropo l it<~n a rea expanded . Ri ver bed t.ion as a r esult of road coustrut lio n, and foreshore mining fo r sand and g ravel to cha nged fire regin•cs, logging, mining. meet the growing demands of Sydney for clearing for agriculture, and overgrazing; building aggregate (Wallace 1977) substantiall y 2. the introduction of exolir. animals; increased the silt load carried by the Ilawkes­ bury-Nepean. Nutrient-rich ru11 -off from 3. the introdttrtion of exotic plants. residential areas, the use or chlorinated Hamilton's analysis is percepti ve a nd, with hydrocarbons and othc•· biocides iu agriculture respect to the terrestrial flora

August1993 Australian Zootog/st, Vol. 29(1- 2) 19 1'/ate 8. En1illcd "Soil washed away Col<1 Rivet·, 28 june 1919". Held in tltc Mitchell Libntry (ML CPO 18596). This photo demonstrates the massive e rosion of the alluvial flats along the Colo River following nouds. While the impac1 0 11 tet'l'estl'ial ecosys1cnH is visually obvious, 1hc conscqueur c·s to the aquatic ecosystems arc no less fat' reaching.

Plate 9. Emitlcd "Silt in on:hurd, Colo River ncar Windsor, 28 june 1949". lleld in the Mitchell Library (ML C PO 48599). This photo starkly illustrates the heavy sill deposits fo llowing the Colo River noods of June 1919. It presents a stark con tntStto Plate 8 nncl d emonstrates that the foreshore: environment was undergoing m

20 Austra lian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) August 1993 across the Cumberland Plai n a11d on w the in 1789 front a :;pecimen taken al Uotany J\:-•)' Southern Tablel<·tlldS. l'he clearing and fntg­ ttnd it probably occurred throughout the rtt ntat ion of native vvgct ;uion, 1he dramatic rq~ion (Su·ah(ln I 983). Potoroo bones have decline of the Abot'iginal population and been rccovct·cd from archaeologit:ill sites in the..: subsequeut changes in fire regimes leadillg 10 Upper Mangrove Creek catchment (Aucubrow changes in the structure <~nd lloristic com­ 1987) and from the Barre t~j ocy Peninsula on position of Lhe vegetation, over-grazing, Pit t.water (Wood 1989) (Ti'lble 3). hunting and the imrod11 nion c>l exotic attlrn als The ri hnes of' Lh c pre-European mammal were factors that quickly led to the early fauna is illustrated by the range of arclmco­ destruction of Lit e distinclive mammal fauna of logical material 1·ccovercd from the U ppt~ t· the open, gras y woodlands oft he Cumberland Mangrove Creek and Barrenjoey sites (Table 3). Plain and belter CJUa lity soils of the Hornsby Plateau. These effects were felt later o tt th Kangar·oos, wallabies, possums, gliders, Southern Tablelalld!.i and elsewhere in similar bollldicoots, and wombats are represented habitats throughout New South Wales Uarman along with a number of smaller species. In all. and johnson 1977; Lunney and Leary 1988). 33 sp<·cies or mammals were identified between 'l'he cessation ol' ht111ting by Aboriginal people Lhc two locations with more [!tan hall (J S ,·educed predation pressures, possibly allowing species) found at both lucat ions. some species (e.g., ko(lla, goanna VmnnttJ Although early descriptions of lht.: tauna. vm'i1t~) to increase in numbers. including specimens coHccted by visiting naturalists and material rcrovcrecl from E~rly account!> of the fauna of the Cumber­ land Plain, along the Nrpean a11d Upp r archaeological sites, arc httrdly quantitative..: or Hawkesbury Rivers and the luwcr Blue unbiased, along with modern records they Mountains describe a ri hand abtlltdant fauna. provide tlte information to reconstruct the These ac.cou nls arc confirmed by the richness terrestrial vertebrate fauna or the Hawkcsbury­ of faunal assemblages Uttrovered in Ne pcan ca tchment as it probabl)' was in I 788. In thc following accounts only key species at· · archaeological sites (e.g., Tabk 3). Kangaroos, mentioned and our emphasis is on mHn ttHals wallabies, ~m u , rat kangaroos or beLLongs a11d birds. It siJould be stressed that t he (probably rasmanian Brlfo1l.L,rirt gaimnrdi and habitats and their fa11nas as they existed in I'Ll fous ArjJytfJ1)11n?WS ruji:sr.ms bcuungs) a r pea r 17A8 are cottst. ructs based on our int rpreta­ tO have bcen f'OITUIJC)I t and were fn~ Cj\.ll"ntly liun of early accounts. We 11aw relied heavily refcrrc:d to 111 ~arly d1aries; Juustly as a source.: tllt our knowledge of the modem fau na l'ouud CJI' food 01 spurt. Th:t'lneu ( LS3t1) reported nH in simil

