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August 2010
BA BA (Hons) (Hons) in in History, History, at at the the University University of of Otago, Otago, 2007 2007
Presented Presented in in partial partial fulfilment fulfilment for for the the requirements requirements for for the the degree degree of of
Belinda Belinda C. C. Cumming Cumming
(World (World War War One One and and World World War War Two) Two)
The The Baxter Baxter Family Family and and Others Others
Parents, Parents, Siblings Siblings and and Pacifism: Pacifism:
Bibliography Bibliography 69 69
Afterword Afterword 61 61
Conclusion Conclusion 59 59
Chapter Chapter Three: Three: Source Source of of Pride Pride or or Shame? Shame? Families Families Pay Pay the the Price Price for for Pacifism Pacifism 44 44
Chapter Chapter Two: Two: A A Family Family Inheritance Inheritance 23 23
Chapter Chapter One: One: A A Family Family Commitment Commitment 6 6
Introduction Introduction 1 1
List List of of Illustrations Illustrations 111 111
List List of of Abbreviations Abbreviations u u
Table Table of of Contents Contents List of Abbreviations
CPS Christian Pacifist Society
CWI Canterbury Women's Institute
ICOM International Conscientious Objectors' Meeting
PAW Peace Action Wellington
RSA Returned Services Association
WA-CL Women's Anti-Conscription League
WIL Women's International Peace League
WRI War Resisters International
11 List of Illustrations
Figure 1. John Baxter
Figure 2. Military Service Act, 1916
Figure 3. Conscientious objectors stripped aboard the Waitemata
Figure 4. Artist's Impression of Field Punishment Number One
Figure 5. Millicent Macmillan Brown, 1920
Figure 6. John Macmillan Brown, 1918
Figure 7. We Will Not Cease cover, published 1935
Figure 8. Terence Baxter, aged eight
Figure 9. James K. Baxter, aged seven
Figure 10. Prime Minister Peter Fraser
Figure 11. Peter Fraser, aiming a gun in Egypt
Figure 12. Objectors detained at Hautu Detention Camp, 1943
Figure 13. Terence Baxter aged twenty-four
Figure 14. Archibald, Millicent and James Baxter at their Brighton home in the early 1940s Figure 15. Archibald Baxter
Figure 16. Millicent Baxter in her Dunedin home
Figure 17. Rita Graham interviewed in War Stories Our Mothers Never Told Us
Figure 18. British Propaganda Poster (from Imperial War Museum)
Figure 19. McCullough Family, 1892
Figure 20. Finland, 2004 : Tunnelling into a prison where conscientious objectors are imprisoned Figure 21. Amnesty International Logo
Figure 22. Peace Pledge Union- Anti-war Activity Header
Figure 23. Courage to Resist Poster, advertising Conscientious Objectors' Day
111
IV IV
Gallery, Gallery, Dunedin, Dunedin, August- September September 2007 2007
Figure Figure 26. 26. Painting Painting of of Archibald Archibald Baxter, Baxter, by by artists artists Bob Bob Kerr, Kerr, exhibition exhibition at at Milford Milford
Figure Figure 25. 25. Wellington Wellington Anzac Anzac Day Day Protests, Protests, Apri12007 Apri12007
Figure Figure 24. 24. Courage Courage to to Resist Resist Logo Logo
Co. Co. Ltd., Ltd., 1919), 1919), Foreword Foreword
H. H. E. E. Hoiland, Hoiland, Armageddon Armageddon or or Calvary, Calvary, (Wellington, (Wellington, NZ: NZ: Maoriland Maoriland Worker Printing Printing Worker and and Publishing Publishing
2 2
(HC), (HC), Dunedin Dunedin
Letter Letter from from Millicent Millicent Baxter Baxter MS02381/002, MS02381/002, Ginn, Ginn, Noel: Noel: Papers Papers (ARC-0401), (ARC-0401), Hocken Hocken Collections Collections
1 1
included included with with a a section section dedicated dedicated to to opposition opposition to to compulsory compulsory military military service, service,
conscription conscription in in New New Zealand Zealand in in the the Great Great War. War. The The issue issue of of conscientious conscientious objection objection is is
Paul Paul Baker's Baker's 1988 1988 King King work work and and Country Country Call Call provides provides a a comprehensive comprehensive study study of of
for for Holland's Holland's own own Labour Labour Party. Party.
its its blatant blatant attack attack on on the the Government Government of of the the time, time, the the book book serving serving as as a a political political tool tool
annals annals of of this this country.' Holland's Holland's work work is is a a valuable valuable source, source, though though clearly clearly biased biased in in
2 2
order order to to it it make impossible impossible for for such such 'a 'a stupendous stupendous wrong wrong to to ever ever again again sully sully the the
and and to to bring light light the the 'shocking 'shocking experiences experiences the the men men of of conscience' conscience' underwent, underwent, in in
during during the the war. war. His His intended intended purpose purpose was was to to expose expose the the policies policies of of the Government Government the
Armageddon Armageddon or or Calvary, Calvary, a a discussion discussion of of the the treatment treatment of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors
At At the close close the of of the the Great Great War, War, Member Member of of Parliament Parliament H. H. E. E. Holland Holland published published
This This focus focus on on the the family family distinguishes distinguishes my my research research from from scholarship scholarship which which precedes precedes it. it.
hardships hardships confronted. confronted. My My dissertation dissertation examines examines both both the the first first and and second second World World Wars. Wars.
conscientious conscientious objector objector to to take take the the pacifist pacifist stance stance and and cope cope with with the the consequent consequent
family family unit, unit, and and investigate investigate the the importance importance of of familial familial support support in in aiding aiding a a
pacifist pacifist stance. stance. I I will will examine examine influences influences of, of, and and effects effects on, on, various various members members of of the the
individual individual member. member. This This essay essay will will seek seek to to explore explore the the importance importance of of family family in in a a
Clearly Clearly pacifism pacifism was was a a shared shared commitment commitment in in her her family, family, not not just just the the passion passion of of one one
the the young. young. The The future future of of the the is is world in in their their hands hands ......
1 1
my my husband's husband's We We book, book, Will Will Not Not Cease Cease ...... I I think think it it has has a a message message for for
I I hope hope to to live live long long enough enough to to see see the the production production of of the the documentary documentary of of
objector objector Archibald Archibald Baxter, Baxter, wrote wrote a a letter letter confessing confessing one one of of her her final final wishes: wishes:
Before Before she she died, died, Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, wife wife of of notorious notorious New New Zealand Zealand conscientious conscientious
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 1 1
turn turn affected affected their dependents dependents their left left back back at at home. home.
family family members, members, to to explore explore how how the the men's men's experiences experiences as as conscientious conscientious objectors objectors in in
from from Zealand both both wars, wars, but but the the focus focus does does not not extend extend to to reach reach into into the the lives lives of of their their
fascinating fascinating and and valuable valuable testimonies testimonies about about the the experiences experiences of of objectors objectors in in New New
Browne's Browne's escape escape from from Strathmore Strathmore Detention Detention Camp Camp in in 1944. 1944. These These works works are are
W. W. Foote's Foote's F. F. Bread Bread and and Water Water (2000) (2000) is is an an account account of of Chris Chris Palmer Palmer and and Merve Merve
Wake Wake Us Us (1953), (1953), and and Walter Walter Lawry Lawry with with his his 1994 1994 piece piece We We Said Said No No To To War!. War!. Writer Writer
Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter with with We We Will Will Not Not Cease Cease (1939), (1939), Ian Ian Hamilton Hamilton in in Till Till Human Human Voices Voices
Some Some objectors objectors have have published published their their own own accounts accounts of of their their experiences, experiences, such such as as
how how they they responded. responded.
both both wars wars were were affected affected by by the the pacifist pacifist stance stance adopted adopted by by men men in in their their families, families, and and
and and I I endeavour endeavour to to remedy remedy this this neglect. neglect. I I wish wish to to explore explore how how the the family family members members in in
punishment punishment of of their their loved loved ones. ones. Attention Attention has has not not been been paid paid to to the the role role of of the the family family
formulated formulated by by politicians politicians in in Parliament Parliament and and who who witnessed witnessed the the persecution persecution and and
the the families families of of the the pacifists, pacifists, the the people people who who actually actually felt felt the the affects affects of of the the policies policies
objection objection in in New New Zealand, Zealand, this this narrow narrow focus focus on on administration administration has has led led to to neglect neglect of of
While While available available scholarship scholarship provides provides a a significant significant wealth wealth of of detail detail on on conscientious conscientious
objectors. objectors.
and and an an examination examination of of policies policies of of World World War War Two Two in in relation relation to to conscientious conscientious
being being a a record record and and commentary commentary on on administration administration of of war-time war-time emergency emergency regulations, regulations,
government government and and the the policies policies they they formulated. formulated. Paul Paul Oestreicher's Oestreicher's 1954 1954 thesis thesis is is similar, similar,
levels levels in in the the process process of of conscientious conscientious objection, objection, investigating investigating the the role role played played by by the the
published published articles articles and and like like Grant's Grant's work, work, O'Connor's O'Connor's tends tends to to focus focus on on the the higher higher
minority minority of of defiant defiant objectors. objectors. P. P. S. S. O'Connor O'Connor has has contributed contributed to to the the field field in in various various
established established in in response, response, and and of of the the Government's Government's actions actions and and reactions reactions to to this this
war, war, providing providing a a valuable valuable overview overview of of the the men's men's treatment treatment and and the the organisations organisations they they
David David Grant's Grant's Out Out in in the the Cold Cold is is devoted devoted to to the the pacifists pacifists of of New New Zealand Zealand in in next next the
including including the the story story of of Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter and and the the other other deported deported objectors objectors in in 1917-1918. 1917-1918. 2 2
Lincoln Lincoln Efford, Efford, Penalties Penalties on on Conscience Conscience (NZ: (NZ: Caxton Caxton Press, Press, 1945) 1945) Introduction Introduction
(i) (i) 3 3
Archibald's Archibald's story story is is known known throughout throughout the the world, world, and and Michael Michael King King describes describes it it as as
War War when when he he was was sent sent to to France France and and subjected subjected to to horrific horrific cruelties cruelties and and brutality. brutality.
Baxter. Baxter. Archibald Archibald wrote wrote a a book book between between the the wars, wars, telling telling his his experience experience of of the the Great Great
associated associated with with pacifism, pacifism, linked linked to to the the renowned renowned conscientious conscientious objector objector Archibald Archibald
with with James James Baxter, Baxter, K. K. one one of of the the nation's nation's best best known known poets, poets, but but for for others others it it will will be be
For For many many New New Zealanders Zealanders the the Baxter Baxter name name will will perhaps perhaps be be associated associated most most clearly clearly
sub-consciously sub-consciously had had over over their their children's children's views views regarding regarding peace peace and and war. war.
decision-making decision-making process, process, and and to to investigate investigate the the influence influence that that parents parents consciously consciously or or
spontaneous spontaneous snap snap decision. decision. I I wish wish to to explore explore the the role role that that upbringing upbringing played played in in this this
have have been been a a gradual gradual process process of of thought thought and and debate debate during during the the objector's objector's life, life, not not a a
This This radical radical and and life-changing life-changing decision decision to to be be a a conscientious conscientious objector objector would would likely likely
harassed harassed and and abused abused by by the the community, community, and and be be punished punished officially officially by by the the Government. Government.
prevailing prevailing opinion opinion at at the the time, time, he he was was putting putting himself himself forward forward to to be be ostracised, ostracised,
conflict conflict with with the the State.' When When a a man man elected elected to to object object to to war war and and go go against against
3 3
The The stand stand of of a a conscientious conscientious objector objector is is 'a 'a protest protest against against war war and and leads leads inevitably inevitably to to
Oliver Oliver chose chose not not to to emphasise emphasise this this aspect aspect of of James's James's life life as as much. much.
history history to to better better understand understand him him as as a a poet, poet, whereas whereas biographers biographers C. C. Doyle Doyle and and W. W. H. H.
readers readers may may miss. miss. Writer Writer Frank Frank McKay McKay also also provided provided a a background background to to James' James' family family
and and noting noting difficult difficult to to distinguish distinguish references references to to family family members members in in poems poems which which many many
highlighting highlighting examples examples of of James' James' work work where where effects effects from from his his upbringing upbringing are are evident, evident,
bring bring his his literary literary criticism criticism skills skills to to the the fore fore for for a a more more in-depth in-depth analysis analysis by by
attitudes attitudes and and outlook outlook on on life. life. Paul Paul Millar, Millar, an an English English University University Lecturer, Lecturer, was was able able to to
youthful youthful period period and and that that his his experiences experiences then then had had long-lasting long-lasting consequences consequences for for his his
understand understand James James as as the the man man that that he he was, was, one one must must recognise recognise difficulties difficulties of of his his
but but have have done done so so for for the the purpose purpose of of understanding understanding him him as as better a a writer. writer. To To
experience, experience, as as well well as as Terence Terence Baxter's Baxter's incarceration, incarceration, had had on on James' James' development, development,
Some Some biographies biographies of of James James Baxter Baxter K. K. have have touched touched on on the the effect effect that that Archibald's Archibald's war war 3 3
Secular Secular Resistance Resistance (Oxford (Oxford University University Press, Press, 1993), 1993), 35 35
Charles Charles Moskos Moskos and and John John
Whiteclay Whiteclay Chambers Chambers II, II, The The New New Conscientious Conscientious Objection: Objection: From From Sacred Sacred to to
7 7
Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, The The Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent Baxter Baxter (NZ: (NZ: Cape Cape Catley Catley Ltd, Ltd, 1981 1981 ), ), 60 60
6 6
from from the the Great Great War War to to the the Cold Cold War War (US: (US: University University of of Toronto Toronto Press, Press, 2004) 2004)
Peter Peter Brock, Brock, These These Strange Strange Criminals: Criminals: An An Anthology Anthology of of Prison Prison Memoirs Memoirs by by Conscientious Conscientious Objectors Objectors
5 5
Ltd, Ltd, 2003), 2003), 10 10
Michael Michael
King King "Foreword" "Foreword" to to We We Will Will Not Not Cease Cease by by Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter (Auckland, (Auckland,
NZ: NZ: Cape Cape Catley Catley 4 4
objection objection remained remained narrow narrow and and liberty liberty remained remained restricted. restricted. The The third third chapter chapter takes takes a a
conscientious conscientious objectors objectors in in World World War War Two,' although although in in practice practice the the guidelines guidelines for for
7 7
One One contributed contributed directly directly to to a a more more liberal liberal and and humane humane government government policy policy toward toward
The The 'harsh 'harsh and and fumbling fumbling experience experience with with conscientious conscientious objectors objectors during during World World War War
while while exploring exploring the the dynamics dynamics and and influences influences within within the the Baxter's Baxter's family. family. close-knit
provides provides an an understanding understanding of of the the experience experience of of objectors objectors in in the the Second Second World World War, War,
witnessing witnessing the the incarceration incarceration of of Archibald's Archibald's eldest eldest son son Terence. Terence. concurrently concurrently It It
compact compact and and devoted devoted unit. unit. Chapter Chapter two two leads leads on on to to the the next next generation generation of of Baxters, Baxters,
conscientious conscientious objector objector by by telling telling the the story story of of Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter and and his his family, family, a a
Chapter Chapter one one focuses focuses entirely entirely on on World World War War One, One, investigating investigating the the experience experience of of the the
difficult difficult times. times.