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) 21 -

throug h the 1930s. Comments of other long­ of the National Pa1·ks and Wildlife Act1 1974). time residents indicate that platypus are sti ll Apan from sub-fossil remains, it has not been prcscnl in the Hawkesbury, but in reduced recorded from the cal·chment. Tlte New n~1mbers. T heir status in lb ~.: various I ributaries Holland Mouse is mo re abundanl and was is unknown. l l is onsidcrcd tare by Harris rediscovered in the 1960s in Ku-Ring-Cai (pen;. cornm.). C ha~c and Brisbane Waters National Parks, AnOLher aquatic 11l ammal expected in the where it is assuciated wiLh low open ~ rores t anrl heath:; (Posamcntier and 197•1; Strahan catchme nt is the water-rat fly(J,romy~ duysogaster Recher 19k3). Most rhe sma lle r grouttd-cl welling (.Strahan 1983). The w ~ne r-rat· can p~.:t · sis t close or to human habitation and wa 'recorded in Port mammals pe rsisting in the cat.chmclll arc j acl<.son a l Drummoyne between 1967 a nd absent from re mna r11 woodlands. 969 by J Rechcr (unpubl.). Recl1er a lso The sta tus of bats is Llllclear, but most or LhC' o bserved a water-rat on Bro ke n Bay between 15 or more species present in 1788 probably Pearl Beach a nd Pawn ga in 1969, but it has perf>ist· in the catchment. However , many :tre ne ver been recorded by IJ arris (pcrs. comru.). excluded from 1h e more d ensely settled Both species are adversely a lTected by changed agricultural a nd urban areas (Lunney, pcrs. wate r regimes, n.~c r~,; ational motor boating a nd comm.). C hanges to the avifauna parallel th e water pollution. llyd1·om:ys was not ide nLirtccl at impact ()[European settlem ent on th<- mamlnat either Lh e Upper Mang rove Creek or Barren­ fauua. joey archaeological site (Table 3). With 11 10re than 100 species, open, grassy On the open grasslands, echidna Tru:hyglossu,~ acli,le(l,lt/s, easte rn native cat, brush-tailed woodlands have a panicularl)' rich avi fa una (Keast This avifauna has a wide distribtt­ phascogale Phascogale tapoalajt-~,, long-nosed 1981). bandicoot Perameles rtasHta, liO uthern brown tion in eastern Aus1ralia a lo ng the tablelands bandicoot Isoodon obesu.ht..l , koala, common a nd on to the slopes a nd plains. IL exte nd ed to wornbat, sugar glider, brush-ta il ed possum, lhe coast o n the Cumberla nd Plain a nd in the 'l)sm anian bc LLong, r ufous bettong, red­ Hunter River Valley, but h as contracted in dis­ necked wallaby, aud easte rn g rey ka ngaroo tribution a nd diversity with the modificatio n o f among others were probably common (Tables woodlands by agrkulwre . Some of the best 2 and 3). The bettongs and eastern quolls no informa tion on the decline o f this avil'auna longer occLtr in the catchment a nd bandicoots comes ft'Om sites on the Cumberland Plain in have d eclined significantly in a bundance since the catchment of the Hawkesbury-Nepcan (see the l 960s. The avifa una of open, g rassy wood­ I lindwoocl <111d McGill 1958; Hoskin et ai. lands included the ernu and may h ave included 1991, 1992). the Australian bustard o n lllC C umberland Originally the avifauna of the grassy wood­ Plain. Atkinson (1980), writillg of what were lands included a large number of g rmllld­ probably observations dlll'ing the 1860s in the dwell ing and/or ground-foraging species Goulburn district, described the- b11stard as no t (Keast 1981: Hoskin el al. 1991). l'his included in frequent, whereas it h ad become rare stone-curlew Bttrhin·us magnimSI.?'is, quail , elsewhere, implying former abundance. pigeons, robins Pr!Lroir;a, eastern whiteface Both the large mammal a nd bird .r~n.tn as Aphelocephala leu.cojJsis, bl'Own treecreeper of the open, grassy woodlands were Climucteris picnmnus, finches, white-winged complemented by a wide varie ty of sma lle r cho ugh Corcorax ·mElla:n.othttmphtiS, butcherbirds species including dasyu rid insectivores Cractic-us spp. and magpies Gymnodtina libicerr,. (Anlechinus, Srninlhopsi~), native rodents (bush It is evident fro m early accounls tha t quail, raL Rattus fu.scipes, swan'lp rat R. lutreolus, and t~ i geons and magpies were a bunda,nt at the Pseu(lomys spp.) . Brown an1echinus A. stuartii lane of first settlement and wer·c lrcquemly and common dunnarL S. m'l.tTina have been eaten. Except for stone-curlew, most spedes fou n.d in archaeological siLes on 1h e Barrenjo ey a ppear to have persisted in remnant wood­ Peninsula (Wood 1 989). Sites in the U pper lands in reasor1ablc numbers until the 1950s Mangrove Greek catchment yielded brown (Hindwood and McGill 1958), but declined antechinus, dusky anlechinus A. swainsonii, rapidly with increasing urbaoiza tivn during bush rat, swamp rat, mouse P. l.ltc 1960s (Hoskin et al. l 991). Wbitefaces, oralis, and New H olland Mo use P, novae­ quail, native pigeons, red-capped robin P. hollandiae (Attenbrow 1987). New H olland and goodenovii, brown treecreeper and finches have Hastings River Mice have restricted distribu­ become rare or disappeared from the Cumber­ tions in eastern Australia (Stl'a ha n 1983) and land Plain in the last thirt.y years, while other the H astings Rive r Mouse is listed as g round-dwelling and/ot· ground-Foragittg endangered in New South W:lles (Schedule 12 species have declined in abundance (see

22 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) August 7993 Hoskins et al. 1991 )- More recently 1h ere have Lbroughout the catchment at lower ' lcvat.ions bt'c:n declines in the abundance of oth er birds, along water ourses and on moist, nutrient rich most notably th<: honcyemers (Mcliphagidac) soils ( for example, see Be n on 1981; Benson and lorikce ts ('l?•ichoglossus, ClossojJlilLa) (Hoskin and .Fallding 1981; Burton 1992). These cl rd. 1991 ; Rc <.: hcr, unpubl.). forests were heavily logged from the initiation These patterns of change in the woodland or the settlement at Port j ackson . Open-forests mammal and bird fat1nas are not restricted to and woodlands occurred on the d rier slopes and ridges and were subjec..L to more fr quent the ll<~wkesb ury-Nepcan catchment, but L)•pify changes in the distribution nud ab1,.rnda ru;e of fires than tall open-for est. Whe re fire woodland faunas throughout Austtalia (e.g., frequency was iucreased by humans, a grassy Recl1er a nd Lim 1990; 'Recl1er, in press; Doug unde rstorcy wi th scattered sh rubs was created Robinson (Victoria) 1993); David Paton (South (see Benson J 981). Where fires were less Australia) (pers. comm.) and Bob Fox frequent, shr1.rb vegetation was probably more (Nonhern Territory) (pers. cornm.). Of the abundant. Open-forests on nulrient rirh oils woodland bird species lhat have declined i11 were exte nsively cleared for agriculture. abundance and which were previously Although heavily exploited for the ir Limber conunon within the catchme nL, only the regent and affected by agricultural clearing and urban honeyeater Znnlhnmiza phrygia is endangered expansion, in some ways tall open-forest and nationall y. open-forest in the Hawkesbury-Ncpean catch­ There are few accounts of the original me nt was less af!'edcd by European settlement reptil<:, rrog OJ' invertciJralc faunaS of graSS)', than the grassy woodlands ·and retains a open-woodlands within the J lawkesbury­ greater complement o f the original fauna. Nepean catchment. Mention is made of snakes, These foresLs were rich in arboreal marsupials p ar·ticularly during noods, but there is no wilh carl y references to "squirrels", opossums re fe rence to large lizards (e.g., goannas, blue and gliding possums and t)IC prospects for a tongues 7'iUqua). As lizards were ealcn by lucrative fur trade (Alkinson 1980; Atkinson Aboriginals and a re easily hunted, it is possible 1826). Arboreal mam.rn als in these habitats that population were sparse. On the basis of included ko

Augusl1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) 23 (pers. cotntn.) fottno n fresh skull at Mangruv<· Co/omba 1101jolciensi5 and brown pigeons C r ~e k in 1982. Macropygia · j;/t(~ icuwlla probably m;curred throughout the catchment in rainforest and O ther mamtuals in these [m·ests incl uded wet srlct·orhyll habitats, hut are not specillrall y wombat!), spotted-tailed quoll, long-nosed referred to in early account . All were con­ powroo, bettongs, brush-tailed rocl w

T he impact of European seulement on the OjJt'lt- a.nd Low OjH•n-waodlmuls bru ·!Hailed rock wa llab)' is lypical l'nr nJost of the mammals of these habit at·. Iu early OpetJ- and low open-forests aud woodlauds acco11nt s they are dcsnihcd as plcntirtd, o cur­ arc the dominant vegctnt ion on the extensive ring widely throughout the ca tlhmcnt (see sandsto JH..· habit ats within the catchment. Table 3). 'l'hey appear to have been a popular Altho ugh th y sustai n a rich fl ora and faunt~ sport animal wilh th early seltlcrs (Atkinson and have been less affected by agriculture, l 980; Musgrave 1925), probably because o ( the fo restry and urbanization than forests ot• ea ·e with w h ich Liley could be sho t. O n his visit richer soils, sandst011e conJittll lltlies an; to the ~ ll1 t: Mountains i11 1836, Cltarks Darwin not produ tive habitats. With lite notauk rcfl eclecl on the int.cnsiLy with which native exception of nectnr-fceding birds. most vcrtc animals were hunLcd and predicted the early br t~ t cs o cur sparsely (Rech r, pers. obs.) exunctiotJ of the kangaroo. I J is prediction There is no evidence of significant chau gc;:::. i1 aboul kangaroos was wrong, bur sport hunting lhe fauna of the open- and low o pen-wood­ and hunting for rood appears to have had au lands of the sandsto ne. Among nlarnmals these arly and significanl impact on man)' of the habitats CO lli inu(' tO Sl!Staill populations of' larger mammals and birds in the Tl awkesbllr)'­ swamp walla by, untechimts, possums, native Ncpean catchme nt. This includes the rock rodents and bats (Recher, pers. obs.). wallaby which now has a very restricted Bini populations in open-woodla nds on distribution ill the Blue Mountains where it is sandstone are sparse with the greatest number·s reported to be declit1i 11 g in numbers Uones, conn.: ntratcd along water courses (Rccher, per . co mm.}. unpubl.). T he low numbers restdt fron1 the low The avifauna of tall open- and open-forests nutrient. status of the soil nnd conscqueJrt low includes species restricted to gully and raill­ proclttct iviLy or tlte veget~ rio n and associated invertehrate communiLies (see Majer P.l a/.. fon:sl habitats on nutrient rich soi ls. T h es~ 1989, 1992 and Reciter 1985 l'or discussion,\o include brown warbler Gf"'JI[!,'O'//f! 111ould, large hilled scrubwren Sericornis uwgiorostris and on the relationsh ips betwc ·n soil nutrients, Lewins honeyeater MelijJhaga. lewinii, which are invertchrale abundances, g-g in g and hunling, iuclude the various fruit­ associat ·d with changes it1 the andstone eating or rain for st pigeons and the brush turkey habitats. A/t,ctura lathmni. Gonic\ comn1emcd that the The open-woodlands of the Hawkesbury bt·llsh lurkey was nearly exterminated rh)' Sandstone nre cri tical habitat for two species or hunting] by I 840, As a rainforest species, the birds; th<' glossy hlack cockatoo Cn.lyptorh)'Jtc/1.1/.\ brush turkey was probably restricted in lctthami and the rock warbler Origma soUtwin. di stribution withiu the catchment and would Both are listed as enda tJ gered in New South h;Jve been particularly sLrsceptible to the preda­ Wales by the National Parks and Wil d life tions of the early cedar cutter& (Jiilldwood and Service (Schedule 12 of rhc Nat ionnl Parks and McGill 1958). Wompoo Megalof>rtfJirt m(Lgaijiw. Wild life Act , Hl74). The rock w;-trhler is lopkllOl LojJholaimu.~ amlarcticw, white-headed <-ndemic to New South Wales and restricted to

1'4 Australian Zoologist. Vol. 29(1- 2) August 1993 Plate 10. Enlitled "Soil e•·osion - Camden". lleld in the MiLchc ll Libra!')' (ML CPO 48926). The magniwdc of the lnss of Lhc habiwt for Lhe native terrestrial fauna is appa•·enL in Lhis bleak phow.

Plate J J. Valley of Lhe Ncpcan, CibraiLal' Rock, showing the mnu•·al vegetation and g iving au insighLtnlo how Lhe entire valley system would have looked like pre- 1788. Photo by Lisa !Icy.

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) 25 sandsto ne h abitats whe re it fo rages a tthl~ inte r­ increased ttumbe rs o f donlt'St.i dogs a nd C(l ts, face of rock o u tcrops and '\Oi l. Recent repo rts c hanges in 1h e composilio n or vegeta tion a lo ng suggest a d edi••<' in numbe rs (H oskin cl al. the fureshnres of tltt· Ncpean a nd Upper 1991) and the s pecies may be sensitive to liaw kes b~try Ri vers from one do mina ted by increased rire freq11 encies associated with pre­ na live vegetation 111 u 11 e d o utinnted by exotics scription burning a nd rnorc freque nt w ildfires (e.g., privet, willow) and cxte n ivc learing or or ltunmn origin. The ro katoo has probably re mnant bushland, arc othe r factors in the nevn ben• abundant. It feed pr i1naril y on the decline.· of' the local avifaunn. seed s of she-oaks a nd require · a large tree S in the GISt· of Other lCJTC tria l habitatS, ho llow Cor n c~Hing . lL has hecn adversely Lhcrc are few data on tbe distributions and a ffected by agricultural clearing and forestry abundances of 1 cpt ilcs, frogs or invertebrau..:s pracLice· throug ho ut its distributio n iu cast rn i11 o pe n-wood la nd within the r atchmCil l. T he Australio . J'he bird is freq 11 ntly seen a long the sam e sources thal re po rted a loss koalas at H awkesbury Ri ver (Rcche r, pcrs. o bs.) and the or l'orlo Ba)' fo llowin g wildfire, said th of snakes, ntost import<••n re fuge in Austrlllia. goy regiou h ave ma ny fewer bell itcl IJiack su cmnmon tha11 regular complaint:; in rhe Sydney press since formerly. Go<~ nna s a rc a ft'ClJUen t. victi111 · ~r the early 1970s about declines in thC' numbe rs a uto ll1uhilcs, a nd a clcdin in the number of n a live birds in the suburbs (Rc·(. her 1972). o [' go,lllllaS uear Settle me nts is CX pt•ctecf a Comm em s in the intervie ws wi th long-time po pultt tion densities increase and ::t ltlnmobile residc 11 ts exte nd these cunn·rns imo the rura l t r;.~ fll escalates. Cats and dogs, as we ll as cars, e nviro nme nt of th llnwkesbury-Ncpean may also ai'fc 1 lhe numbers of goannas, blue­ wh e re quail, fim:hes, wrens and robin are tong ue li zards, bearded clrllgons l)ogonalmrbol.a

26 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1 - 2) Augus/1993 Hawkesb1n·y-NC' pcan catchment, but was The Plty.\it:rd Euvznmmenl abunda nt at Mndd os Plains wh ere 39 were Ea rly d escript ions () !'the phys ical en viron­ o lle ted in A ug usl ) 885 (liindwood and me nt a lo ng the Haw kc~ hu ry- N ·p ean are McGill 1958). The decline o r the g round importail l in rcco n ~; tn t ctin g the aquatic IJiuta p arro t may be the result o f chan ged !Ire t1 nd its ecology prio r to Europe an sctt le me nt. regimes, p<~rticul a rl y increased fire freque ncy. The first actounts of t..h Hawkesbury Ri v t' H eal hla nd and o pe n-woodla nd avif

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) 27 f'latc 12. The weir on the Nepean m WH llacia, 1993. Seventy year~ after the photo shown in Plate 6, this weir ('Ontinues to affect river now and aquatic ecosystems. Pho to by Lisa Iley.

Plate 13. South Creek, Windsor, 1903. The degradation evident by 19 10 (see Plate 1) has continued aud both the aquatic and te rrcst ri<~l habitats barely resemble the pre-European state. Photo by Lisa Iley.