importance importance of of the the support support that that each each member member was was able able to to draw draw from from each each other other in in such such
explore explore the the role role that that various various members members within within played the the family, family, and and discover discover the the
not not focus focus on on one one individual individual within within the the unit, unit, but but on on the the entire entire Baxter Baxter clan. clan. will will It It
James James Baxter. Baxter. My My dissertation dissertation is is unique unique because because it it seeks seeks to to draw draw all all stories stories together, together,
Zealand Zealand Biography, Biography, which which includes includes biographical biographical accounts accounts of of Archibald, Archibald, Millicent Millicent and and
1981. 1981. Information Information on on the the family family can can also also be be accessed accessed from from the the Dictionary Dictionary of of New New
1921 1921 and and adopting adopting her her own own pacifist, pacifist, anti-war anti-war views. Her Her memoirs memoirs were were published published in in
6 6
Archibald's Archibald's wife wife Millicent Millicent was was significant significant in in her her own own right, right, marrying marrying Archibald Archibald in in
to to be be an an objector objector in in World World War War Two, Two, detained detained for for the the duration duration of of the the war. war.
objectors objectors over over three three eras eras of of the the twentieth twentieth century. Archibald's Archibald's son son Terence Terence went went on on
5 5
included included Archibald's Archibald's story story in in his his anthology anthology of of prison prison experiences experiences of of conscientious conscientious
collections collections on on conscientious conscientious objection. objection. American American historian historian Peter Peter Brock Brock for for example, example,
his his incredible incredible tale tale of of defiance, defiance, and and his his story story is is also also included included in in many many anthologies anthologies and and
becoming becoming 'a 'a classic classic of of anti-war anti-war literature.' Archibald's Archibald's work work is is available, available, to to learn learn of of
4 4 4 4
until until now now often often remained remained unheard. unheard.
investigation, investigation, and and gives gives a a voice voice to to mothers, mothers, fathers, fathers, siblings siblings and and children children who who have have
Zealand Zealand over over both both Wars, Wars, this this dissertation dissertation sheds sheds light light on on hitherto hitherto neglected neglected areas areas of of
By By focusing focusing on on the the family family in in research research regarding regarding conscientious conscientious objection objection in in New New
alternative alternative issues issues of of shame, shame, disgrace disgrace and and disassociation. disassociation.
member member in in a a family, family, and and explore explore issues issues relating relating to to support support and and assistance, assistance, or or the the
family family influences, influences, gain gain an an understanding understanding about about how how the the pacifist pacifist stance stance affected affected every every
more more general general focus, focus, moving moving away away from from the the Baxters Baxters and and using using other other case case examples examples of of 5 5
Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, The The Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent Baxter Baxter (NZ: (NZ: Cape Cape Catley Catley Ltd, Ltd, 1981 1981 ), ), 5 5
3 3
http://www.dnzb.govt.nz/dnzb/ http://www.dnzb.govt.nz/dnzb/ ( ( 0 0 Juiy Juiy i i 2007) 2007)
David David
Grant, Grant, "Baxter, "Baxter, Archibald Archibald McColl McColl Learmond" Learmond" Dictionary Dictionary of of New New Zealand Zealand Biography Biography
( ( 1996) 1996)
2 2
University, University, Wellington Wellington
Letter Letter
from from John John Cookson, Cookson, 29/1, 29/1, Baxter Baxter Box Box Ten- Letters Letters
About About Baxter, Baxter, Beaglehole Beaglehole Room, Room, Victoria Victoria 1 1
compact compact
group, group,
working working
together, together, all all supporting supporting one one another, another, all all
(Oliver, (Oliver, James James K. K. Baxter) Baxter)
Figure Figure .John .John 1. 1. Baxter Baxter
Sandy, Sandy, and and one one daughter, daughter, Margaret. The The clannish clannish family family were were a a
3 3
children children followed; followed; five five sons sons Jack, Jack, Mark, Mark, Hugh, Hugh, William, William, Donald, Donald,
child, child, Archibald, Archibald, was was born born December December 13, 13, 1881. Six Six more more
2 2
Baxter Baxter and and Mary Mary McColl McColl had had married married in in 1879 1879 and and their their first first
migrated migrated to to the the Scottish Scottish settlement settlement of of Otago Otago in in 1860. John John
1 1
century. century. Archibald's Archibald's father father John John Baxter, Baxter, a a farm farm labourer, labourer,
immigrants immigrants who who flowed flowed into into New New Zealand Zealand in in the the mid mid nineteenth
The The Baxter Baxter family family were were part part of of the the chain chain migration migration of of Scottish Scottish
some some way way by by repercussions repercussions and and consequences consequences of of the the pacifist pacifist stance. stance.
family family name name came came to to be be defined defined by by pacifism, pacifism, every every member member influenced influenced or or affected affected in in
devoted devoted family family unit. unit. He He had had the the complete complete support support of of his his kin, kin, the the clan, clan, Baxter and and this this
alongside alongside others, others, including including six six of of his his seven seven brothers, brothers, who who were were part part of of a a strong strong and and
common common belief, belief, Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter was was a a man man supported supported and and connected. connected. He He stood stood
He He stood stood out out brave, brave, determined, determined, courageous, courageous, but but not not alone. alone. Perhaps Perhaps contrary contrary to to
belong belong to to a a distinct distinct minority minority and and to to mark mark oneself oneself with with the the label label of of coward coward or or 'shirker'. 'shirker'.
espoused espoused pacifism, pacifism, objected objected to to the the war and and war refused refused to to take take arms. arms. To To do do so so was was to to
rush rush to to the the aid aid of of the the beloved beloved mother mother country. country. Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter stood stood and and out
Baxter Baxter did did not not join join the the thousands thousands marching marching off off proudly proudly to to fulfil fulfil their their obligations obligations and and
particular particular farmer farmer at at the the far far reaches reaches of of the the south, south, did did not. not. Archibald Archibald Learmond Learmond McColl McColl
to to perform perform their their duty duty both both as as men men and and as as members members of of the the Commonwealth. Commonwealth. One One
dominated dominated by by a a jingoistic, jingoistic, patriotic, patriotic, almost almost hysterical hysterical fervour, fervour, as as men men rushed rushed to to enlist, enlist,
very very strong, strong, and and the the sense sense of of duty duty overwhelming. overwhelming. The The country's country's attitude attitude was was
and and the the government government pledged pledged their their support support to to the the Empire. Empire. Sentiments Sentiments of of 'home' 'home' were were
Excitement Excitement swept swept through through New New Zealand Zealand in in 1914 1914 when when the the Great Great War War was was declared declared
CHAPTER CHAPTER ONE: ONE: A A Family Family Commitment Commitment 6 6
Baxter, Baxter, We We Will Will Not Not Cease., Cease., II II
8 8
Archibald Archibald Baxter, Baxter, We We Will Will Not Not Cease, Cease, (Britain: (Britain: Victor Victor Gollantcz Gollantcz Ltd, Ltd, 1939), 1939), 9 9
7 7
Belinda Belinda Cumming, Cumming, interview interview with with Terence Terence Baxter, Baxter, I I 8/08/07, 8/08/07, Dunedin Dunedin
6 6
McKay, McKay, The The Life Life of of James James K. K. Baxter Baxter
5 5
Frank Frank McKay, McKay,
The The Life Life of of James James K. K. Baxter Baxter (Auckland, (Auckland, NZ: NZ: Oxford Oxford University University
Press, Press, 1990), 1990), 6 6 4 4
very very roots. roots.
8 8
'Thou 'Thou shalt shalt love love thy thy neighbour neighbour as as thyself,' thyself,' and and saw saw that that war war cut cut this this position position at at its its
and and vanquished.' vanquished.' Archibald Archibald saw saw that that Christianity Christianity was was based based on on the the Commandment, Commandment,
7 7
reached reached the the point point of of view view that that war war was was 'wrong, 'wrong, futile futile and and destructive destructive alike alike to to victor victor
determined determined personal personal rejection, rejection, and and a a commitment commitment to to refuse refuse military military service. service. He He had had
He He was was convinced convinced by by the the arguments arguments and and soon soon his his distaste distaste of of war war had had developed developed into into a a
lawyer lawyer making making a a plea plea for for pacifism pacifism and and forming forming a a strong strong case case against against war war in in general. general.
At At the the outbreak outbreak of of the the Boer Boer war war he he had had contemplated contemplated enlisting, enlisting, but but heard heard a a Dunedin Dunedin
By By the the time time World World War War One One began began Archibald's Archibald's pacifist pacifist beliefs beliefs were were well well established. established.
take take home home his his inebriated inebriated father. father.
6 6
financial financial matters, matters, and and at at the the end end of of the the day day have have would to to search search the the pubs pubs to to find find and and
burden burden for for the the family. family. Archibald Archibald would would travel travel with with his his father father into into town town to to deal deal with with
constantly constantly in in financial financial trouble, trouble, harassed harassed by by bailiffs, bailiffs, and and also also his his heavy heavy drinking drinking was was a a
because because of of his his father's father's failings. failings. John John was was unable unable to to manage manage his his land land and and was was
In In a a way way he he was was forced forced into into this this role role of of leader, leader, because because of of his his place place as as eldest eldest child child and and
emotional emotional trouble trouble in in the the family, family, it it was was Archibald Archibald who who was was asked asked to to advise advise and and resolve. resolve.
he he emerged emerged as as the the de de facto facto leader leader of of the the Baxter Baxter clan. clan. If If there there was was ever any any financial financial or or
Archibald Archibald was was well-respected well-respected in in the the Brighton Brighton district, district, and and within within the the family family it it appears appears
profit.
5 5
to to cover cover debt. debt. Archibald Archibald returned returned to to buy buy back back the the farm farm and and soon soon was was drawing drawing a a good good
failed failed to to maintain maintain the the farm farm successfully successfully and and it it was was not not long long before before the the land land was was sold sold
and and stocked stocked the the land land before before handing handing it it over over to to his his father. father. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, John John Baxter Baxter
small small parcel parcel of of land land after after the the big big runs runs
had had been been cut cut up up and and distributed. distributed. He He worked worked
4 4
twelve twelve to to work work in in a a variety variety of of seasonal seasonal farming farming occupations. occupations. He He won won in in the the lotteries lotteries a a
mouth, mouth, John John Baxter Baxter unable unable to to provide, provide, and and Archibald Archibald was was forced forced to to leave leave school school aged aged
having having to to carry carry the the burden burden of of their their heavy heavy drinking drinking father. father. The The family family lived lived to to hand 7 7
Sir Sir James: James: Papers Papers (ARC-0113), (ARC-0113), Hocken Hocken Collections Collections (HC), (HC), Dunedin Dunedin
Letter Letter to to Sir Sir James James Allen, Allen, 29/01/1920, 29/01/1920,
Reports Reports on on New New Zealand Zealand Naval Naval f'orccs, f'orccs,
MS MS 1085/044, 1085/044, in in Allen, Allen,
12 12
New New
Zealand Zealand Parliamentary Parliamentary Debates, Debates, 09/06/1916, 09/06/1916, Vol. Vol. 175 175 (1916), (1916), 786 786
11 11
1916), 1916), 46 46
New New Zealand Zealand Parliamentary Parliamentary
Debates, Debates, 11/05/1916, 11/05/1916, Vol. Vol. 175 175 (Wellington, (Wellington, NZ: NZ:
Government Government Printer, Printer, 10 10
NZ: NZ: Maoriland Maoriland Worker Worker Printing Printing and and Publishing Publishing Co. Co. Ltd., Ltd., 1919), 1919), 7 7 objection/military-service-act) objection/military-service-act)
H. H. E. E.
Holland, Holland, Armageddon Armageddon or or Calvary, Calvary,
(Wellington, (Wellington, /first-world-war/conscientious 9 9
(http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war (http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war
Figure Figure 2. 2. Military Military Service Service Act, Act,
of of twenty twenty and and forty-six. was was It It expected expected that that the the
12 12
government government to to conscript, conscript, by by ballot, ballot, men men between between the the ages ages
becoming becoming law law on on the the of of August. The The 1st 1st Bill Bill allowed allowed the the
11 11
On On the the of of June June it it was was carried carried 9th 9th by by a a vote vote 44 44 to to 4, 4, before before
In In May May 1916 1916 the the Military Military Service Service Bill Bill entered entered parliament. parliament.
conscription conscription for for service service military as as soon soon as as possible. possible.
The The majority majority appeared appeared to to be be calling calling for for the the introduction introduction of of a a compulsory compulsory system system of of
community.
10 10
sacrifices sacrifices will will be be distributed distributed fairly fairly and and equitably equitably over over the the whole whole
come come when when we we should should put put in in operation operation a a better better system, system, under under which which the the
sacrifices, sacrifices, while while others others are are making making no no sacrifices sacrifices at at all. all. The The time time has has
make make are are very very unequal unequal and and very very uneven. uneven. Some Some people people are are making making great great
We We have have arrived arrived at at a a time time when when the the sacrifices sacrifices it it calls calls upon upon people people to to
had had outrun outrun its its usefulness. usefulness. On On 11 11 May May 1916, 1916, Mr. Mr. G. G. W. W. Forbes Forbes of of Hurunui Hurunui argued: argued:
creditably creditably and and New New Zealand Zealand had had raised raised a a large large force, force, but but it it obvious obvious that that the the system system
method. method. Speakers Speakers in in parliament parliament recognised recognised that that the the voluntary voluntary system system had had done done very very
apparent apparent that that the the flow flow of of recruits recruits could could not not much much longer longer be be sustained sustained by by the the current current
Allen's Allen's call call and and volunteer volunteer service. service. However However by by 1916 1916 it it was was quickly quickly becoming becoming
war.
Recognising Recognising their their 'obligation', 'obligation', men men all all over over the the country country rushed rushed
to to answer answer 9 9
would would be be made made available, available, and and the the unit unit maintained maintained at at full full strength strength for for the the period period of of the the
the the British British military military authorities authorities that that an an Force Force Expeditionary of of men men eight-thousand
Following Following the the outbreak outbreak of of war, war, Defence Defence Minister Minister Sir Sir James James Allen Allen hastened hastened to to assure assure 8 8
O'Connor, O'Connor, "The "The Awkward Awkward Ones", Ones", 119 119
15 15
History, History, 8 8 (2), (2), (October, (October, 1974), 1974), 118 118
P.S. P.S. O'Connor, O'Connor, "The "The Awkward Awkward Ones: Ones:
dealing dealing with with conscience, conscience, 1916-1918", 1916-1918",
New New Zealand Zealand Journal Journal of of
14 14
Parliamentary Parliamentary Debates, Debates, 11/05/1916, 11/05/1916, Vol. Vol. 175 175 (1916), (1916),
52 52 13 13
The The Bill Bill was was sent sent to to the the Legislative Legislative Council Council on on June June 9. 9.
perform non-military non-military perform
work work in in New New Zealand.
15 15
this this was was also also his his own own conscientious conscientious belief, belief, and and that that he he was was willing willing to to
performance performance of of military military service service to to be be contrary contrary to to divine divine revelation, revelation, that that
of of a a religious religious body body whose whose tenets tenets declared declared the the bearing bearing of of arms arms and and the the
a a man man was was on on 4 4 August August 1914 1914 and and had had been been continuously continuously since, since, a a member member
of of appeal appeal that: that:
changed changed their their mind, mind, and and proceeded proceeded to to introduce introduce a a new new clause clause which which made made it it a a ground ground
exemption exemption of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors on on June June 7, 7, 1916, 1916, Parliament Parliament for for some some reason reason
cause cause and and
understand understand
that that 'the 'the State State must must come come first.' first.' After After voting voting against against the the
14 14
objectors objectors an an becoming issue, issue, assuming assuming that that the the entire entire country country would would rally rally behind behind the the
conscientious conscientious objection. objection. is is likely likely It It the the parliamentarians parliamentarians did did not not see see the the minority minority of of
When When first first introduced, introduced, the the Bill Bill had had contained contained no no specific specific provision provision for for religious religious or or
Zealand.