28 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) August 1993 I Jawkesbury-Nepean River system have foreshores. Silts would bave occurred iu and restricted 1h e frequency and amplitude or among the sea grasses and mangroves, but the Hooding (W.C.I.C. 1973; llarris 1984a). They extensive muddy shoals and 6nc, silty bottoms have also restricted the flow or freshwater; 1 hal characterise the lower llawkesbury in something most evident during drought. For I 993 probably did not exist. Most long-lime example, during the 1979/82 drought, the reside nts of the Nepcan and Upper l lawkes­ sLored volume of water on the Hawkesbury bury interviewed for this tudy describe the system was reduced to less than half of their river as clear , ck a 11 and drinkable at least capacity O. Bellamy, in Harris I OR4.a) and the through the 1930s. This was after extensive flow of water in the Nepean and Upper shallowing had occurred in the Nepean and Hawkesbury Rivers was significantly reduced . Macdonald Rivers. In the fresh reaches, extcn· sive beds of fresh wate r· ribbon weed were 'J'he picture thar emerges from colonial abundant enough to harvest as cat.t le feed accounts is of a river and estuary subject to (Rosen l992b). frequent Rood surges ill its Upper reaches and tributaries; that had cxten ·ivc shallows and T hese accounts are supporlcd by conversa­ shoals; that was fringed by mangroves and salt tions with older residents on Oangar Tsland marsh along estuarine shores, anti by reeds, and in Lhe Brooklyn region (Recher, unpubl.). marshes and swamps almvc maritime Early residents on recalled the influ ence. We k11o w that in the Upper l"eaches southeast shoals off tk island as being clear of Brisbane W;iter 1h ere were mud and sand with a stott y/shell bottom. fhe water was flats, but descriptions elsewhere in lite system deeper and fi shing w::ts good from th shore. only mention sand, gravel and stone. No do ubt T h sc conditions appatently persisted through lhere were muddy or silty shallows as well, par­ 1h e 194.0s, but the shoals are now deep I ticularly in association with mangroves. T he covered by fin <' mHds (Recher, pers. obs.). Fish­ shells in Aboriginal middens and Holocene iltK from the shore is poor, although the Aat.s dcpo !l iL~ l"xposed in cln~ dgin g opera I ions (e.g.• remain an imponarn nur cry area fot- many Brooklyn, Daugar Island) ('Oill il in many of lh(· species (Recbcr, p rs. obs.}. same speck's of molluscs as occur pre ·eolly nn mud fl ~ t s at Can:el Bay in Pill w

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) 29 the 1 960s (Recher, pers. obs.). Within the changes is such that no records or rnc:-morics of estua rine eli viromnctt t., two protesscs operate the pre-sNtlemc nt envit·onment exist. As illus· (Roy J 980, 1984.). T he first is the:: mo ement by tratcd by I he t·apid decline of I he m ud oyster Flood tides or the marine tid~ l delta. T his p ro­ in New South Wa les estuaries (Ro ughky cess, accorcliug to Roy, is responsible for the 1925), t;qua ll y rapid cht'm ges in the d istribution formatio n of beach e;:s at Pearl Beach , W oy W O)' a ud abu ncla n c..: of species ca tJ occur in estuaries. and pro b;tbly a ro und Dan g-;u· ls.lnnd. T he second process occurs upstrealll b yond the Lidal delta. In th se reaches, li te river , rather Changes ln the Artii(J/ic Fauna th<\11 mar ine influences, domimncs and floods Ji;a rly acCOlltHS of the aq tt;ll ic ra una of t.hc· Jn ove sanrl ba uks. Roy (pers. comm.) suggests H awkesbury-Nepean River , its rributaric · a nd that the f'ull xte nt of processes a ffecting river tile estLtal')' describe a rid1 a nd abundant a nd esruatine substrates is complicated m aking fauna. As with the terrestrial fauna, atte ntion it difficulr to intcrprC't the exlent to which aud comme nu, arc ro us ed o n waterfowl, II h huma n activit.ies inflne nce events. Nonetheless. and ·he ll flsb th at were large a nd edible, nnrl an1ong other activities the clearing of n ative tha t could be C

so Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) Augus/1993 J>fate 14. l .aughwndalc, Wisemaus Fe rry, I 993. The persistence of agricuiLUral activities on the fertile ttlluvial OaLS has continued to the prescm da)• and contributed to the stcud y loss of wildlife in the catchment. l'hoto by Lisa !Icy.

P/(1/c I J. Laughtondale, Wise mans Ferry, 1\193. T he steepness of parts of' 1h e llawkesbut')' River system ;utd 1 he non-arable na wrc of the soils h;tve allowed parts of the native vegetation to pc•·sist with o nly minot· intrusions such as the houses on the foresho res. Such steep and infertile couiiii'Yd ocs not <:o ntnin ha bitats lor all terrestrial species a nd thc i•· population continues to decl ine. Photo lly Lisn I ley.

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) 31 -

French bolanists found the Nepean W{;ll habituated to people along the lower Haw kes­ stocked with fish (Quoy in Mackaness 1978); i11 bury, pct·haps because they are no lo 11 ger 1826 "the fi sh are so ab11ndant ... mostl y hunted and perhaps because people CIICouragc mullet"; in 1833 tbt: Hawkesbury" . .. is abso- them with [ood. T he ducks that ~re tnost lutely swnrming wi th wild fowl" (Mat thew, in abundant near people an.' 1 he black duck Ana.s Ilarvard 1943, p. 127; Sw<1ncoU, in Powell .wLperriliosa, grey Leal A. gibbnijT01k~ nnd dtesLnut 1988, p. 54). teal A. cnstanea. Tbt: introduced mallard platyrl!.yur.hos and muscovy duck Cairino When it is considered tbal the most abundant mosc/i((/a are also common, as are black duck/ Aborigi11al populations were a li nol\L cel'tf\ illl)' mallar·cl hybrids (Rec: her unpubl. ). located along the rivers nn cl csluttl)', and th;H their middens were large enough to be mined for shell to lllake li111 e (Syd 11 ey Gazette, Gth Interpreting tile Impact of Europ eans on Ore April, 1806), the rI awkcsbury-Ncpean, its Aquatic Environment tributaries and the estuaries of Bro ken Bay, T he effect of E11ro pean scukm ~ nt 0 11 the Pittw;~ t c r and Brisbane Water were highly pro­ aquatic fauna of the Hawkesbury-Nepean ductive of t~ ll manner of water birds, fish and atchmenl is a collscquencc of the develop­ shellfish . Lnterest ingly, the dcscri ptions of n•cnt of ;tgr(culturc, industry (incl uding abundant wa terfowl and Lish in the catchment mining) and urbanization. Hamilto11 wri ting in case by abou r 18'10 and arc replac cl in the 1892 idcmifted three principal causes for the 1870s by expressions of oncern for the dis­ decline of Austrttli t~'s biota; habitat destruction appcr~rancc of wildlife (Atkinson I 078). T he and fragmcnlfltion , the introduction of exotic aquatic life a ·sociatcd with the clearwalcr and animals, and the introduction of exoti plants. clean s ub s tJ~les found at the tim of European Hamilto11 wns referring Lo the lCtTestrial biota, colonizalion differed from that occurring in hut parallels C(-1 11 be dra w11 with the aqmui the L990s. Freshwater crayfish (spiny 1-ayfish) biota. T here are four principal causes for till' (Eua ~lacus spp.) Wt! re abundant in the larger decline of the aqua tic biota in the Hawkesbu ry­ cre(! ks feeding into the Hawkesbury-Nepean, Nepcan cat(" hment; induding Crosslands in 'Serowra Waters. Musgrav<' (I 925) collc<.:tcd a new species of l . habilal dP.\ lruction, frag'lltelllation aml modifica­ fre hwaLt•r shrimp A /)IU st1'io/ata, as well as tiOn as a result (a111 ong ot.hcr!l) or increased specitttens or Po.m,l)l(/, (/,'I/Sll'rl.liP1tSiS, near Nortons rates of silta( ion, changes Lo the vo lt tme and Basitl on the Nepea11 River. This wa a lso the pallcrn of st rearn Aow and (l ooding, th · firs t record of the genus A/y(l front Australia . construction of dams, weirs and bridges, T ile 111 0dcrn status of these shrimp is urbanization, foresh ot·c· erosion from ttld~ now n . vegetation dearing and recr •ation lwating, and the cfCetls on bottom subl\trates uf com­ Freshwater mussels remain abundant in the met'dal trawl !ishittg; ctttchmelll (Po nder, pers. comm.), but 111 ay 2. ch(l.nges in roa.tf'r c/wmisli'J as a resu It of not have bl' ~ n sign incant as a food item for Aboriginal peopk. According to Atteubrow delrm t.!. and a?Lhrt(l.L~; extensive beds or cockles, clams, and tnud 4 . ex-ploilation of.{I-S h a.1td shellftsh whelks such as persisted at Careel Bay (Hutch­ ings and Recher 1!)74 ) until overlished in the lt i ~; dear from earl y descriptions or tl •c 1980s (Recher per~. obs.). Crabs, praw ns, squid Iiawkeshury-Neptan River and geological alld !Ish were abu11dalll, as were sharks (ther<' h istory that erosion and deposit ion wcr was a sh