13 13
be be the the first first consideration consideration of of the the people people and and the the Parliament Parliament of of New New
for for the the Empire Empire first first and and the the Empire Empire last, last, and and undoubtedly undoubtedly the the war war must must
Everything Everything is is for for the the Empire Empire today. today. is is not not It It a a local local matter; matter; it it is is matter matter
such such as as one one delivered delivered by by Mr. Mr. Harris Harris A. A. of of Waitemata, Waitemata, who who proclaimed: proclaimed:
in in entrenching entrenching such such views, views, and and the the people people were were swept swept away away with with emotive emotive speeches, speeches,
Zealanders Zealanders recognising recognising their their civic civic duty duty to to the the Empire. Empire. Propaganda Propaganda played played a a large large role role
the the general general feeling feeling was was one one of of nationalism nationalism and and devoted devoted patriotism, patriotism, most most New New
nation nation wide. wide. In In reality reality the the Bill Bill was was passed passed without without extreme extreme consequences consequences in in 1916, 1916, as as
introduction introduction of of conscription conscription would would spark spark major major uproar uproar in in society society and and ignite ignite protest protest 9 9
Baxter Baxter Family: Family: Papers Papers (ARC-0351 (ARC-0351 ), ), Hoc Hoc ken ken Collections, Collections, Dunedin Dunedin
Letter Letter from from Donald Donald at at Waikeria Waikeria Reformatory, Reformatory, 2/3/1919, 2/3/1919, Letters Letters from from Donald Donald Baxter Baxter
MS-0975/205, MS-0975/205,
18 18
from from the the Great Great War War to to the the Cold Cold War, War, (US: (US: University University of of Toronto Toronto Press, Press, 2004), 2004), 6 6
Peter Peter Brock, Brock,
These These Strange Strange Criminals: Criminals: An An Anthology Anthology of of Prison Prison Memoirs Memoirs by by Conscientious Conscientious Objectors Objectors
17 17
O'Connor, O'Connor, "The "The Awkward Awkward Ones", Ones", 119 119
16 16
views. views. But But it it became became clear clear that that the the issue issue concerned concerned him him a a great great deal, deal, and and they they entered entered
the the idea idea that that at at first first the the family family ridiculed ridiculed him him and and teased teased him him for for his his seemingly seemingly foolish foolish
were were to to do. do. In In actuality actuality the the process process was was a a lot lot slower slower and and gradual. gradual. Terence Terence confirms confirms
followed followed suit, suit, as as one one may may assume. assume. Nor Nor is is it it true true that that he he dictated dictated to to them them what what they they
situation situation was was not not that that he he adopted adopted his his radical radical pacifist pacifist views views and and the the family family obediently obediently
While While Archibald Archibald came came to to be be seen seen as as leader leader of of the the Baxter Baxter family, family, the the reality reality of of the the
but but that that he he knows knows
'they 'they draw draw their their support support from from a a higher higher source.' source.'
18 18
how how hard hard it it had had been been for for him him to to be be kept kept apart apart from from his his parents parents during during the the tough tough times, times,
died died and and Donald Donald was was writing writing to to express express his his grief grief and and send send love love to to the the family. family. He He tells tells
when when incarcerated incarcerated in in Waikeria Waikeria Reformatory Reformatory in in 1919. 1919. The The Baxter Baxter brother brother Hugh Hugh had had
Their Their spirituality spirituality or or faith faith is is apparent apparent in in a a letter letter written written home home from from Donald Donald Baxter, Baxter,
It It appears appears they they lived lived by by religious religious principals principals but but did did not not necessarily necessarily attend attend church. church.
believed believed armed armed service service contrary contrary to to divine divine revelation, revelation, their their appeals appeals were were turned turned down. down.
Because Because the the Baxter Baxter brothers brothers were were not not communicant communicant members members of of a a religious religious body body that that
serving serving in in the the armed armed forces.
17 17
Christadelphians, Christadelphians, both both very very small small denominations denominations and and both both conscientiously conscientiously opposed opposed to to
interpretation. interpretation. In In practice practice it it seemed seemed to to have have applied applied only only to to Quakers Quakers and and
However, However, the the provision provision for for conscientious conscientious objection objection was was clearly clearly a a very very narrow narrow
to to listen these these appeals.
16 16
and and conscientious conscientious objections objections ...... I I have have no no doubt doubt that that the the Boards Boards will will
man man who who can can really really show show to to the the Board Board that that he he actually actually holds holds religious religious
enable enable a a sensible sensible Board Board to to consider consider the the appeal appeal of of a a Quaker Quaker or or of of any any
conscription. conscription. Sir Sir James James had had Allen insisted insisted that that the the Bill Bill would: would:
A A Military Military Service Service Board Board was was set set up up in in 1916 1916 to to administer administer appeals appeals against against 10 10
Baxter, Baxter, We We Will Will Not Not Crease, Crease, 14 14
21 21
° °
Kelly, Kelly, Military Military Board Board Appeals, Appeals, 41 41
2
28 28
M. M. J. J. Kelly, Kelly,
Military Military Board Board Appeals: Appeals: Otago Otago Witness Witness (Auckland, (Auckland, NZ: NZ:
Old Old News News Publications, Publications, 1993), 1993), 19
harassment, harassment, maltreatment maltreatment and and torture torture lay lay ahead. ahead.
and and here here began began their their horrific horrific journey. journey. They They could could never never known known have what what cruelty, cruelty,
public public humiliation. humiliation. ' The The Baxter Baxter brothers brothers were were handed handed over over to to the the military military authorities authorities
21 21
later later recalled recalled the the event: event: 'nothing 'nothing ever ever cut cut me me again again like like that that first, first, deliberately deliberately inflicted, inflicted,
marched marched down down the the middle middle of of the the by by street four four men men with with bayonets bayonets to to the the cells. cells. He He
arrested arrested in in the the same same way, way, inevitably inevitably upsetting upsetting the the entire entire family. family. Archibald Archibald was was then then
without without time time to to even even collect collect any any personal personal possessions. possessions. Two Two of of his his brothers brothers were were
when when a a policeman policeman jumped jumped out out from from behind behind a a hedge hedge and and seized seized him, him, taking taking him him away away
arrested. arrested. He He was was called called outside outside his his house house under under pretext pretext of of discussing discussing farm farm issues, issues,
family. family. However, However, before before even even receiving receiving official official notice notice from from the the army, army, Archibald Archibald was was
the the summer summer of of 1916-17 1916-17 so so as as to to leave leave behind behind as as large large a a cheque cheque as as possible possible for for his his
his his future, future, knowing knowing he he would would be be called called up, up, so so had had taken taken a a hard hard season's season's shearing shearing in in
Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter had had been been the the first first brother brother to to be be arrested. arrested. He He had had been been realistic realistic about about
brothers brothers were were denied denied exemption, exemption, and and all all faced faced imprisonment. imprisonment.
appeal appeal by by Hugh Hugh Baxter. Baxter.
He He did did not not appear appear and and the the case case was was dismissed. dismissed. All All Baxter Baxter
20 20
were were dismissed. The The following following January, January, the the same same paper paper announced announced the the hearing hearing of of an an
19 19
brothers brothers were were not not present present at at the the hearing, hearing, nobody nobody stood stood to to represent represent them, them, and and all all cases cases
conscientious conscientious objectors, objectors, believing believing that that fighting fighting was was contrary contrary to to the the Word Word of of God. God. The The
Otago Otago Witness Witness announced announced that that five five Baxter Baxter brothers brothers of of Brighton Brighton had had appealed appealed as as
alternative alternative for for one one truly truly committed committed to to pacifist pacifist beliefs. beliefs. On On January January 1917, 1917, lOth, lOth, the the
based based on on fundamental fundamental Christian Christian doctrines. doctrines. They They each each entered entered prison, prison, as as there there was was no no
All All six six Baxter Baxter brothers brothers were were called called up up and and appealed appealed on on the the grounds grounds of of conscience, conscience,
Party, Party, admired admired by by the the Baxter Baxter family, family, put put forward forward pacifist pacifist views. views.
family family gradually gradually came came around, around, especially especially when when Keir Hardy Hardy Keir of of the the British British Labour Labour
into into discussions discussions with with him, him, listening listening to to his his ideas. ideas. Archibald Archibald later later explained explained that that his his 11 11
Holland, Holland, Armageddon Armageddon or or Calvary, Calvary, 22 22
24 24
Holland, Holland, Armageddon Armageddon or or Calvar)l, Calvar)l, 57 57
21 21
O'Connor, O'Connor, "The "The Awkward Awkward Ones", Ones", 122 122
22 22
forcibly forcibly deport deport these these men. men. Along Along with with the the three three Baxter Baxter brothers brothers were were William William Little, Little,
The The New New Zealand Zealand public public had had no no knowledge knowledge prior of of the the government's government's intention intention to to
and and determined determined to to stick stick out out to to the the end. end.
24 24
ALEXANDER ALEXANDER BAXTER, BAXTER, Brighton, Brighton, Otago Otago ...... All All well, well, in in good good spirits, spirits,
JOHN JOHN BAXTER, BAXTER, ARCHIBALD ARCHIBALD McCOLL McCOLL LEARMONT LEARMONT BAXTER, BAXTER,
forcibly forcibly put put on on board board the the transport transport Waitemata Waitemata on on July July 13 13 and and 14: 14: -
The The undermentioned undermentioned Conscientious Conscientious and and Religious Religious Objectors Objectors were were
received received by by the the parents parents of of the the fourteen fourteen men men taken taken secretly secretly in in the the night: night:
from from
Wellington Wellington to to England, England, departing departing on on 14 14 July, July, 1917. On On July July 15, 15, a a letter letter was was
23 23
Jack, Jack, Sandy Sandy and and eleven eleven other other men men were were forced forced aboard aboard Waitemata. Waitemata. The The ship ship sailed sailed
Donald Donald and and Hugh Hugh were were also also there, there, but but before before they they were were able able to to reunite, reunite, Archibald, Archibald,
and and food food deprivation. deprivation. At At Trentham, Trentham, they they were were surprised surprised to to hear hear that that brothers brothers their
to to refuse refuse orders, orders, and and had had continued continued to to be be punished punished with with uncomfortable uncomfortable confinement confinement
point point he he was was in in the the company company of of his his brothers brothers Jack Jack and and Sandy. Sandy. They They had had all all continued continued
Archibald Archibald had had been been transported transported to to several several prisons prisons before before arriving arriving at at Trentham. Trentham. At At this this
of of fourteen fourteen objectors objectors to to Europe; Europe; an an experiment experiment never never to to be be repeated. repeated.
treatment treatment of of inmates. inmates. In In that that same same year year a a different different method method was was tried, tried, the the deportation deportation
Camp, Camp, from from which which a a number number of of complaints complaints were were released, released, reporting reporting brutal brutal and and violent violent
them. A A number number of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors were were then then sent sent to to Wanganui Wanganui Detention Detention
22 22
objectors objectors and and it it soon soon became became clear clear that that a a training training camp camp was was not not a a suitable suitable place place for for
in in 1917 1917 the the camp camp commandant commandant had had complained complained of of his his inability inability to to deal deal with with religious religious
Conscientious Conscientious objectors objectors had had at at first first been been transported transported to to Trentham Trentham Training Training Camp, Camp, but but
'conchies,' 'conchies,' the the majority majority being being fervently fervently patriotic patriotic and and in in support support of of conscription. conscription.
New New Zealand Zealand supported supported this this routine, routine, openly openly expressing expressing hatred hatred and and disgust disgust towards towards the the
sentenced sentenced to to imprisonment imprisonment in in either either prisons prisons or or detention detention camps. camps. The The wider wider public public of of
When When men men were were denied denied appeal, appeal, they they were were officially officially declared declared military military deserters deserters and and 12 12
Baxter, Baxter, We We Will Will Not Not Cease, Cease, 57 57
28 28
Parliamentary Parliamentary Debates, Debates, 13/09/1917, 13/09/1917, Vol. Vol. 180: 180: Sept Sept 11 11 - Oct Oct l l 0, 0, 1917, 1917, p p 100 100
27 27
Holland, Holland, Armageddon Armageddon or or Calvary, Calvary, 30 30
26 26
2003), 2003), Ltd, Ltd, 214-215 214-215
Michael Michael King, King, "Afterword" "Afterword" in in We We Will Will Not Not Cease, Cease, by by Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter (Auckland, (Auckland,
NZ: NZ: Cape Cape Catley Catley 25 25
were were repeatedly repeatedly beaten, beaten, denied denied food food and and medication medication and and subjected subjected to to a a variety variety of of
were were transported transported finally finally to to England. England. During During their their time time in in England England and and France France the the men men
by by one one and and forcibly forcibly dressed dressed in in uniform. uniform. ' After After a a time time behind behind bars bars in in Capetown, Capetown, they they
28 28
the the poop poop deck deck and and in in front front of of crowds crowds of of men men assembled assembled to to watch, watch, 'stripped 'stripped naked naked one one
Aboard Aboard the the Waitemata, Waitemata, the the fourteen fourteen conscientious conscientious objectors objectors had had been been dragged dragged up up to to
which which the the men men had had been been subjected subjected to, to, to to began seep seep out. out.
It It was was a a long long wait wait before before news news of of the the terrible terrible indignities indignities and and unbelievable unbelievable cruelties cruelties to to
time time of of anxiety, anxiety, shock shock and and grief grief for for the the parents parents and and families families of of the the deported deported fourteen. fourteen.
he he would would attempt attempt to to gain gain some some communication communication with with the the men. This This was was a a terrible terrible
27 27
men, men, because because they they did did not not know know themselves themselves at at that that time, time, but but gave gave them them assurance assurance that that
replied replied that that the the Defence Defence Department Department could could not not state state the the whereabouts whereabouts of of these these young young
whereabouts whereabouts of, of, and and treatment treatment received received by, by, the the young young men. men. The The Hon. Hon. Sir Sir James James Allen Allen
earlier. earlier. The The parents parents had had gained gained no no information information and and were were inquiring inquiring into into the the
letters letters received received from from the the parents parents of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors deported deported two two months months
In In Parliament Parliament in in 1917, 1917, M.P. M.P. Paddy Paddy Webb Webb notified notified the the Minister Minister of of Defence Defence of of two two
concerning concerning the the whereabouts whereabouts of of their their sons. sons.
information information filtered filtered through. through. The The families families had had no no way way of of accessing accessing reliable reliable facts facts
that that sons sons their had had been been dragged dragged away.Z From From this this moment moment on, on, only only scraps scraps of of
6 6
writes writes that that the the mothers mothers were were 'shocked 'shocked and and almost almost prostrated prostrated with with grief' grief' when when learning learning
experience experience for for a a close-knit close-knit family. family. Labour Labour Member Member of of Parliament Parliament Holland Holland H. H. E. E.
members members stripped stripped from from them, them, and and one one can can only only imagine imagine the the torment torment of of such such an an
members members were were taken taken from from them. them. The The Baxter's Baxter's suddenly suddenly had had three three of of their their family family
had had no no opportunity opportunity to to make make any any kind kind of of contact contact or or communication communication before before their their family family
Harland. Their Their parents parents and and relatives relatives were were not not notified notified prior prior to to their their departure, departure, and and
25 25
Ballantyne, Ballantyne, David David Grey, Grey, Daniel Daniel Maguire, Maguire, Lawrence Lawrence Kirwan Kirwan and and Thomas Thomas Percy Percy
Mark Mark Briggs, Briggs, Fred Fred Adin, Adin, Lewis Lewis Penwright, Penwright, Harry Harry Patton, Patton, Albert Albert Sanderson, Sanderson, Garth Garth 13 13
Baxter, Baxter, We We Will Will Not Not Cease, Cease, 123 123
29 29
would would grow grow steadily steadily worse worse until until seemingly seemingly unendurable: unendurable:
Country Country
Call) Call)
that that he he was was unable unable to to move move a a fraction fraction of of an an inch. inch. The The pain pain
(Baker, (Baker, King King and and
Punishment Punishment No. No. 1 1
feet feet hung hung just just above above
the the ground. ground.