32 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) August 1993 xplorations or· shown in photographs from deposition. T he effects of these on the aqua ti the J9th century (e.g., of the fl;lls ofT Dan gar biota have been ·ubstanlial and particularly Island). ' J his is in con Lrastlo C'VC nLs further up sever in Lh Hawkesbury esw ary. Sea grass river and in tributaries such a Lhe Macdonald beds on the lower I Jawkesbury arc sparse and Rive r, where significant shallowing seems to restricted to very sha llow water in the mid-low have foll owed European seltlc111eul. Allbough t id ~ range where suf!Jcient light penetrates Roy (per . omm.) points out that il is difficult during hightidc and exposure to the suu and Lu srparate human effects from na\ural ail' at low tide is minimal. Evidence of light atS geomorphological processes, the extensive· a li miting factor comes from the Danw1 r Island learing of vegetation on the flood plain and shoals where seagt·asses expalld during Pl'o­ along wa tercourses affeclcd bank stability longed dr-oughts and water d:-~ r · ity improves, as (Ro en 1992n) and water Row. By the mid- for exan1p le uccun·cd during the 198 1-82 1870:.; navigat inn in the M(lcdonald , U ppct' drought and since 19!1 I (Rccher, pers. obs.). Haw kesbury and Nepe;:m was siguihel rns B ~ trrc11j oe)t and West Head. Although these with erosion, siltatio n and shallowing ol' the walcrs mi ::< , the result is that COWitll Water, the ll aw kes bur y~Nepean arc illustrated by lhe southcr·n shore or Bwk('ll H8 hore of Br(lktn Bay. Patonga Creek largely there were still d ep holes i 11 the river, but esca pes ri w r in flu e uccs. these fi lled with sand in the I ~)()() flood . 1-1 J ones ( 1987, I 990) lound diFfercnl also comn1cnts how l'rC's hwatrr fl ~>w in th · Ncpean had b en stoppt:d by COilSLrlH:tioll or tnacrobcnthic organisms in the Hawkesbury the Cataract, Cordeaux and NepcatL Oa tH S a nd River from lhosc reported for Carecl Ray in how quickly w irs built to pmvid<.· wat cr to Pitlwater by Hutcbing and Rcch r (1974). fanners silted up. Long-time reside nt of the Nonell1ele s Cowan Water, Brisbane Water Urper llawkcsbury, Frank Laughto n, co11· and Piuwater are affect·ed by the same sort.S or sidcrs that the river has shall owcd significantly hutnan acti vities in their catchments as is the si11ce the 1940s. Hawkcsbury-Nepe::tn a11d iLs rrib utt~r i cs. Blacker (1977) reported increased se dit r ~cnla­ A major change in the Hawkesbury-Nepean tion in Pittwater a nd Cowan Creek rrou1 1940 following European cttletr1 cn1 appears to he to the mid-50s and a ll ri bu t1.:d this to erosion incr<>asccl wrbidit:y affecting li glrt pcnctril t ion on cl cvcloping urban areas and/or fo ll owing of the water and a greatly increased rate of silt wild fi re in bushla nd. Following a period of

Avgust 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) 33 -

stability, since I980 Cowan Water has b 'en whi te-breasted sea eagles Haliaeelus letu:ogaster. adversely affected by sediments froni resi­ Cormorants, pelicans and gulls congregate dential development a nd road construction, behind trawlers as nets art p11llcd in and and by nutrient enriched runoff from residen tial unwa nted fi sh discarded . Estuarine aLfish areas (Rech{;r, pers. obs.). In semi-enclosed (Cnidogali1Ws uuu:rocephalus) killed and bodies of water, such as Brisbane Water, discarded by recreational fishers arc an I:krowra Waters and Cowan Water, increased additjonal and important food source for kites nutrient loads have a major impact on water and eagles (Recher, ullp\tbl.). quality and aquatic ceo y ·tcms. T here is a large resident population of eagles Europeans have had other effe Ls on the and kites on Broken 13ay and along the lower environment and biota of the esLUary. ubtidal Hawkesbury (Recher, unpubl. ). Duri ng the mining of Holocene shell deposit s thaL took 1992/93 breeding season, pairs of both l'! pedc:; place in Broken Bay in 1h e 19th century to pro­ on the lower 1-hlwkesbury raised two or more duce lime (Roughley 1922) 1nay have removed young suggesti ng an abu ndant food supply. seagrass heels and destabilized substrates. T he Almo t certainly the bre 100 at Brookl yn Marinas and mooring probably have similar and Dangar 1sland alone). Although many of effects. T ht racks and poles used in oyster these birds failed to survive, a small resident cullivation slow water fl ow which, accompanied population has been sustain<'d since then by by the faecal deposi(s of the oysters, increase the by-catch from con1rnercial trawlers and ·ill deposition locally. These fl'ects arl· minor fish heads dis arded at d caniug tables by relative 10 the more substantial and xtensive recreation !ishers (Recher, pers. obs.). T hese impacts of changed water regimes, reduced pelica11 s also fo rage for themselves. Big black amounts of fresh water entering the estuary, cormorant populations have also increased siltation anrl hallowing, and rh a nged water since th · mid-1970s. chemislry in the rivet· system. T here is also an impact of [rawl r, ~ hi ng on the river and A significant change to the aquatic en viron­ estuarine biota. Prawn and squid trawlers con­ ment has been the reduction of freshwater tinua lly disturb and change:: bottom sediments flows and changed patterns of flooding follow­ and advers ·ly affect rnaritime environment s ing the construction of impoundments and the (sec llutchingll 1990). There is also a signirt­ diversion of water to domestic and industrial cant by-catch. but there are no published data uses. However, there is no evidence thar this on the impact of trawling in the H awkesbury has led to greater salt water intrusion than River and Broken Bay on either benthic would occur not·mally in drought (assuming habitat or the biota. An evaluation of the rela­ the catchment has had a hi tory of altet·nating tivt' impacts of commercial and recreation wet and dry periods leading to relatively rapid fishing on fish stocks needs tt1 consider these and extreme changes in the fl ow of fresh waLer possible habitat change , and the bycalch, in into the estuary). Retu rn of fresh water in the addition to the fish caught and markelcd. form of treated sewage may moderate these effects in the Ncpean and Upper H