He He was was strained strained up up so so tightly tightly
impression impression of of Field Field
Figure Figure
4. 4. Artists Artists caused caused a a large large part part of of his his weight weight to to come come on on his his arms, arms, as as his his
into into an an unnatural unnatural and and painful painful position. position. The The slope slope of of the the post post
together together and and pulled pulled up up so so as as to to strain strain and and cramp cramp the the muscles muscles
knees knees and and wrists, wrists, his his hands hands taken taken round round behind behind the the pole, pole, tied tied
out out of of perpendicular. perpendicular. Archibald Archibald was was tied tied to to it it by by the the ankles, ankles,
diameter diameter and and twice twice the the height height of of a a man man were were inclined inclined forward forward
'Mud 'Mud Farm,' Farm,' where where two two willow willow poles poles six six to to eight eight inches inches in in
Archibald Archibald was was escorted escorted to to a a punishment punishment compound compound known known as as
and and Country Country Call) Call)
Waitemata Waitemata (Baker, (Baker, For For King King
Objectors Objectors stripped stripped aboard aboard the the
Figure Figure 3. 3. Conscientious Conscientious
one one to to grasp grasp horror horror the and and atrociousness atrociousness of of the the scene. scene.
the the men men were were subjected subjected to, to, Field Field Punishment Punishment Number Number One, One, must must be be included included here, here, for for
want, want, Baxter, Baxter, not not your your service. service. ' A A description description of of the the most most barbaric barbaric practice practice to to which which
29 29
Colonel Colonel threatening threatening increasing increasing violence violence if if refusal refusal continued: continued: 'It's 'It's your your submission submission we we
horrific horrific disciplinary disciplinary measures. measures. The The object object was was to to break break their their spirit, spirit, an an angered angered 14 14
Baxter, Baxter, We We Will Will Not Not Cease, Cease, 128-9 128-9
31 31
Baxter, Baxter, We We Will Will Not Not Cease, Cease, 105-6 105-6
30 30
Archibald. Archibald. He He was was taken taken to to a a section section of of the the front front that that was was undergoing undergoing heavy heavy
Such Such feeling feeling explains explains the the thinking thinking behind behind the the punishment punishment next next give give given given to to
home. home.
their their fellow fellow men men that that would would not not lift a a lift finger finger to to fight fight for for the the benefits benefits they they enjoyed enjoyed at at
at at the the front, front, maimed maimed and and ruined, ruined, and and soldiers soldiers were were unable unable to to understand understand or or respect respect
demonstrates demonstrates the the extent extent of of anger anger felt felt about about the the betrayal of of betrayal objectors. objectors. Men Men were were dying dying
to to lead lead them them to to recognising recognising the the errors errors of of their their ways. ways. The The brutality brutality of of the the conduct conduct
felt felt doubt justified justified in in their their actions, actions, taking taking it it upon upon themselves themselves to to teach teach the the men men a a lesson, lesson,
feeling feeling towards towards conscientious conscientious objectors. objectors. The The officials officials ordering ordering the the punishment punishment no no
Although Although horrific horrific and and shocking, shocking, this this account account of of treatment treatment illustrates illustrates the the depth depth of of ill
to to began sink sink into into despair. despair.
tomorrow.' At At this this point, point, with with Briggs Briggs crippled crippled and and Kirwan Kirwan sent sent away, away, Archibald Archibald
31 31
and and back hip, hip, about about a a foot foot long long and and nearly nearly as as wide wide and and told told 'That's 'That's the the way way you'll you'll be be
Archibald Archibald was was escorted escorted to to see see him. him. He He was was shown shown the the huge huge flesh flesh wound wound in in Briggs's Briggs's
of of mud mud shoved shoved into into his his mouth. mouth. After After half half being dragged, dragged, half half carried carried back back to to camp, camp,
He He was was dragged through through dragged shell shell holes, holes, and and was was finally finally tipped tipped into into the the water, water, a a handful handful
duckwalk. duckwalk. His His clothes clothes were were torn torn off, off, exposing exposing his his naked naked body body to to the the battens battens and and wire. wire.
before before being being dragged dragged at at the the end end of of the the wire wire by by three three soldiers soldiers for for about about a a mile mile along along
so so was was dragged dragged outside outside by by his his wrists, wrists, a a long long piece piece of of cable cable wire wire tied tied around around his his body, body,
saw saw Briggs Briggs again. again. Briggs Briggs had had refused refused to to walk walk up up to to the the front front trenches trenches when when ordered, ordered,
to to succumb. succumb. They They both both were were sent sent to to the the Front, Front, and and it it was was at at this this point point that that Archibald Archibald
undergone undergone Field Field Punishment Punishment and and each each had had remained remained committed committed to to their their cause, cause, failing failing
Two Two other other deported deported objectors, objectors, Mark Mark Briggs Briggs and and Lawrence Lawrence Kirwan, Kirwan, had had both both
as as frightful frightful as as the the physical. physical. I I felt felt I I was was going going mad?
0 0
the the guards guards the the satisfaction satisfaction of of hearing hearing me. me. The The mental mental effect effect was was almost almost
I I could could not not allow allow myself myself the the relief relief of of groaning groaning as as I I did did not not want want to to give give 15 15
Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, 5! 5!
32 32
on on May May 14, 14, from from Base Base Records Records Office, Office, stating stating that that Archibald Archibald had had admitted admitted been to to
from from here here they they could could only only imagine imagine the the worst. worst. The The next next communication communication received received was was
This This was was the the first first the the Baxter's Baxter's knew knew of of their their sons' sons' whereabouts whereabouts and and experiences, experiences, and and
The The letter letter somehow somehow passed passed through through the the censors, censors, and and reached reached New New Zealand Zealand unaltered. unaltered.
never never will. will.
32 32
to to the the evil evil power power that that has has fixed fixed its its roots roots like like a a cancer cancer on on the the world world ...... I I
to to the the limit limit of of my my endurance, endurance, but but I I will will never never in in my my sense sense sane surrender surrender
now, now, so so that, that, if if anything anything happens happens to to me, me, you you will will know. know. I I have have suffered suffered
I I have have passed passed through, through, for for I I know know how how it it would would hurt hurt you. you. I I only only tell tell you you
take take is is right. right. I I have have never never told told you you since since I I left left New New Zealand Zealand of of the the things things
times times rather rather be be put put to to death, death, and and I I am am sure sure that that you you all all believe believe the the stand stand I I
ever. ever. It It is is impossible impossible for for me me to to serve serve in in the the army. army. I I would would a a thousand thousand
and and Sandy Sandy are. are. As As far far as as military military service service goes, goes, I I am am of of the the same same mind mind as as
.. .. .I .I am am being being sent sent up up the the lines lines tomorrow. tomorrow. I I have have not not heard heard where where Jack Jack
to to his his parents parents in in Dunedin: Dunedin:
On On the the of of March, March, 1918 1918 from from 'Somewhere 'Somewhere in in Archibald Archibald France', 5th 5th Baxter Baxter had had written written
execution. execution. Finally Finally he he was was informed informed that that he he was was being being sent sent back back to to New New Zealand. Zealand.
his his life life by by preventing preventing a a court court martial martial which which most most likely likely would would have have ended ended in in his his
and and was was judged judged to to be be suffering suffering from from mental mental illness, illness, a a diagnosis diagnosis which which probably probably saved saved
abuse abuse and and starvation, starvation, led led to to his his collapse. collapse. He He regained regained consciousness consciousness in in a a hospital hospital ward, ward,
Archibald's Archibald's experiences experiences at at the the Front, Front, combined combined with with the the effects effects of of constant constant physical physical
themselves themselves for for their their family family and and country. country.
witnessing witnessing death death on on a a daily daily basis basis were were angered angered by by others others unwilling unwilling to to sacrifice sacrifice
the the top top daily, daily, had had little little sympathy sympathy for for those those refusing refusing sacrifice. sacrifice. losing losing Those limbs limbs and and
bombardment, bombardment, and and left left there. there. The The majority majority of of men men serving serving in in the the trenches, trenches, going going over over 16 16
Witness, Witness, (3010 (3010 1/1918), 1/1918), 40 40
"Conscientious "Conscientious
Objectors: Objectors: Explanation Explanation by by Minister Minister of of Defence, Defence, Wellington, Wellington, January January 23", 23", Otago Otago
38 38
Learmond: Learmond: Literary Literary and and political political papers papers (ARC-0350), (ARC-0350), Hocken Hocken Collections, Collections, Dunedin Dunedin
Letter Letter from from M. M. Ballantyne, Ballantyne, 28/01/1919, 28/01/1919, Correspondence, Correspondence, MS-0975/189, MS-0975/189, Baxter, Baxter, Archibald Archibald
McColl McColl
37 37
P. P. S. S. O'Connor, O'Connor, "The "The Fourteen" Fourteen"
36 36
P. P. S. S. O'Connor, O'Connor, "The "The Awkward Awkward Ones", Ones", 128 128
35 35
Selwyn Selwyn O'Connor: O'Connor: Papers, Papers, Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington Wellington
P.S. P.S. O'Connor, O'Connor, "The "The Fourteen", Fourteen", Conscientious Conscientious Objectors Objectors in in First First World World War War MS-5969-2, MS-5969-2,
Peter Peter
34 34
Holland, Holland, Armageddon Armageddon or or Calvary, Calvary, 49 49
33 33
objectors objectors had had 'agreed 'agreed to to do do their their
duty, duty, either either in in the the infantry infantry or or as as stretcher stretcher bearers.'
38 38
which which he he stated stated that that his his latest latest information information received received notified notified him him that that all all but but two two
earlier earlier Allen Allen had had submitted submitted an an explanation explanation which which was was printed printed in in the the Otago Otago Witness, Witness, in in
because because of of reports reports that that
he he was was crippled. crippled. Allen Allen professed professed to to know know nothing. nothing. A A year year
37 37
Allen Allen on on a a deputation deputation to to gain gain information information and and request request that that Mark Mark Briggs Briggs be be returned returned
fourteen fourteen objectors objectors wrote wrote to to the the Baxters Baxters in in 1919 1919 to to tell tell them them she she had had visited visited Sir Sir James James
there there was was uproar uproar in in society society from from many. many. Mrs Mrs R. R. W. W. S. S. Ballantyne, Ballantyne, mother mother of of one one of of the the
As As reports reports of of the the atrocities atrocities on on occurring the the other other side side of of the the world world began began to to seep seep back, back,
died died aboard.' aboard.'
36 36
to to serve serve would would ensure ensure not freedom freedom from from danger danger and and a a safe safe haven haven at at home home while while others others
of of sending sending fourteen fourteen men men to to the the Front Front was was to to serve serve as as a a warning warning to to others others 'that 'that refusal refusal
that that it it had had 'been 'been
softened softened almost almost to to the the point point of of a a course course in in horticulture.' The The object object
35 35
the the State State in in its its defence.' defence.' He He recognised recognised that that the the system system in in place place was was not not a a deterrent
which which belong belong to to the the State State without without undertaking undertaking the the duties duties that that pertain pertain to to the the citizens citizens of of
James James Allen Allen remarked remarked that that he he did did not not think think it it fair fair for for a a man man to to 'enjoy 'enjoy all all the the privileges privileges
marked marked by by a a 'very 'very
widespread, widespread, blind blind and and hysterical hysterical jingoism. jingoism. ' Defence Defence Minister Minister Sir Sir
34 34
adopted adopted a a harsh harsh attitude attitude in in 1916, 1916, because because the the New New Zealand Zealand attitude attitude as as a a whole whole was was
much much information information they they in in fact fact had had during during this this period. period. The The New New Zealand Zealand government government
objectors, objectors, to to explore explore what what the the government government intended intended for for the the fourteen fourteen men men how how and
he he examines examines the the formation formation of of official official policy policy regarding regarding religious religious and and conscientious conscientious
Historian Historian P. P. S. S. O'Connor's O'Connor's work work on on the the subject subject is is a a valuable valuable source source of of information, information, as as
weeks weeks before before they they were were informed informed that that their their son son would would be be returning returning home. home.
This This must must have have been been an an incredible incredible shock shock for for the the family, family, and and it it was was still still many many more more
Hospital Hospital in in the the United United Kingdom Kingdom
and and that that his his mental mental condition condition was was causing causing anxiety. anxiety.
33 33 17 17
021-11 021-11 ), ), Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington Wellington
P.M. P.M. Butler, Butler,
"The "The Conchie" Conchie" (2/3/1976), (2/3/1976), World World War War One One Stories, Stories, Radio Radio NZ: NZ: Wartime Wartime Stories Stories
(85-
41 41
Baxter, Baxter, We We Will Will Not Not Cease, Cease, 188 188
40 40
Learmond: Learmond: Literary Literary and and political political papers papers (ARC-0350), (ARC-0350), Hocken Hocken Collections, Collections, Dunedin Dunedin
NZEF NZEF Hospital Hospital Outpatient Outpatient Certificate, Certificate, Army Army Certificates Certificates MZ-1975/190, MZ-1975/190,
Archibald Archibald McColl McColl 39 39
very very few few who who had had been been at at all all sympathetic sympathetic to to Archibald's Archibald's opinion, opinion, saw saw that that the the war war
hostility, hostility, ostracised ostracised for for their their radical radical and and non-conformist non-conformist views. views. Once Once war war began, began, the the
the the Second Second World World War, War, families families of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors met met a a great great deal deal of of
isolating isolating them them from from the the rest rest of of society. society. Although Although perhaps perhaps not not as as bad bad as as it it would would be be in in
Archibald's Archibald's parents parents and and siblings siblings too too had had suffered suffered in in his his absence, absence, their their pacifist pacifist stance stance
subjected subjected to to such such harsh harsh inhumane inhumane treatment treatment for for so so long. long.
sweating. sweating. took took time time It It to to get get used used to to being being treated treated like like a a human human being, being, after after being being
Archibald Archibald for for a a very very long long time time continued continued to to suffer suffer from from terrible terrible dreams dreams and and night night
to to understand understand what what the the objectors objectors had had suffered suffered through through on on the the other other side side of of the the world. world.
felt felt between between himself himself and and all all the the people people he he knew. knew. No No one one would would be be able able to to even even begin begin
weighed weighed stone, stone, seven
his his original original weight weight being being eleven. Later Later he he described described the the gap gap he he
41 41
Archibald Archibald was was returned returned to to his his family family in in Otago, Otago, a a shadow shadow of of his his former former self. self. He He
war war were were to to remain remain with with him him for for a a very very long long time. time.
Archibald Archibald felt felt that that his his war war experience experience had had ended, ended, although although inevitably inevitably the the effects effects of of
report report that that he he had had
served served every every day day that that he he had had in in been the the army. Upon Upon discharge, discharge,
40 40
were were so so determined determined to to make make Archibald Archibald a a soldier soldier that that it it was was declared declared in in the the discharge discharge
Dunedin Dunedin
hospital hospital or or 'be 'be deemed deemed guilty guilty of of absence absence without without leave. leave. The The authorities authorities
39 39
arrival arrival back back into into New New Zealand, Zealand, Archibald Archibald received received a a card card ordering ordering he he report report to to
Archibald Archibald was was the the first first conscientious conscientious objector objector to to be be returned returned to to New New Zealand. Zealand. On On
continuous continuous track track of of the the men. men.
communication communication were were slow, slow, and and it it was was virtually virtually to to impossible keep keep close close and and
to to gain gain information, information, but but accurate accurate details details were were difficult difficult to to receive, receive, channels channels of of
once once they they had had disembarked disembarked in in England. England. Evidently Evidently he he did did attempt attempt many many on occasions occasions
O'Connor O'Connor illustrates illustrates how little little how Allen Allen really really knew knew about about the the situation situation of of the the fourteen fourteen 18 18
Letter Letter
911918, 911918, Letters Letters from from Donald Donald Baxter, Baxter, MS-0975/205, MS-0975/205, Baxter Baxter family: family: Papers Papers (ARC-0351 (ARC-0351
), ), HC HC
43 43
Baxter Baxter family: family: Papers Papers (ARC-0351), (ARC-0351), HC HC
Letter Letter from from Donald, Donald, Waikeria Waikeria Reformatory, Reformatory, 2/3/1919, 2/3/1919, Letters Letters from from
Donald Donald Baxter, Baxter, MS-0975/205, MS-0975/205, 42 42
the the clean clean hand hand that that
refrained refrained to to be be stained stained with with the the blood blood of of its its fellow fellow man. man. ' The The
43 43
'coming 'coming when when ink ink on on not not paper be be needed needed between between us, us, the the day day when when I I will will again again grip grip
He He wrote wrote again again to to a a returned returned Archibald Archibald to to express express his his happiness happiness that that the the day day was was
for for me me to to have have been been kept kept apart apart from from them. them.
42 42
telling telling effect effect on on the the health health of of dear dear Mam Mam and and Dad Dad ...... has has been been It It very very hard hard
I I have have no no doubt doubt the the past past few few months months with with this this burden burden of of grief grief has has had had a a
pain pain in in being being separated separated from from his his loved loved ones ones at at such such a a time: time:
wrote wrote how how his his comrades comrades in in the the camp camp consoled consoled one one another, another, but but also also expressed expressed his his
was was a a tribulation tribulation Donald Donald had had to to endure endure alone, alone, locked locked away away in in a a detention detention camp. camp. He He
were were not not united united to to draw draw support support and and strength strength from from each each other. other. The The death death of of a a brother brother
mourning, mourning, close-knit close-knit families families lean lean on on each each other other for for support, support, but but the the Baxter Baxter family family
Baxter, Baxter, one one of of the the three three incarcerated, incarcerated, died died in in the the influenza influenza epidemic. epidemic. In In times times of of
hearing hearing nothing, nothing, and and could could only only expect expect the the worst. worst. Also Also during during the the war war years, years, Hugh Hugh
such such an an ordeal ordeal must must have have been been nothing nothing short short of of horrific. horrific. They They would would go go for for months months
prospering prospering level. level. The The family family had had six six of of their their sons sons taken taken from from them, them, and and to to survive survive
concerns. concerns. In In Archibald's Archibald's absence, absence, the the family family struggled struggled to to maintain maintain their their land land at at a a
sort sort all all financial financial issues, issues, be be consulted consulted on on major major matters, matters, and and took took charge charge of of family family
With With the the loss loss of of Archibald, Archibald, the the family family lost lost their their leader. leader. Archibald Archibald had had been been the the one one to to
want want nothing nothing to to do do with with the the sister sister of of the the infamous infamous Baxter Baxter brothers. brothers.
society. society. The The only only Baxter Baxter sister, sister, Margaret, Margaret, inescapably inescapably suffered, suffered, as as young young men men would would
the the notoriety notoriety they they inevitably inevitably gained, gained, and and made made them them hugely hugely unpopular unpopular within within wider wider
futile futile and and destructive, destructive, although although sharing sharing their their sons' sons' pacifist pacifist views views also also meant meant sharing sharing
support support from. from. John John and and Mary Mary supported supported sons, sons, their sharing sharing the the view view that that war war was was
isolated isolated down down in in Otago, Otago, with with no no other other pacifist pacifist families families to to be be allied allied with with or or to to draw draw
Humanity Humanity Society Society founded founded in in Wellington Wellington in in 1902, 1902, the the Baxter Baxter family family were were reasonably reasonably
organisations organisations and and societies societies established established during during this this time, time, such such as as the the Peace Peace and and
was was and and justified turned turned against against the the pacifists. pacifists. Although Although there there were were certain certain 19 19
(2007) (2007) http://www.dnzb.govt.nz.dnzb http://www.dnzb.govt.nz.dnzb
Annabel Annabel Cooper, Cooper, "Baxter, "Baxter, Millicent Millicent Ameil Ameil (18880 (18880 1894)", 1894)", Dictionaty Dictionaty of of New New Zealand Zealand Biography, Biography,
44 44
Baxter) Baxter)
(McKay, (McKay, The The Life Life of of James James K. K.
Macmillan Macmillan Brown, Brown, 1920 1920
Figure Figure 5. 5. Millicent Millicent
open.
44 44
very very moving moving letter. letter. moved moved It It me me right right out out of of my my shell shell and and out out into into the the
quite quite differently. differently. was, was, I I It It think think anyone anyone without without prejudice prejudice would would say, say, a a
My My whole whole life life changed. changed. From From that that time time on, on, I I began began to to look look at at things things
change change in in her her life. life. Its Its contents contents altered altered Millicent's Millicent's whole whole outlook: outlook:
the the letter letter Archibald Archibald wrote wrote his his parents parents from from France, France, and and the the marked marked letter the the greatest greatest
with with the the war war effort effort in in Christchurch. Christchurch. By By pure pure chance, chance, Millicent Millicent came came across across a a copy copy of of
work work in in linguistics linguistics in in Germany. Germany. She She found found the the war war to to be be exciting, exciting, and and had had helped helped out out
Brown. Brown. During During the the war, war, Millicent Millicent had had returned returned to to New New Zealand Zealand after after doing doing graduate graduate
one one of of the the founding founding professors professors of of Canterbury Canterbury University University College, College, John John Macmillan Macmillan
Archibald's Archibald's wife wife to to be, be, Millicent Millicent Macmillan Macmillan Brown. Brown. Millicent Millicent was was the the daughter daughter of of
note note an an important important addition addition to to the the family family a a short short while while after after the the closing closing of of the the war: war:
on on each each and and every every member member of of the the clan clan Baxter during during World World War War One, One, it it is is fitting fitting to to
After After observing observing the the enormous enormous effect effect that that Archibald's Archibald's adoption adoption of of pacifist pacifist views views had had
each each member member to to deal deal with with hardships hardships the brought brought upon upon them. them.
love love and and support support in in the the family family was was clearly clearly a a great great source source of of strength strength which which enabled enabled 20 20
Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, 64 64 and and 66 66
49 49
Rob Rob Pearson, Pearson, "A "A Poet Poet for for a a son", son", Listener, Listener, NZ NZ (25/10/1980), (25/10/1980), 15 15
48 48
No.l-20, No.l-20, Beaglehole Beaglehole Room, Room, Victoria Victoria University, University, Wellington Wellington
Terence Terence
Baxter Baxter Interviewed Interviewed by by Frank Frank McKay McKay 8/7/84, 8/7/84, Baxter Baxter Box Box One- Transcripts Transcripts of of Interviews Interviews
47 47
biography biography of of Millicent Millicent Baxter Baxter (81-035), (81-035), Hocken Hocken Collections, Collections, Dunedin Dunedin
Millicent Millicent Interview Cassette Cassette Interview Tapes, Tapes, (3/411979), (3/411979), Catley, Catley, Christine Christine Cole: Cole: Material Material
Compiled Compiled for for
46 46
Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, 58 58
45 45
conscientious conscientious objectors, objectors, including including their their very very children. children. own Ultimately Ultimately and and Terence
conscription conscription and and yet yet again again cause cause suffering suffering and and pain pain to to a a new new generation generation of of
than than two two decades decades later later New New Zealand Zealand would would enter enter another another World World War, War, introduce introduce
The The married married couple couple could could never never have have dreamed dreamed at at this this happy happy time time in in their their life, life, that that less less
May May 23, 23, 1922, 1922, and and James James arriving arriving
four four years years later later on on June June 29, 29, 1926.
49 49
locals. locals. ' Archibald Archibald and and Millicent Millicent brought brought two two sons sons into into the the world; world; Terence Terence born born
on on 48 48
aspect aspect of of her her new new life life was was the the 'the great great 'the hostility hostility in in the the district district generated generated by by the the
running running kept kept strictly strictly to to government government official official regulations. regulations. For For Millicent, Millicent, the the worst worst
life life was was difficult difficult as as they they were were continually continually harassed harassed by by authorities authorities and and their their farm
working working class class life life on on a a farm, farm, living living with with a a notorious notorious and and marked marked man. man. Early Early marriage marriage
Millicent's Millicent's life life changed changed over over night night from from a a privileged, privileged, upper-crust upper-crust city city life, life, to to a a
going going on, on, he he softened softened to to it it a a little, little, and and he he
saw saw that that she she had had a a pretty pretty good good man. man. '
47 47
about about Millicent's Millicent's father, father, explained: explained: 'because 'because he he could could see see a a very very happy happy marriage marriage
determined determined to to start start a a new new life life together. together. Their Their son son Terence Terence in in later later years, years, when when asked asked
it it and and that that it it was was most most unwise, unwise, but but the the two two were were very very much much in in love love and and were were
behaved behaved
disgracefully. disgracefully. of of ]ames ]ames ' Her Her Baxter) Baxter) father father K. K. told told her her she she would would regret regret
46 46
1918 1918 (McKay, (McKay, The The Life Life
Archibald Archibald was was 'known 'known as as a a disgraceful disgraceful character character who who Macmillan Macmillan Brown, Brown,
Figure Figure 6. 6.
John John
different different backgrounds backgrounds and and education, education, and and of of course course
against against her her father's father's wishes. wishes. The The two two were were of of drastically drastically
understanding.' They They were were married married on on February February 12th, 12th, 1921, 1921,
45 45
not not really really believed believed I I should should ever ever find- the the perfect perfect
everything everything I I had had hoped hoped for; for; someone someone with with something something I I had had
attempt, attempt, Archibald Archibald and and Millicent Millicent finally finally met. met. 'Archie 'Archie was was
trip trip to to Brighton Brighton to to meet meet Archibald. Archibald. Six Six months months after after her her first first
In In 1920, 1920, while while living living in in Dunedin, Dunedin, Millicent Millicent made made a a special special 21 21
experiences, experiences, and and would would themselves themselves come come to to suffer suffer for for the the cause cause of of pacifism. pacifism.
James James would would be be immensely immensely influenced influenced and and affected affected by by their their parents' parents' beliefs beliefs and and 22 22
Beaglehole Beaglehole Room, Room, Victoria Victoria University, University, Wellington Wellington
Frances Frances Mulrennan Mulrennan Interview, Interview,
17/5/84, 17/5/84, Baxter Baxter
Box Box One- Transcripts Transcripts of of Interviews Interviews No. No. 1-20, 1-20, 1 1
deal deal of of work work it it produced produced fairly fairly well. well.
the the farm. farm. Archibald Archibald had had been been unlucky unlucky with with the the land, land, but but he he built built it it up up and and with with a a great great
Terence Terence would would thoroughly thoroughly enjoy enjoy his his experiences experiences with with his his father father up up in in the the bush bush or or on on
enter enter into into long long discussions discussions of of literature, literature, as as they they shared shared a a passion passion for for poetry, poetry, while while
his his with sons, sons, with with whom whom he he had had a a close close relationship. relationship. Archibald Archibald and and James James would would
formed. formed. Archibald Archibald by by contrast contrast was was much much more more flexible, flexible, and and would would talk talk things things over over
Millicent Millicent was was the the decision decision maker maker in in the the family family and and firm firm in in her her assessments assessments once once
longer longer alive, alive, believing believing that that it it was was her her strength strength which which kept kept the the family family together. together.
describes describes Millicent's Millicent's strong strong personality, personality, which which he he only only really really saw saw once once she she was was no no
and and his his mother mother is is that that Millicent Millicent was was very very influential influential in in the the family family home. home. Terence Terence
excellent excellent
manners.' manners.' What What can can be be assumed assumed from from various various interviews interviews with with both both Terence Terence
1 1
without without an an unreliable unreliable father. father. Millicent Millicent was was strict strict but but loving, loving, raising raising her her boys boys 'to 'to have have
they they were were a a very very close close family family unit, unit, although although perhaps perhaps more more advantaged advantaged because because
of of the the Otago Otago village, village, Brighton. Brighton. As As Archibald's Archibald's family family had had been been a a generation generation earlier, earlier,
The The Baxter Baxter family family spent spent most most of of their their early early life life together together farming farming at at Kuri Kuri Bush, Bush, south south
love, love, understanding, understanding, and and support. support.
the the men men to to adopt adopt an an unpopular unpopular cause, cause, helping helping them them with with cope the the consequences consequences with with
hardships hardships the the next next war war was was to to bring bring upon upon the the family. family. This This was was a a family family which which allowed allowed
continued continued to to suffer suffer from from his his experiences experiences in in the the Great Great War, War, and and dealing dealing with with all all the the
personality personality who who held held the the family family together, together, lovingly lovingly supporting supporting Archibald Archibald as as he he
James James became became truly truly committed committed to to the the cause cause of of pacifism. pacifism. Millicent Millicent was was a a strong strong
clearly clearly influenced influenced strongly strongly by by Millicent's Millicent's passionate passionate conviction. conviction. Both Both and and Terence
stigma stigma because because of of Archibald's Archibald's strong strong stand stand taken taken in in the the First First World World War, War, and and were were
the the effects effects of of a a type type of of social social inheritance. inheritance. Both Both sons sons inevitably inevitably inherited inherited difficulty difficulty and and
parents parents regarding regarding the the sanctity sanctity of of life life and and an an abhorrence abhorrence of of war, war, and and also also were were to to feel feel
tightly tightly shared shared values. values. Terence Terence and and James James were were to to inherit inherit strong strong views views from from their their
Baxter's Baxter's life life was was complete. complete. This This small small family family of of four four became became a a strong strong unit, unit, holding holding
With With the the arrival arrival of of two two healthy healthy sons, sons, Terence Terence and and James, James, Archibald Archibald and and Millicent Millicent
CHAPTER CHAPTER TWO: TWO: A A Family Family Inheritance Inheritance 23 23
papers, papers, (ARC-0370), (ARC-0370), Hocken Hocken Collections Collections (HC), (HC), Dunedin. Dunedin.
Manuscript Manuscript
of of memoir memoir of of James James K K Baxter, Baxter, 5, 5, MS-1136/039, MS-1136/039, in in Baxter, Baxter, Millicent Millicent Amiel: Amiel: Literary Literary
3 3
Victoria Victoria University, University, Wellington Wellington
Letter Letter
from from B. B. Naylor, Naylor, F. F. 16110/83, 16110/83, in in Baxter Baxter Box Box Ten- Letters Letters about about Baxter, Baxter,
Beaglehole Beaglehole Room, Room, 2 2
before before
returning returning to to settle settle in in Brighton Brighton towards towards the the end end of of 1938. Terence, Terence, aged aged sixteen, sixteen,
4 4
children children
mixed mixed with with pacifists pacifists from from around around the the world. world. They They continued continued on on their their travels travels
3 3
(WRI) (WRI) Conference Conference in in Copenhagen Copenhagen where where parents parents both and and
-will-not-cease) -will-not-cease)
journeyed journeyed to to Denmark Denmark to to attend attend the the War War Resisters Resisters International International
uet.nz/media/photo/we uet.nz/media/photo/we
(http://www (http://www .uzhistory. .uzhistory.
terrible terrible and and torturous torturous
period period
of of his his life. life. In In July July of of 1937, 1937, they they
published published 1935 1935
Cease Cease Cover, Cover,
recording, recording, as as Archibald Archibald dredged dredged up up his his memories memories of of that that
Figure Figure 7. 7. We We Will Will Not Not
whole whole family family was was involved involved in in the the process process of of recollecting recollecting and and
Not Not Cease, Cease, a a record record of of his his war-time war-time experiences. experiences. seems seems It It the the
was was It It here here that that Millicent Millicent convinced convinced Archibald Archibald to to write write We We Will Will
incredible incredible cruelties cruelties and and torture torture before before being being taken taken to to the the Front. Front.