34 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) August 1993 the rcco mtn ~ nd a ri o n s were not impleme nted scditnc uts and increases turbidity. Secondly, (Rcchc r, unpubl.). rooted aquatic pla nt s (e.g., ribbon weed) an:: upt·ootcd. Po pula tions of native fish a11d other Weirs a nd dams interfer with the rnigralion aquatic animals then decline. Fred Smith of of fish and other

Augvst 1993 Avstrallan Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) 35 proc:essing plan LS, and heese factor,ics were Hawkesbury. The prawn catch in the H awkes­ established on the Southern T able lands in the bury system ha a lso incr a sed from approxi­ 1890s and invariably discha rged waste imo mate ly 60 000 kg in the mid-1970s (Dunstan local streams. T he abattoir at Riverstonc dis­ 1976) to about 150 000 kg in the 1990s (NSW cha rged the wastes fro m proces 'ing 500 000 State Fisheries report un the ABC, 9 J a nuar y sheep and 2 500 cattle attnuall y into South 1993). T he i11creascd catch docs not indicate C reek (Bowel 1973). Since the 1960s 1m~jor that La ugh ton a nd other s arc mista ken , as hangcs in waLer CJLt alit.y and cl tt:misrry itt the fis hi ng e ffo rt has increased substantially in that llawkesbu ry-Ne pean have been associated 1im e. Acco rding to Dunstan ( 1976), 60 trawlers with incrt"ased levelli or t'li l rogen and wo rked the river iu the mid-70s. T ile wunbcr phosp ho rous from domestic, ag ricullur pcan a nd Upper Hawkesbury Rivers indi­ derived fi·o m gardc 11 a11d aghculwral fe rLi lizcrs, ratt: o rne of the changes in the fish fa u11a that silt from residential development, seepage ha ve occurred since the 1920s and 30s. Bru c from sep tic t

36 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) August 1993 Ph ylO plauklon nt to decline and the ,incidence or algal blooms will reduce the chance for recolonization increase. wit.bin the catchment whenever local popula­ tions become extinct. AN OVERVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT ON THE T he impact of Sydney's growth on a qu <~ ti FAUNA AND PREDICTIONS FOR e-nvironments will d pend on four faclors; TI-lE FUTURE wh.clher there will be further diversions of freshwa ter from the catchment for human use, There ar' parallels in the histo rical changes the quality o[ domestic, urban. re reational, in the terrestrial and aquatic faunas of the imlustrial and agricultural efflucuts discharged llaw kesbury-N •pclll iug down trearn and i11 n r~ t i v(' v<'gctati on has also been a significant ~il n nitrog n fixation by marine algae and !'actor in t.he decline of the aquatic biota ph ytop l ~nk t on . T his COII1hinntion or C'VC 11lS through increased rates or ero ion aud silt::t· may lead to the same kinds of cutrophi c;a tion ti on. More frequent fires, including hazard problems and algal blooms on tlw lower reduction burning. ac elcrates erosion and H awkesbury fiS now occur above Wisernans siltation. T he aquatic environment is further Ferry a11d in m::tny inland rivers. stressed by reductions in the fl ow or freshwater by its diversion for lwman use, habi taL '!'he patt em of historical ·hange in fragmenltHion in the c(msll·ucti on of d :-1111s and the Hawkesbmy-Nepea11 catchment is one weir·, increased turbidity, changed water of con1inuing degradation iu environmental ciJemi·su·y, over-fishing, and the introductil>n quali•y afl'ening boLh fauna and people. Th · of eX()I ic species. ua ti ve terre ·Lrial and aquatic fauna in tht:

August 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1 -2) 37 catchme nt will continue to decline wi th urban ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS expansion a nd beucr manage m e n~ of human The pr~ j ec t investigating the history ol the activities within the catchment IS urgently Hawkesbury-Nep ·an Catchme nt was funded required . by the Wa ter Board (Sydney--Blue Mountains). Paul Adams, Valerie Attenbrow, None of the historical and curre nt e nviron­ John 1 la rris, Dan Lunney, David Pollard, and meutal problems and the ir e ffects on the fauna Winston Ponder critica ll y commented on an of the Hawkesbury· Ncp('an catchme nt a re earlie r draft of the manuscript. T ht·ir co111- beyond human capacity to corre t. F.xtinct ments ::11'1cl the i11fo rmation they provided specie· cannot be resur recte~l , a l thott~h greatly improved o ur ltndc rstandiug o f the re-introductions from elsewhere 1n the spcc•es changes to the bi (Jta that have occurred within range arc an option. Howevc:, there are JJ.o the Catchme nt. Wayne Erskine, Wayne l~ulto n , technical reasons why tenestna l and ttquauc Chris Herbert, Doug B oese, Wyn Jones, Ian ecosyste ms in the ctttchrn.cnt cannot be Lo h, John Merrick, John Paxton, Peter Roy, managed to improve and r·cstore biophysical Roger Springthorp , and Lyn SL~thcrland onditio u to create an CIIVironmcnt thai is patiently answered o ur ma ny q\-1esuons a nd healthier and more enjoyable for both hunHtns generously con1ributed 1heir knowledge of the and other anima ls. Hawkesbur)'-Ncpean system . A special vote of thanks to the libra rians at the Australian Control of erosion from reside ntial develop­ Museum. fo r their considerable help in obtain­ ments, agriculture and hazard rcclu lion fires, ing re ferences. b ·Ltcr regulation of recreational boating, and the h arvesting of aquatic organi ms is required REFERENCES to stabilize or reverse these trends. Furthe1· /\01\M, P., W ILSON, N. C. liND H UNTI.EY, ll., 1988. The clearing within the catchment is unwise and phytosociology of coastal salunarsh vegetation in New existing vegetation remnants (including fresh­ So111h Wnlc.:s. Wot/n.nd.s 7: 35-8·1. water wetlands) should be protected from A UAMSON, D. A. ANO fox. M. D., 1982. Change in A1 1 ~ 1 r;tl­ developme nt. This is particularly importa nt on asian vege1ation since European seu.kmenl. Pp. 109-16 the Cumberland Plain and Southern Table­ in A Htslory of Australasian Vtgttalion cd by J. M. U. lauds where a distinctive fa una is associated rnith. McC:ntw 11ill: Sydney. with vcget.ation remnants a nd the reserve 1\tKD, W. V., 1961. Tlu Water Supply, Setllerage and Droinagr system is inadequate. Similarly provision needs of Sydn~y. MWSDB: Sydney to be made for minimum freshwater Bows into ALLEN, G. R., 1989. Frr shwal~r Fishes of Jluslralin.. T.ll. F. the Hawkesbury-Nepean estuary from its Publications: Neptunl' City, NJ. trihuraries. ~l'he construction o l' new water ANoN. a, 1892. D e.~ tructio n nf fruit-eating birds. Agricultttml Gaulle of NSW 3: 79. supply dams or the augme ntalion of existing facilities will have major effects on the estuar)' 1\NON. b, 1914. An efficient method of poisoning nying· foxes. llgriCtL!t1lml Gau llf of NSW 25: 55 I. and should not proceed. ANON. c, 1901. The culture of fresh-wa ter fi shes. Agricull·uml Catete~ of N.~w 15:535- 37. Nutrient removal from sewage, control of A T KINS, R., 1792-18 10 . .frtumal. Ma tlUso·iplS in Mitchell stormwater runoff, and better ma nagement of Library. agricultural chemicals and fertilizer, and mining within the catchment is necessary ATIR, F. L. , (Facsimile edition 1975). ]ournol of the priority. Most importantly, urba n expansion Expulition. iulo tiM htterior of Net11 South Wales, 1802, by order of His Exc~lleoc)' Govrmor PM lip .Gotll~y K~lg, Ma r·sh and population growth within the catchment Walsh Publishing: Melhourue. Also 111 Hutonca.l Rtcorcls sh ould be restricted. of N~u• South WaleJ, \fol. V, AJlpcmlix A.