CONSCIENTIOUS CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTOR OBJECTOR
war, war, reaching reaching the the military military camp camp Sling, Sling, where where The The Autobiography Autobiography he he had had of of a a suffered suffered
some some of of the the places places where where CEASE CEASE Archibald Archibald had had been been sent sent to to during during the the
ended ended up up lasting lasting almost almost two two years. years. They They took took a a pilgrimage pilgrimage to to WE WE WILl WILl NOT NOT
inheritance, inheritance, the the family family decided decided to to travel travel to to Europe. Europe. The The trip trip
Archibald Archibald Bax1er Bax1er
After After Millicent's Millicent's father father died died in in 1935, 1935, leaving leaving behind behind a a large large
Terence Terence were were confirmed confirmed into into the the Catholic Catholic Church. Church.
and and believes believes that that this this naturally naturally had had an an effect effect on on him. him. Much Much later later in in life, life, all all but but
mother mother reading reading the the bible bible and and singing singing hymns hymns around around the the horne horne during during his his childhood, childhood,
instruction instruction and and Bible Bible study study were were included included in in the the curriculum? curriculum? Terence Terence recalls recalls his his
attitude attitude to to all all wars, wars, as as inconsistent inconsistent with with their their interpretation interpretation of of Christianity. Christianity. Religious Religious
Boarding Boarding Sibford School School in in Cotswold Cotswold country. country. The The institution institution reflected reflected the the Quaker Quaker
institution. institution. Later Later when when in in England England the the boys boys once once again again enrolled enrolled at at a a Friends' Friends' school, school,
it it better better Terence Terence and and James James attended attended their their schools schools rather rather than than an an ordinary ordinary public public
better better for for Archibald's Archibald's health. health. Millicent Millicent was was well well connected connected with with Quakers Quakers and and thought thought
School, School, StJohn's StJohn's Hill, Hill, and and also also because because they they hoped hoped the the warmer warmer weather weather would would be be
The The family family moved moved to to Wanganui Wanganui in in 1936 1936 so so that that the the boys boys could could attend attend a a Quaker Quaker 24 24
Family Family Papers Papers (ARC-0351), (ARC-0351), Hocken Hocken Collections Collections (HC), (HC), Dunedin Dunedin
Letter Letter from from K. K.
J. J. Baxter Baxter to to mother, mother, 1/10/45, 1/10/45, Letters Letters from from Baxter Baxter to to his his parents, parents,
MS-0975/210, MS-0975/210, Baxter Baxter
6 6
Terence Terence Baxter Baxter Interview, Interview, 817/84, 817/84, Baxter Baxter Box Box One, One, Beaglehole Beaglehole Room, Room,
Victoria Victoria University University 5 5
http://www.dnzb.govt.nz.dnzb http://www.dnzb.govt.nz.dnzb
Paul Paul
Millar, Millar, 'Baxter, 'Baxter, James James Keir Keir 1926- 1972' 1972' in in Dictionary Dictionary
of of New New Zealand Zealand Biography, Biography, (2007) (2007) 4 4
attempting attempting to to catch catch them them out out on on matters matters regulation for for the the land. land. The The family family would would
from from their their local local community. community. The The authorities authorities would would not not leave leave the the Baxters Baxters alone, alone,
laid laid to to rest. rest. The The family family were were continually continually harassed harassed and and faced faced considerable considerable animosity animosity
Early Early life life for for the the family family was was difficult, difficult, as as Archibald's Archibald's history history war-time would would not not be be
throughout throughout his his life life and and was was pallbearer pallbearer at at his his funeral funeral in in 1972. 1972.
Terence Terence 'quite 'quite acutely. acutely. ' Terence Terence continuously continuously worried worried about about his his younger younger brother brother
6 6
forcibly forcibly separated separated in in later later times, times, a a nineteen nineteen year year old old James James admitted admitted to to missing missing
skin. As As they they got got older older the the boys boys were were to to become become a a lot lot closer, closer, and and when when
they they were were 5 5
found poking poking found the the baby baby James James with with a a sharp sharp straw straw broom, broom, which which went went right right through through his his
resented resented the the addition addition to to the the family, family, as as illustrated illustrated by by the the occasion occasion where where Terence Terence was was
himself himself admitted admitted in in an an interview interview with with writer writer Frank Frank McKay McKay that that he he most most likely likely
arrival arrival impacted impacted on on Terence Terence who who had had been been the the only only child child for for four four years. years. Terence Terence
and and Terence James James were were not not close close as as young young children, children, Millicent Millicent believing believing that that James's James's
Baxter) Baxter) Baxter) Baxter)
(The (The Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent (The (The Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent
Figure Figure 8. 8. Terence Terence aged aged eight eight Figure Figure 9. 9. James James aged aged seven seven
Kings Kings High High School School in in Dunedin Dunedin the the following following year. year.
went went to to work, work, James James while attended attended school school in in Brighton Brighton for for a a few few weeks, weeks, moving moving to to 25 25
Dunedin. Dunedin.
Conscientious Conscientious Objection, Objection, in in Malcolm, Malcolm, Ron: Ron: Papers, Papers, AG-775-006/101, AG-775-006/101, Hocken Hocken Collections Collections (HC), (HC),
Flyer Flyer printed printed for for the the Anti-Conscription Anti-Conscription
Campaign Campaign Committee Committee (Canterbury), (Canterbury),
Papers Papers relating relating to to
8 8
Rob Rob Pearson, Pearson, "A "A poet poet for for a a son", son", Listener, Listener, NZ NZ
(25/10/1980), (25/10/1980), 15 15 7 7
defeat defeat the the threat threat of of fascism, fascism, was was 'as 'as resolute resolute in in his his prosecution prosecution of of the the second second as as he he
judged judged on on merits merits and and nature, nature, and, and, determined determined that that New New Zealand Zealand participate participate should to to
inconsistencies inconsistencies in in his his conduct. conduct. He He believed believed that that each each war war required required a a different different response response
a a
tendency tendency 'to 'to excite excite disloyalty disloyalty in in respect respect
to to the the war.' war.' Fraser Fraser did did not not see see
8 8
fraser) fraser)
formally formally charged charged with with publishing publishing seditious seditious words words
which which had had
t.nz/media/photo/peter-
the the second second (http://www.nzhistory.ne (http://www.nzhistory.ne Anti-Conscription Anti-Conscription Conference, Conference, before before being being
Figure Figure 10. 10. Peter Peter Fraser Fraser
opposed opposed conscription conscription in in 1916 1916 and and had had been been arrested arrested during during
manpower manpower once once again again in in 1940. 1940. Fraser Fraser himself himself had had strongly strongly
Peter Peter Fraser's Fraser's Labour Labour cabinet cabinet introduced introduced conscription conscription of of
remain remain faithful faithful to to their their cause. cause. However, However, to to their their dismay, dismay,
nationwide nationwide felt felt secure secure in in the the belief belief that that the the party party would would
members members being being past past anti-conscription anti-conscription activists, activists, pacifists pacifists
won won a a landslide landslide victory victory in in 1935, 1935, and and with with many many of of their their
New New Zealand Zealand pledged pledged their their allegiance. allegiance. The The Labour Labour Party Party had had
World World War War Two Two broke broke out out in in Europe Europe in in 1939 1939 and and once once again again
supporting supporting the the war, war, all all resentful resentful towards towards the the families families of of objectors. objectors.
association association ended. ended. The The attitudes attitudes of of children children reflected reflected those those of of their their parents, parents, all all
and and were were all all wounded, wounded, a a great great rift rift developed developed between between the the two two men, men, and and any any
conscientious conscientious objector. objector. Because Because Pascoe's Pascoe's father father and and uncles uncles had had all all fought fought in in the the war war
close close friendship friendship ended ended after after the the First First World World War War when when Archibald Archibald became became a a
with with the the Baxter Baxter children children while while at at Brighton Brighton primary primary school, school, but but recalls recalls that that the the parents' parents'
community, community, clearly clearly also also in in the the school school yard. yard. Reverend Reverend Joan Joan Pascoe Pascoe remembers remembers playing playing
Archibald Archibald was was a a notorious notorious man man whose whose pacifist pacifist past past was was common common knowledge knowledge in in the the
various various
sedition sedition charges. His His past past record record was was not not to to be be forgotten forgotten in in a a hurry. hurry.
7 7
was was reason reason to to believe believe that that the the authorities authorities were were attempting attempting to to entrap entrap Archibald Archibald on on
gorse-grower gorse-grower in in the the district district was was ignored ignored by by the the noxious noxious weeds weeds inspector, inspector, and and there there
receive receive notices notices requiring requiring them them to to clear clear all all the the gorse gorse on on the the land, land, when when every every other other 26 26
1940-1 1940-1 ", ", in in New New Zealand Zealand Journal Journal of of History, History, v.17, v.17, no. no. 2, 2, (Oct (Oct 1983), 1983), 123 123
J. J. Cookson, Cookson, E. E. "Illiberal "Illiberal
NZ: NZ: The The Formation Formation of of Government Government Policy Policy
on on Conscientious Conscientious Objections, Objections,
12 12
'National 'National Service Service
Emergency Emergency Regulations Regulations 1940' 1940' in in Statutory Statutory Regulations Regulations
1940, 1940, 392 392
11 11
Government Government Printer, Printer, 1941), 1941), 391 391
'National 'National Service Service Emergency Emergency
Regulations Regulations 1940' 1940' in in Statutory Statutory Regulations Regulations
1940, 1940, (Wellington, (Wellington, NZ: NZ: 10 10
2000), 2000), 187 187
Peter Peter Bassett Bassett and and Michael Michael
King, King, Tomorrow Tomorrow
Comes Comes the the Song, Song, (Auckland, (Auckland, NZ: NZ: Penguin Penguin Books Books Ltd, Ltd, 9 9
trouble.' trouble.'
12 12
liberal liberal and and too too sympathetic sympathetic with with the the fellow fellow who who wants wants to to dodge dodge we we will will have have
Semple, Semple, the the Minister Minister of of National National Service Service in in February February 1941 1941 admitted: admitted: 'If 'If we we are are too too
belief belief recognising recognising without the the sincerity sincerity of of a a variety variety of of conscientious conscientious objections. objections. Bob Bob
War, War, but but still still seems seems to to have have clung clung to to a a relatively relatively narrow narrow definition definition of of conscientious conscientious
Fraser's Fraser's cabinet cabinet was was noticeably noticeably more more liberal liberal than than the the government government of of the the First First World World
of of the the appellant. appellant. .. ..
11 11
religious religious body body may may in in general general be be accepted accepted as as evidence evidence of of the the convictions convictions
circumstances. circumstances. Evidence Evidence of of active active and and genuine genuine membership membership of of a a pacifist pacifist
a a genuine genuine belief belief that that it it is is wrong wrong to to engage engage in in warfare warfare in in any any
conscience] conscience] unless unless the the Appeal Appeal Board Board is is satisfied satisfied that that the the appellant appellant holds holds
An An Appeal Appeal Board Board shall shall not not allow allow any any appeal appeal on on the the ground ground [of [of
as as grounds grounds of of appeal. appeal. Regulation Regulation 21(2) 21(2) provided provided
that: that:
Song) Song)
King, King, Tomorrow Tomorrow Comes Comes the the Appeal Appeal Board', Board', and and conscientious conscientious objection objection was was included included
aiming aiming a a gun. gun. (Bassett (Bassett & &
forces forces shall shall have have a a right right of of appeal appeal Figure Figure to to 11. 11. an an Fraser Fraser Armed Armed in in Egypt, Egypt, Forces Forces
that that 'Every 'Every man man so so called called up up for for service service with with the the armed armed
Service Service Emergency Emergency Regulations. Regulation Regulation 21(1) 21(1) stated stated
10 10
Appeal Appeal Boards Boards as as provided provided in in Regulation Regulation 22 22 of of National National
step step in in handling handling the the issue issue by by appointing appointing six six Armed Armed Forces Forces
difficult difficult and and distressing, distressing, but but the the government government took took their their first first
Fraser Fraser clearly clearly found found dealing dealing with with conscientious conscientious objectors objectors
with with it it easily. easily.
different different and and decent decent war war and and in in his his eyes eyes nobody nobody had had a a right right to to and and out opt get get away away
had had been been in in his his
opposition opposition to to the the first.' first.' He He took took the the view view that that World World War War Two Two was was a a
9 9 27 27
David David Grant, Grant, Out Out in in the the Cold, Cold, (Auckland, (Auckland, NZ: NZ: Reed Reed Methuen, Methuen, 1986), 1986), 143 143
18 18
"The "The Treatment Treatment of of Conscientious Conscientious Objectors", Objectors", Otago Otago Daily Daily Times Times (27 (27 /12/1941 /12/1941 ), ), 9 9
17 17
Paul Paul Millar, Millar, Spark Spark to to a a Waiting Waiting Fuse, Fuse, (NZ: (NZ: Victoria Victoria University University Press, Press, 2001 2001 ), ), 42 42
16 16
http://hakena.otago.ac.nz/nreg/Welcome.html http://hakena.otago.ac.nz/nreg/Welcome.html (November (November 2007) 2007)
Hocken Hocken Collections, Collections, "Hakena: "Hakena: Hocken Hocken Library Library Archives Archives and and Manuscripts" Manuscripts"
15 15
"The "The Treatment Treatment of of Conscientious Conscientious Objectors", Objectors", Otago Otago Daily Daily Times Times (27/12/1941), (27/12/1941), 9 9
14 14
Nancy Nancy Taylor, Taylor, The The Home Home Front, Front, Vol. Vol. 1, 1, (Wellington, (Wellington, NZ: NZ: Government Government Printer, Printer, 1986), 1986), 249 249
13 13
among among the the first first transported transported to to Strathmore Strathmore base base detention detention camp, camp, in in the the central central North North
constructed constructed work work camps. camps. Hundreds Hundreds of of objectors objectors began began filling filling these these camps, camps, Terence Terence
18 18
announced announced August August on of of that that 4th 4th defaulters defaulters 1941 1941 would would be be sent sent to to specially specially
of of punishment punishment than than that that dealt dealt to to conscientious conscientious objectors objectors in in the the First First World World War, War, and and
acting acting Prime Prime Minister Minister while while Fraser Fraser was was abroad, abroad, pushed pushed for for a a more more 'humane' 'humane' concept concept
the the choice choice either either of of submitting submitting and and enlisting, enlisting, or or awaiting awaiting punishment. punishment. Sir Sir Walter Walter Nash, Nash,
and and charged charged in in court court on on December December After After 19th. failure failure of of appeal, appeal, objectors objectors then then had had
17 17
service service after after his his appeal appeal and and was was therefore therefore gazetted gazetted as as a a defaulter defaulter on on November November 6th, 6th,
was was sentenced sentenced to to detention detention for for the the duration duration of of the the war. war. He He had had refused refused non-combatant non-combatant
his his family family had had been been hopeful hopeful of of exemption. exemption. However, However, to to their their surprise surprise and and horror horror he he
because because of of his his Quaker Quaker education education and and family family history history of of conscientious conscientious objection, objection, and and
Terence Terence should should have have had had sufficient sufficient grounds grounds to to be be considered considered genuine genuine in in his his appeal, appeal,
stand.' stand.'
16 16
1 1
( (
but but Terence Terence had had declined declined the the offer, offer, seeing seeing it it as as 'important 'important that that he he be be seen seen to to make make a a
his his behalf behalf by by declaring declaring him him a a good good worker worker in in an an essential essential job job to to stop stop him him going going to to war, war,
agricultural agricultural machinery machinery manufacturer. His His manager manager had had offered offered to to lodge lodge an an appeal appeal on on
15 15
Prior Prior to to the the war war Terence Terence had had been been working working as as a a welder welder at at Reid Reid and and Gray, Gray, an an
called called
up up for for territorial territorial service service in in the the June June ballot, ballot, his his appeal appeal heard heard on on September September 24.
14 14
objector objector aged aged nineteen, nineteen, the the 'son 'son of of a a well-known well-known objector objector in in the the last last war,' war,' had had been been
proceeded proceeded against against in in court court and and sentenced. sentenced. The The Otago Otago Daily Daily Times Times reported reported that that an an
started started operating operating in in Otago Otago in in February February of of and and Terence Terence 1941, 1941, was was the the first first to to have have been been
were were dismissed dismissed by by the the boards, boards, including including Terence Terence Baxter. Baxter. The The Appeal Appeal Boards Boards had had
met met a a rough rough passage passage and and a a narrow narrow gate.' gate.' Over Over a a thousand thousand young young New New Zealand Zealand males males
13 13
It It soon soon became became clear clear that that in in many many of of the the Appeal Appeal Boards, Boards, 'the 'the individual individual conscience conscience 28 28
James James
(Rev), (Rev), 1940-1986: 1940-1986: fl fl Papers Papers (MS-Group-0088), (MS-Group-0088), Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington. Wellington.
Letter Letter from from Strathmore Strathmore Detention Detention Camp Camp
27/11/41, 27/11/41, A.J. A.J.
Handyside Handyside Letters Letters 1941, 1941, Handyside, Handyside, Allen Allen
20 20
Grant, Grant, Out Out in in the the Cold, Cold, 146 146
19 19
Figure Figure 12. 12. Objectors Objectors detained detained at at Hautu, Hautu, 1943 1943 (Alexander (Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington) Wellington)
second second camp camp where where the the more more difficult difficult objectors objectors might might be be detained. detained.
likely likely
to to prevent prevent the the smooth smooth running running of of camps, camps, and and the the authorities authorities began began to to work work on on a a
Such Such uncooperative uncooperative behaviour behaviour was was an an early early indication indication that that some some individuals individuals were were
Consequently Consequently I I
must must not not of of my my free free will, will,
work work where where I I feel feel I I should should not. not. .. ..
20 20
faithfully faithfully following following what what I I consider consider to to be be the the Christian Christian way way of of life life ......
of of those those controlling controlling the the camp camp ...... I I have have been been set set apart apart from from society society through through
put put here here me for for the the reasons reasons it it has has and and therefore therefore I I cannot cannot accept accept the the authority authority
I I have have refused refused on on because because principle I I do do not not acknowledge acknowledge the the State's State's right right to to
November November of of 1941 1941 explaining explaining his his reason reason for for non-cooperation: non-cooperation:
refusing refusing to to cooperate. cooperate. One One prisoner prisoner wrote wrote to to his his parents parents from from Strathmore Strathmore in in
rebel rebel against against their their imprisonment imprisonment and and the the futile futile and and mundane mundane nature nature of of their their work work by by
between between prisoners prisoners and and officials officials friendly. friendly. However However groups groups soon soon began began to to protest protest and and
At At first first the the atmosphere atmosphere at at Strathmore Strathmore was was relaxed relaxed and and happy happy and and the the relationship relationship
barbed barbed
wire wire surrounding surrounding a a compound compound
of of pumice pumice and and scrub.
19 19
Island. Island. The The camp camp was was stark stark and and isolated, isolated, an an 8-foot-high 8-foot-high fence fence with with 16 16 strands strands of of 29 29
James James Keir Keir Baxter: Baxter: Literary Literary Papers, Papers, Hocken Hocken Collections Collections (HC), (HC), Dunedin. Dunedin.
requests requests for for measurements measurements and and instructions. instructions. In: In: Letters Letters from from Noel Noel Ginn Ginn and and Myrtle Myrtle Ginn Ginn MS-0975/175, MS-0975/175,
A A letter letter
to to Jim Jim from from Noel Noel Ginn Ginn while while detained detained at at Hautu Hautu included included a a diagram diagram of of a a boat boat and and
many many
25 25
Letter Letter
from from Paiaka, Paiaka, 10/05/1945, 10/05/1945, Letters Letters from from Paiaka Paiaka Detention Detention Camp, Camp, Godward Godward Papers, Papers, HC HC
24 24
002, 002, God God ward, ward, Robert Robert Bruce: Bruce: Papers Papers (ARC-0509), (ARC-0509), Hocken Hocken Collections Collections (HC), (HC), Dunedin. Dunedin.
Letter Letter from from Whitanui Whitanui Camp, Camp, July July 22, 22, Letters Letters from from detainees detainees at at Paiaka Paiaka Detention Detention Camp, Camp,
MS-2713-
23 23
Belinda Belinda Cumming Cumming interview interview with with Terence Terence Baxter, Baxter, 18/08/07, 18/08/07, Dunedin Dunedin
22 22
Mike Mike Crean, Crean, "Memories "Memories of of an an Objector", Objector", The The Press, Press, 2510312002, 2510312002,
9 9 21 21
his his hobby: boat-model
25 25
James James would would help help his his brother brother by by sending sending him him model model diagrams diagrams and and measurements measurements for for
James James often often talked endlessly endlessly talked about about boating, boating, one one of of Terence's Terence's greatest greatest passions, passions, and and
because because he he had had always always had had an an interest interest in in mechanical mechanical things. things. Letters Letters to to his his brother brother
within within the the camps, camps, by by making making boat boat models, models, and and even even set set about about constructing constructing an an engine engine
Terence Terence established established his his own own way way of of coping coping with with his his dreary dreary and and repressive repressive existence existence
common common pastimes. pastimes.
. . 24 24
Camp Camp describe describe games games of of football, football, soccer, soccer, rugby rugby and and table table tennis, tennis, along along with with cards cards as as
'withdrawing 'withdrawing
into into one's one's own own shell shell and and enjoying enjoying self self pity.' Letters Letters home home from from Paiaka Paiaka
23 23
Drama Drama Circle, Circle, with with the the intention intention of of helping helping time time pass pass faster faster and and preventing preventing men men from from
Camp Camp was was built built nearby nearby in in west west Manawatu. Manawatu. Members Members of of Whitanui Whitanui Camp Camp initiated initiated a a
growing growing numbers numbers of of objectors, objectors, Paiaka Paiaka Camp Camp opened opened in in July July and and Whitanui Whitanui Detention Detention
the the pass time time while while in in the the camps. camps. Two Two more more camps camps were were built built in in 1942 1942 to to cope cope with with
Rules Rules were were restrictive restrictive and and camp camp life life monotonous, monotonous, but but detainees detainees found found ways ways to to help help
Baxter's Baxter's life life and and writing, writing, as as they they corresponded corresponded regularly regularly between between 1942 1942 and and 1945. 1945.
friendship friendship with with Noel Noel Ginn, Ginn, who who was was to to come come to to play play a a significant significant role role in in James James
the the outside outside gangs, gangs, which which he he preferred. preferred. It It was was here here where where Terence Terence cemented cemented a a strong strong
assigned assigned to to gangs gangs to to perform perform routine routine labour labour jobs, jobs, Terence Terence almost almost always always working working in in
Behind Behind the the barbed barbed wire, wire, under under the the watch watch of of armed armed guards, guards, the the detainees detainees in in Hautu Hautu were were
personally personally believes believes he he was was transferred transferred
and and picked picked on on because because of of who who his his father father was.
22 22
relocation relocation to to Hautu Hautu was was surprising surprising as as he he was was among among the the mildest mildest of of detainees. detainees. Terence Terence
regarded regarded as as the the 'bad 'bad boys' boys' camp, camp, discipline discipline was was strict strict and and conditions conditions harsh. harsh. Terence's Terence's
the the new new
camp, camp, Hautu, Hautu, at at the the southern southern end end of of Lake Lake Taupo? It It quickly quickly became became
1 1
Early Early in in 1942 1942 Terence Terence was was among among the the first first batch batch of of prisoners prisoners who who were were transferred transferred to to 30 30
Letters Letters from from Terence Terence to to James, James, MS-0975/208, MS-0975/208, Baxter Baxter Family Family Papers Papers (HC) (HC)
28 28
Millicent Millicent Baxter Baxter (81-035), (81-035), Hocken Hocken Collections Collections (HC), (HC), Dunedin Dunedin
Millicent Millicent cassette cassette
tapes, tapes, March March 1979, 1979, Catley, Catley, Christine Christine Cole: Cole: Material Material Compiled Compiled for for biography biography
of of
27 27
Letters Letters from from Terence Terence to to James, James, MS-0975/208, MS-0975/208, in in Baxter Baxter
Family Family Papers, Papers, HC HC 26 26
towards towards him him and and was was very very happy happy to to be be living living a a normal normal life life again. again.
brother brother with with news news of of girls girls he he had had met. met. He He found found that that people people were were kind kind and and friendly friendly
He He would would go go to to the the pictures pictures or or attend attend a a dance dance in in his his weekends, weekends, and and would would write write to to his his
living living once once more. more. Thank Thank Christ Christ I'm I'm free!
28 28
last last few few years years ...... I'm I'm just just writing writing to to let let you you know know that that life life is is worth worth
people people and and the the bitterness bitterness that that I've I've felt felt towards towards my my fellow fellow men men in in the the
joy joy of of being being free free still still remains. remains. I'm I'm just just losing losing the the coldness coldness towards towards
You You can't can't believe believe how how pleased pleased I I am am to to be be living living a a real real life life again. again. The The
camp camp life: life:
During During this this period period he he wrote wrote to to his his brother brother James James expressing expressing his his joy joy at at being being of of out
Wellington Wellington Harbour Harbour was was compensation compensation enough, enough, as as it it allowed allowed him him to to sail sail once once again. again.
works works in in Petone. Petone. Terence Terence did did not not enjoy enjoy the the work work here, here, but but saw saw that that living living next next to to the the
for for almost almost another another year. year. Both Both he he and and Noel Noel Ginn Ginn were were manpowered manpowered to to the the freezing freezing
after after the the war war was was over. over. Even Even when when Terence Terence was was released released from from camp, camp, he he was was not not free free
and and been been granted granted release, release, but but the the first first objector objector was was not not to to be be allowed allowed release release until until
By By December December of of 1945 1945 many many defaulters defaulters had had submitted submitted themselves themselves for for re-examination re-examination
pleasant pleasant here here than than at at Hautu. Hautu.
27 27
such such practical practical work, work, although although writer writer Paul Paul Millar Millar suggests suggests that that work work was was actually actually less less
Hautu, Hautu, enjoying enjoying the the warmer warmer climate, climate, and and spent spent his his time time planting planting vegetables vegetables and and other other
until until after after the the end end of of the the war. war. According According to to his his mother mother he he found found life life better better here here than than in in
Terence Terence was was transported transported one one last last time time to to Whitanui Whitanui Camp Camp in in 1943 1943 where where he he remained remained
of of her. her.
26 26
to to me me ...... I I have have made made a a model model of of the the old old boat boat and and it it certainly certainly reminds reminds me me
Those Those measurements measurements that that you you sent sent me me a a while while ago ago have have been been very very useful useful 31 31
Millar, Millar, Spark Spark to to a a Waiting Waiting Fuse, Fuse, 34 34
33 33
Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, 113 113
32 32
Belinda Belinda Cumming Cumming interview interview with with Terence, Terence, 18/08/07, 18/08/07, Dunedin Dunedin
31 31
Paul Paul Millar, Millar, Spark Spark to to a a Waiting Waiting Fuse, Fuse, 123 123
30 30
Rob Rob Pearson, Pearson, NZ NZ Listener, Listener, 15 15
29 29
personality. personality. ' Terence Terence continues continues to to live live in in Dunedin Dunedin today. today.
33 33
freedom freedom and and his his independence independence were were integral integral to to his his
Millicent Millicent Baxter) Baxter)
for for [Terence] [Terence] to to be be incarcerated incarcerated
than than
it it was was for for some some ...... His His
24 24 (The (The Memories Memories of of
Figure Figure 13. 13. Terence Terence aged aged explained explained that that in in her her view view it it would would have have been been 'much 'much harder harder
first first son son Kenneth Kenneth was was born born the the next next year. year. Lenore Lenore later later
32 32
detention. detention. In In 194 194 7 7 Terence Terence married married Lenore Lenore Bond, Bond, and and their their
plagued plagued by by unemployment unemployment due due to to their their war-time war-time attitudes attitudes and and
there there are are numerous numerous stories stories of of men men refused refused work, work, being being
sympathetic sympathetic company, company, other other objectors objectors were were not not so so lucky; lucky;
Reid Reid and and Grays. Grays. He He was was lucky lucky to to work work for for such such a a
Terence Terence returned returned to to Brighton Brighton where where he he went went back back to to work work at at
rather rather uncomfortable uncomfortable in in such such situations.
31 31
to to the the pub pub but but would would stay stay quiet quiet as as all all the the men men would would tell tell their their war war stories, stories, feeling feeling
normal normal life life again, again, how how he he felt felt socially socially disabled. disabled. After After the the end end of of the the war war he he would would go go
Interviewed Interviewed in in August August 2007, 2007, Terence Terence how how described difficult difficult it it was was to to adjust adjust to to
just just
enough enough to to break break the the ice ice and and be be a a bit bit more more friendly.
30 30
in in with with people people unless unless I've I've had had a a couple couple of of drinks, drinks, not not get get drunk, drunk, but but
...... it's it's had had its its effect, effect, it's it's done done some some sort sort of of thing thing to to me me ...... I I don't don't mix mix
personality personality and and life, life, explaining explaining to to Frank Frank McKay McKay in in December December of of 1995: 1995:
himself himself was was able able to to recognise recognise some some of of the the effect effect his his incarceration incarceration had had on on his his
four, four, 'during 'during such such
important important formative formative years, years, tended tended to to set set him him apart. apart. ' Terence Terence
29 29
Millicent Millicent believes believes that that Terence's Terence's experience, experience, wartime from from age age nineteen nineteen to to twenty 32 32
James James
Baxter, Baxter, K. K. The The Man Man on on the the Horse, Horse, (Dunedin, (Dunedin,
NZ: NZ: University University of of Otago Otago Press, Press, 1967), 1967), 123 123 34 34
shelter shelter shed shed at at school, school, 'shouting 'shouting abuse abuse and and inflicting inflicting a a certain certain amount amount of of physical physical
to to retrieve retrieve it. it. James James later later recalled recalled the the time time when when a a crowd crowd of of boys boys surrounded surrounded him him in in a a
and and throw throw it it up up onto onto the the roof roof of of the the bike-shed, bike-shed, pulling pulling off off James' James' shoes shoes as as he he climbed climbed
the the 'conchie' 'conchie' was was humiliated humiliated and and bullied. bullied. Boys Boys at at school school would would grab grab his his brief-case brief-case
severe severe antagonism antagonism and and contempt contempt during during his his years years of of secondary secondary education. education. At At school school
James James bore bore the the brunt brunt of of a a great great deal deal of of this this hostility hostility towards towards his his family, family, experiencing experiencing
without without making making any any effort effort to to defend defend it. it.
that that the the Baxter Baxter family family appeared appeared to to be be enjoying enjoying the the benefits benefits of of New New Zealand Zealand life life
Brighton community community Brighton were were angered angered and and appalled appalled Waiting Waiting Fuse) Fuse)
the the
early early
1940s. 1940s.