38 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) August 1993 fii,ADl.E, N., CVANS, 0 ., AllOI.IN, R. ANU TI NOi\ 1, ~;, M., 1982. llALI., L. D .• 1926. The physiography and !!I:Ogt'itphy of lite flora of tltr Syduey Rtgtoll. 1\ . II. and/\. W. l~ c.:l' d : F'renchs Hawkesbury river helwt'!:U Windsor and W i se m an '~ f'oresL. 3rd ed. Fen·y. l'rocudi11gs oft/it f.innen11 Suci~ty of Nrw South Walts 51: 555-93. fiENI'JF:r r , C., 183'1. Walldt:tir~gs m Nc111 Srmth Wtllr.l . Vol. T. Richilrd Bc·ntley: l.pndun, H ALL, 1.. D., 1927. The physiugraphic and d illlatic ractors conlrr)llin g tlw nnnding nf the llawkcsbury Rtver at B ENSON , D. ANO ITOWF,I.I,, J., 1990. Ta/,rnfor Gmntrct. Th~ Windsor. f'roccedi11g:. of the l.ilmean Sor.itt)' of Neru Snu.th Busltlaw1 tif Syd11~y cmd itJ Subur/J.i. l

COGCER, II. G., 1902. RcjJii/f.S and At!rp/l'ibic~nS nf A11Jtralia.. Jl tRU£ltl', C., J983. Ceology of the Syd ney I: I UO 000 s h ~·t ; t Reed Books: Chauwoocl. 5th t,;J . 9 1!10. 1' . 225 in (;11olugical Sttrve)l of NSW eel by C. ll ~:~ · he rt . Dept. of Mineral Resources. CoLI.JNS, D .. 1791\ 1\11 Accotmt of the English colony in N~w Suuth Waii'J, Vol. I. London 1798; Vol. 11. Londou I 802. IIINI)WOu ll, K. A. AND McGILL, A. R. 19!18. 111r 1Ji1·ds oj F~ r~im il e Edition. A. t-1 . a nd A. W. ReeJ in associ;uio•l Sydttey. K. A. Jliuclwucxl and A. It McCill : Sydney. with thr Royal A~• stra l i;~ n llistorit.:al utie1y: Sydney, IIOStO N, 1':, s., li!NUWOOU, K. A. ANO MCGILl., /\. R., 1!.191. 1975. Tl~ lfirt/.1 of Sydll~)'· SutTey lkll1lar 78. T he National Ttust of Au51r.1ha (NSW.): I. 1'1 2, 15 May, 1788. Pp. 1:\4- 35. Sydney. HRNSWb. 1892. lfistm'ir.al H•·tor·ds of New Scmlll Wa/~1. •o NVUEi\ln:, D., 1976. T ht' t'XtenJ of the IJ:.tw kesbtwy Rive•' Vol. I, l't 2, L'. 135. Valley :tnd i 1 ~ resource~. Pp. 3:-7· in 11nw /,~.\~1!.l)' Riv~r S)•tnposittm Prot~tdirtf(S. The N;~uona l Tru~t I!I A u ~ t raha IIRNSWc. Jlislnrica /. fleclll'lL\ vf Nnv Soulh Waifs. Vql. <1 , (NSW): 'ydncy. Pp. 7!.16-37. 0 AKIN, W. .J ., 1 9~8. Whnlrlllllll allvtmlltres. Angus anrl IIRNSWd. llistnrical Htcords of Nfw Soctlh Wnlf.<. Vul. ·L, lt o be rl ~on : Sydney. 2nd. cd. 1'. 321. Duv.. [ M. ANLl RECIIFR, ( I. F., 1988. T he role of rai nfor~·s L H RN~W c: . lli.yturica/ R~cords qf N'w So1tl/1 W(l{J'Y. Vol. I, l't 2., remnanu in n ~•l lll e conservation. l'p. 2()...30 iu Ramfortsl 1892, P. 121i. J

Augvst 1993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1-2) 39 O uTCIII NGS, P., 1990. Review uf the elfccLS of lntwlin ~ 1111 Mc:KA\'1 R. J.. 1989. Exotic and translocated fre~ lt water mncrobemhic t•pifnunal COniiiiUIIiliPs. Au.stwlimtJ t•tn/101 lish t"~ 111 Ausu alia. l'p. 2 1-3'1 in Procttflmg.\ of th~ IV11rl1· of Mm+ne mul Frcshwaltr Rruurrll 4 1: I I 1- 20. shop (Ill l'llli'OduttiOII II/ l!:xolrr Aqrwllr OrgattiSIIL< in Ali(J ~· cJ by S. S. de Silva. Spcn11 l Puhli(illion No. 3. As i ~11 llu n :III NGS, P. A. ANn MllltRA\' 1 A., 1984. T<~xonomy "' Fisht•ries Sociel)': Manilln. polyrhaetes from 1h1· I l>n~kcsb u ry Ri ver and southern e~tua ri es of NSW, AI•Stt•alia. Rtcord:. oj lhr J\ustwltart MAIDEN, .J . H . ANO Ci\Mili\C: F, R. II., 1909. BOtanical, 'l'opn t.flllt'l/111 36: 1- llll. graphical and Geo l ogic<~ I Not<·~ on ~omc Routes ot Alau Cuillli11 ghaul. Jutlrilttl Olrtf l'loU't ditrgJ of Uuyul Soti~ty uj 1 l t • rc iii N~II the I h111 kl'Shlll y River. Opawlum 5: I Ofo- 12. MApm , .J . D., lh:c: II ~C~t , II. F. 1\N D GANI•;!;II,\ NANilAM , S., 1!!92. II L• IC!IIINl O:., 1'. ANn RTCC:HFR, H. F., Ul7-l . The la una of V;u·iat l

MM:DoN,\I,D, j .. 19tl2. Aburiginalusilgt· of the llawkcsbt"")' I'OI.LAIID, D. AND GROWN t , I. 0 ., 1993. 'l'll6 Fislt tt11tl Fislt e rir~ Ri l't:r· iu pn·hisrol)'· Pp. 3- 35 in Prelustor)•, La:ndscafJe, of lh ~ lloTrJHqllmty·Ncf!I:O.n /?11Jcr· Syslu111 wilk Particular Fnwra. Vol. 1/, Hi. A., I tl90a. A n;vi(;W of 2, 18 19- 27; l'11 rt ;), liJ3!i-tl . HrviMrl PttblicnllmtJ: exotic matine otganisms introdun:d tn thl· Allstra li t~ n Dubbo, New StJllth Wales. region. I. trishes. Asian Fis lt r1ir ~ Sornce 3: 205-21.

40 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) August 1993 I'OI.LAttll, 1>. A. AN il fl ll'l'C:III NGS, 1' . A., I!J!JOb. 1\ revirw of Rov, P. S., 198'1. NSW est uatics - the 0 1 igiu and evolution. exc,tk nwrint' O rl{an i ~ III S iutroduccd tn IIH· Au ~ t1 tllia n Pp. 99- 11! I 111 Dt r>c/ofntlml.s 111 Coastal C~omrJrftlwlc!I!J' in legion. ll. l n\lc: rtclw:n t·~ ;, n d algae. llsitrll {t'iiJ,PritJ Sciml'~ A 11stmlrtt cd by ll. G. 'l'htH1l. Academic 'Press: NY. 3: 22 ~1 -50 . Rov, P. S. AND 'l11m t, 13 . (i., 199 l. Cainozoil sht ll sr:di111 cnr.a· POSAMF.N'W ' K, H . A N I) REC II ER, II. I'.. 1974. T he sta tu ~ or Li on lltt>d1·l !'or tlw Tas111 a 11 St"a mat gin of soLI! hcastern Psrttrlrmt)'S novaelwllantltae (1h e Nc 11' Ho lla nd Mouse). Aust•-a lia. Pp. 11 9- 3(i in 7'/m Caiuowic m 1\ttslmlra: i\ Amtralitlll Zoologirl 18: 66 -71. lltH'J>/lmisol q{ lite Evidma eel l}y M. A. J. Willia111s, P. 0~ Dec ker and /\. 1' . Kershmv. Spcci:li Publication No. PoWEI.I., J.. 1988. E.Mly Hawkesbury Rive1 seulers: s11b· I R. Ccc. l o~ ica l .Sudety uf Australia Inc. sistencc. agrir.uhurc and inrl ustrics. Pp. 4,- 70 in lluwlct.lbury Rtver 1/istory, Cuve11w1 PlnllijJ, R.\JIIomlinn tllltl ROYA l c~I ~ I ~ II S~ I O N, 18!!7. Ctlnsetl'at:ion of Water, T lii rcl a lld !Zndy Sflllttlltllt cd by J. l'uwcll and L. Ban ks, Dha rug Fi n ~ l lk pon , I.l'gislntivt· A$st:mbly, Second SL·~~ i o n . and l.uwct· H awkesbury Histr)l'ir.;:;l Society. R US~ I! Ll. ANO R. F. ISRF.I.I, (eels), 1986. i lt1sl m/io11 Sc1 i/~ : 'l1tt! R ECJIP.R . II. F.. 1972. The vcn:chratc;- lauua C>f Sydney. Pru· lltttllflll Impact. U ni vc 1·~ it y of Queensland P rrs~ . Sr ccedinfi~ of the /fr.(llogreal SOCiety of l lttslralia 7: 79- !lf!. I.L1d a.

R t:.CHER, H. f., I ~H I. l ~inl communities of lu~a th l a tu ls ;md SPI((:IIt , R . L ., Rm , 1•' , M . AN D l31HlUC:II'ION, V. H. (cds). their managcnH:tl l and ~Qn scrvar i on 1 cq u i rc• mt: ut ~ iu I !17'1. Consr t·vatiun of maj or p l ~ nl t.:y n t h c~ i s : A 111 0del of forest and wuod­ huul hir·J cunuutmitics. l'p. 1 29-~\ !i in He rds of Eur.ttlyfJI S·roC KI ON, 1'.. 0 . 1\ NO I(Cll.I.ANP, W., I !!74. Cultund ~i l l ' \ ;tnt! Porrsls t111tf Wct odlflllli~: l\ro/Cif£)1, Cm!ut:III.J,v, T . C., 1!>22. Oystet w l t i Vtl liOII 0 11 the Gcotgc's W tN'I wotn 11 , W. C., 18 1!1- 17. Copy o f Mt:llll)l'(lll d a thl' Ri v<:l , New Sou Lit Walt's. T l'r'IIIIICCI / EdWfliiVII Srmes No. qf tour o f di 't ov~· • y ar.mss the Uluc l\lo11 Tilains and il'll t·rs. 2!i. T c•l'li iiOIOgical l\hi ~l' ll!l1 : • ) d llC)'· flli! ('ht•ll Li br~ ry. Rcwr.111 f:v, I . C., l ~l !Ui . T h e~~~' ' )' ol Lhc oys t« 't. Th' All II· mlim1 t\lti!Ptlllt t\lngatine 2: 163- G!:I. Worm. (;, A., 1 () ~() . Covt'nlOI M:•tqua• ic.Jmtntrtl Ruyfllllttst wliMI Hi.lllilicol Soclt l)' Vol. XVI: P1 . V. RtHIC.: III.I::\', '1'. C., 19iili. fo'ish 11111/ ft'IS IIfrir~ rJj ArHimlia. A ll l\ ll ~ t lllgoflhOI'(I A and Ro l> cll~ <111 : S)•dney. :srcl ~· d . Wnon, V. , 1989. l~r!~'vr Rorh1hrlt~r. Frt~ Utltl , \,wlys•~ · Unpublished 13 . Lill ., DcpaiiiiH'III ol Rov, 1). S., 1980. l'p. · 11 -~J I in Urnlo~iml Su; t•ry o[N ' \\1 ('cl Pr ·histul )' and A11t hropology, Ausu alinn Nmionnl by C:. ( lcrbc11;. Q«•fllruwr)' Gt llltJg)'. Nntcs ;~rr01 npa n y in K Unive1·sity: Cnnbcm1. the Sydne)' 1: 100 000 tllil \1 sheet. Gl'olngirnl S u1'1't:}' ol NSW. DCJ):III ITil' nt cJJ' 1\l inrral Resourt<', ,

'footnote nclcled in Proof: A 1< ' V I <' I~er has clntwn our· a u ~· • n i o n tc> an l iii (J ~I h l ishcd l lonours T hesis en tilled "F ~~~:r ut s illfltll'll('ll i(S I he cledinl' of rrogs (A mphihia: 1\ nura) in Wc•slc;l n ~yd n q,' ' , by 'l'. r. Fl·rr'all) I 1;!9~ . llniV('I sit )' ()( WestC II1 Sydnt')'. ll,llvkcs­ blll')'. I h i~ topic will b~ c·nv,·re'< l in the Occo•mhr•1 edition of Amlmlircn Zoolo~i.\1 .

August 7993 Australian Zoologist, Vol. 29(1- 2) 41