(Millar, (Millar,
Spark Spark to to a a
Equality Equality of of sacrifice sacrifice was was called called for for by by all, all,
and and
the the
James James Baxter Baxter at at their their Brighton Brighton home home in in
Figure Figure 14. 14. Archibald, Archibald, Millicent Millicent and and
refused refused to to join join in in combat combat the the against enemy. enemy.
time, time, and and distrusted distrusted this this minority minority group group who who
was was swept swept up up in in the the hysterical hysterical patriotism patriotism of of the the
signalling signalling to to Japanese Japanese submarines.' The The nation nation
34 34
because because such such neighbours neighbours would would imagine imagine we we were were
put put not on on the the light light in in the the upper upper room room at at night, night,
James James recalling recalling his his teen-years teen-years when: when: 'we 'we could could
beliefs, beliefs, the the Baxters Baxters were were held held under under suspicion, suspicion,
pacifists pacifists did did not not fit fit in. in. Because Because of of their their anti-war anti-war
isolated. isolated. In In a a fiercely fiercely patriotic patriotic society, society, these these
members, members, and and the the Baxter Baxter family family became became very very
and and hostile hostile in in their their attitudes attitudes towards towards its its pacifist pacifist
Members Members of of the the Brighton Brighton community community were were bitter bitter
appears appears to to have have occurred occurred as as he he struggled struggled throughout throughout his his adolescent adolescent years. years.
harassment harassment and and isolation isolation continued continued to to intensify intensify and and a a gradual gradual process process of of withdrawal withdrawal
one one of of the the most most famous famous objectors objectors in in the the country country and and the the brother brother of of a a detainee, detainee, James' James'
he he evidently evidently had had a a difficult difficult time time at at home home in in Brighton Brighton during during this this period. period. As As the the son son of of
Terence's Terence's incarceration incarceration was was clearly clearly an an issue issue which which James James Baxter Baxter struggled struggled with, with, and and 33 33
Pearson, Pearson, NZ NZ Listener, Listener, 15 15
38 38
James James Baxter, Baxter, K. K. The The Man Man on on the the Horse, Horse, 137 137
37 37
Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, 106 106
36 36
James James K K Baxter, Baxter, The The Man Man on on the the Horse, Horse, 123 123
35 35
his his childhood childhood with with 'the 'the experiences experiences of of a a Jewish Jewish boy boy growing growing up up in in an an anti-Semitic anti-Semitic
would would inevitably inevitably have have had had some some lasting lasting consequences. consequences. In In retrospect retrospect James James compared compared
adolescent adolescent boy, boy, and and to to witness witness such such hostility hostility and and bitterness bitterness at at this this impressionable impressionable age age
seems seems a a rather rather na'ive na'ive view. view. It It must must have have been been an an incredibly incredibly tough tough time time for for an an
society,' society,' claiming claiming
that that he he emerged emerged unmarked unmarked by by his his experiences experiences of of bullying. This This
38 38
by by the the distance distance which which his his father's father's "sins" "sins" may may have have put put between between the the family family and and
Millicent Millicent claimed claimed that that James, James, 'being 'being the the typical typical younger younger brother, brother, seemed seemed not not affected affected
experiencing experiencing the the unpleasant unpleasant consequences consequences the the decision decision brought brought upon upon him. him.
training training at at that that age; age; it it was was a a decision decision made made by by his his parents, parents, while while he he paid paid the the price price by by
have have had had to to climb climb out out of of in in life.' James James did did not not himself himself elect elect to to be be withdrawn withdrawn from from
37 37
training training routines, routines, in in the the end end it it would would have have been been just just 'one 'one more more mental mental jail jail which which I'd I'd
on on this this time, time, recognising recognising that that while while it it may may 'have 'have been been pleasanter' pleasanter' to to take take part part in in the the
but but in in the the long long run run she she came came to to believe believe it it was was for for the the best. best. James James himself himself commented commented
which which at at that that age age cannot cannot really really be be his his own. own. ' It It remained remained an an unsettled unsettled question question for for her, her,
36 36
early early in in his his teens teens to to go go through through unpleasantness unpleasantness and and often often persecution persecution for for a a cause cause
In In her her memoirs, memoirs, Millicent Millicent discussed discussed how how difficult difficult a a question question it it was, was, 'to 'to ask ask a a boy boy
conformity, conformity, further further isolated isolated and and ridiculed. ridiculed.
to to ill ill train. train. He He stood stood out out visibly visibly without without military military uniform, uniform, and and paid paid the the price price for for non
trained, trained, James James would would do do gardening gardening around around the the grounds grounds with with another another boy boy who who was was too too
was was a a compromise compromise between between his his parents parents and and the the school, school, and and while while the the other other boys boys
further further intensified intensified his his isolation, isolation, was was his his exemption exemption from from cadet cadet corps corps training. training. This This
Another Another consequence consequence of of his his parents' parents' beliefs beliefs for for James James which suffered suffered and and which which
tough tough time time their their youngest youngest had had endured endured at at school. school.
James James never never told told his his parents parents of of the the bullying, bullying, but but they they heard heard later later from from Terence Terence of of the the
violence.' violence.' School School authorities authorities made made little little attempt attempt to to protect protect the the children children of of pacifists. pacifists.
35 35 34 34
James James K. K. Baxter, Baxter, The The Man Man on on the the Horse, Horse, 123 123
43 43
University, University, Wellington Wellington
Patricia Patricia
Laurin Laurin Comments, Comments, McKay McKay MS MS 1717, 1717, in in Baxter Baxter Box Box Seventeen, Seventeen, Beaglehole Beaglehole Room, Room, Victoria Victoria
42 42
James James K. K. Baxter, Baxter, The The Man Man on on the the Horse, Horse, 123 123
41 41
Wellington Wellington
McKay McKay
Book Book Chapter Chapter MS MS 17/2/1, 17/2/1, Baxter Baxter Box Box Seventeen, Seventeen, Beaglehole Beaglehole Room, Room, Victoria Victoria University, University,
40 40
James James K. K. Baxter, Baxter, The The Man Man on on the the Horse, Horse, 123 123
39 39
end end of of the the war war was was not not close close in in sight. sight. He He wrote wrote his his letter letter of of appeal appeal and and it it is is clear clear that that
his his brother. brother. He He reached reached the the age age of of conscription conscription in in June June of of 1944, 1944, and and at at that that point point the the
inevitably inevitably plagued plagued by by the the possibility possibility that that he he too too might might have have to to face face imprisonment imprisonment like like
While While James James spent spent the the years years of of World War War World Two Two in in his his hometown hometown of of Brighton, Brighton, he he was was
this this period. period.
James' James' life life with with no no chance chance of of escape, escape, making making for for an an endless endless dreary dreary existence existence during during
obey obey the the
military military order order to to report report for for medical medical inspection. War War was was all-pervading all-pervading in in
43 43
his his family family home, home, debating debating for for example example whether whether or or not not a a conscientious conscientious objector objector should should
James James recalls recalls the the 'long 'long discussions discussions of of moral moral theology' theology' engaged engaged in in within within the the walls walls of of
obligation obligation of of misery misery
and and anxiety anxiety underlying underlying everything. everything. '
42 42
every every aspect aspect of of living living It It ...... could could not not be be ignored ignored and and was was felt felt as as an an
in in society society because because of of 'unpatriotic 'unpatriotic activities' activities' was was constantly constantly pressing pressing on on
The The ongoing ongoing pain pain of of the the relations relations and and friends friends either either in in camp camp or or battling battling
broadcasts broadcasts listened listened to to and and commented commented on, on, and: and:
of of discussion discussion in in the the home home everyday. everyday. British British papers papers were were received received by by airmail, airmail, radio radio
James James cannot cannot be be too too strongly strongly emphasised. emphasised. As As would would be be expected, expected, war war was was the the subject subject
Patricia Patricia Laurin, Laurin, Baxter Baxter family family friend, friend, believed believed that that the the affect affect that that the the war war had had on on
run run very very
valuable,' valuable,' helping helping him him develop develop as as a a writer.
41 41
fathers' fathers' past past actions, actions, but but he he came came to to believe believe that that 'these 'these experiences experiences were were in in the the long long
house house
where where his his mother saw saw mother there there were were plenty plenty of of books. books. ' James James suffered for for suffered his his
40 40
McKay McKay argues argues that that the the boy boy retreated retreated from from this this hostile hostile environment environment into into own own 'his
of of difference, difference, of of a a gap.' In In analysing analysing this this period period of of James James K. K. Baxter's Baxter's life, life, Frank Frank
39 39
neighbourhood,' neighbourhood,' and and explained explained that that those those experiences experiences combined combined to to give give him him 'a 'a sense sense 35 35
Belinda Belinda Cumming, Cumming, interview interview with with Terence Terence Baxter, Baxter, 18/08/07, 18/08/07, Dunedin Dunedin
46 46
Millar, Millar, Spark Spark to to a a Waiting Waiting Fuse, Fuse, 57 57
45 45
Beaglehole Beaglehole Room, Room, Victoria Victoria University, University, Wellington Wellington
Letter Letter
to to Noel Noel Ginn, Ginn, 20111/44, 20111/44, Baxter Baxter Box Box Nineteen Nineteen
( ( 19/511 19/511 - 19/5114 19/5114 Letters Letters to to Noel Noel Ginn), Ginn), 44 44
me.'46 me.'46
the the youngest youngest of of a a prominent prominent pacifist pacifist family: family: 'In 'In my my mind mind had had James it it tougher tougher than than
camps) camps) was was very very aware aware of of the the persecution persecution James James was was suffering suffering back back at at home home being being
against against the the war, war, while while Terence Terence (who (who was was surrounded surrounded by by like-minded like-minded people people in in the the
James James struggled struggled to to think think of of Terence Terence behind behind bars, bars, repressed repressed and and punished punished for for his his stance stance
Surprisingly Surprisingly both both brothers brothers believed believed the the other other to to be be worse worse off off during during the the war war period. period.
escaping escaping imprisonment imprisonment and and the the avoiding suffering suffering his his older older brother brother was was enduring. enduring.
of of guilt, guilt, knowing knowing that that he he shared shared the the same same views views as as Terence Terence but but was was safe safe at at home, home,
how how it it would would affect affect his his older older brother, brother, and and he he would would have have inevitably inevitably felt felt some some degree degree
James James struggled struggled clearly with with his his Terence's Terence's detainment, detainment, constantly constantly worrying worrying about about
further further into into the the 'inner 'inner world'
45 45
withstood withstood the the man-handling. man-handling. We We believe believe that that this this experience experience drove drove Jim Jim
Jum Jum was was not not brave brave physically physically and and well well knew knew that that he he could could not not have have
physically physically as as the the father father had had done': done':
affected affected by by the the war, war, describing describing his his 'horror 'horror at at the the idea idea that that Terry Terry might might have have to to suffer suffer
in in 1983 1983 how how deeply deeply James James (affectionately (affectionately called called Jum Jum by by family family and and friends) friends) was was
the the entire entire war war period. period. Another Another family family friend friend Patricia Patricia Gill Gill explained explained to to Frank Frank McKay McKay
The The strong strong possibility possibility that that he he too too would would be be put put behind behind the the wire wire hung hung over over him him during during
felt felt much much like like
writing writing letters; letters; a a periodic periodic wave wave of of depression.
44 44
Either Either way way it's it's a a good good thing- solidifies solidifies my my principles. principles. Of Of late late I've I've not not
the the Board. Board. If If I I don't don't get get it, it, I I guess guess I'll I'll be be joining joining the the ranks ranks of of the the faithful. faithful.
conscientious conscientious grounds. grounds. I I may may or or may may not not it it get according according to to the the policy policy of of
My My name name will will be be in in the the ballot ballot on on Tuesday. Tuesday. I I will will send send in in an an appeal appeal on on
at at the the time. time. To To Noel Noel Ginn Ginn on on November November 11, 11, 1944, 1944, he he wrote: wrote:
the the impending impending ballot ballot was was weighing weighing on on his his mind, mind, as as he he mentioned mentioned it it in in various various letters letters 36 36
Belinda Belinda Cumming Cumming interview interview with with Terence Terence Baxter, Baxter, 18/08/07, 18/08/07, Dunedin Dunedin
48 48
Millar, Millar, Spark Spark ro ro a a Waiting Waiting Fuse, Fuse, 43 43
47 47
by by their their sons, sons, he he knew knew they they would would have have been been very very disappointed disappointed had had he he decided decided to to take take
Although Although Terence Terence believed believed his his parents parents would would have have learnt learnt to to accept accept any any choice choice made made
exp exp ame ame 1 1 . .
. d d . 48 48
'sense 'sense in in the the family- that's that's who who they they were were and and that's that's what what they they were were like', like', he he
in in reality reality he he did did not not really really feel feel it it was was possible possible to to join join the the war war effort. effort. There There was was a a
entering entering the the navy navy because because of of his his love love of of boats. boats. It It was was in in his his nature nature to to act act that that way, way, but but
not not let let him him down. down. He He laughed laughed as as he he described described how how he he would would tease tease his his parents parents about about
war. war. Terence Terence explained explained how how it it felt felt natural natural to to follow follow his his father; father; how how he he felt felt he he could could
surely surely have have been been very very difficult difficult for for him him not not to to taken taken have the the pacifist pacifist stance stance in in the the next next
There There was was clearly clearly a a very very close close bond bond between between and and Terence his his father, father, and and it it would would
great great blow blow to to his his much much beloved beloved
father father if if he he had had not not taken taken a a stand.
47 47
to to be be rejected rejected by by Society Society or or rejected rejected by by his his family, family, as as it it would would have have been been a a
could could It It be be said said that that he he didn't didn't have have a a choice choice ...... it it was was a a matter matter of of choosing choosing
Terence Terence to to assume assume a a pro-war pro-war stance: stance:
Terence's Terence's wife wife Lenore Lenore recognised recognised how how extremely extremely difficult difficult it it would would have have been been for for
taken taken any any other other path path than than that that of of pacifism? pacifism?
this this narrative narrative is is whether whether Terence Terence and and James James had had a a choice. choice. Could Could they they really really have have
persevere persevere and and survive survive such such horrific horrific treatment. treatment. The The interesting interesting question question arising arising out out of of
respected respected the the strong strong stand stand he he took, took, observing observing his his remarkable remarkable strength strength of of character character to to
They They knew knew well well what what Archibald Archibald had had gone gone through through in in the the First First World World War, War, and and they they
education. education. Both Both Terence Terence and and James James boys boys clearly clearly adored adored and and admired admired their their father. father.
test, test, considering considering their their pacifist pacifist upbringing, upbringing, legendary legendary objector objector father father figure figure and and Quaker Quaker
no no surprise surprise that that both both sons sons proved proved their their commitment commitment to to pacifism pacifism when when brought brought the the to
clear clear that that both both felt felt very very acutely acutely effects effects the of of their their inheritance inheritance from from their their father. father. It It is is
After After examining examining the the wartime wartime experiences experiences of of the the boys boys and and actions actions taken taken by by them, them, it it is is 37 37
Millar, Millar, Spark Spark to to a a Waiting Waiting Fuse, Fuse, 123 123
49 49
any any person person would would naturally naturally have have doubts. doubts.
continue continue to to debate debate the the issue issue in in his his mind mind and and question question the the correctness correctness of of his his actions; actions;
Of Of course course the the issue issue was was never never likely likely to to be be simple; simple; Terence Terence was was always always going going to to
important important thing, thing, you're you're all all together together aren't aren't you?
49 49
letting letting your your mates mates down, down, you're you're part part of of a a group group too, too, that's that's another another
about about that that at at all, all, it's it's out out with with the the gun, gun, that's that's finished. finished. Otherwise Otherwise you're you're
in in a a situation situation where where it it was was either either you you or or him him you you wouldn't wouldn't be be thinking thinking
time time where where somebody somebody might might say, say, 'Oh, 'Oh, I I couldn't couldn't kill kill another another man.' man.' But But
did did the the right right thing thing or or not, not, thinking thinking it it over over ...... You You get get in in situations situations in in war war
When When you you consider consider what what happened happened in in the the war. war. .. .. I I just just wonder wonder whether whether I I
the the right right thing thing to to do do over over this this situation, situation, this this business business about about the the war. war.
I'm I'm still still not not happy happy about about whether whether I I made made the the right right decision, decision, or or what what was was
correct correct in in his his adopted adopted war-time war-time position: position:
In In 1995 1995 Terence Terence admitted admitted he he was was not not entirely entirely clear clear in in his his mind mind that that he he had had been been
valuing valuing their their ideas ideas and and observations observations in in life. life.
and and debate, debate, and and clearly clearly would would have have encouraged encouraged her her boys boys to to think think independently, independently,
intelligent intelligent and and educated educated woman. woman. She She filled filled the the house house with with books, books, initiated initiated discussion discussion
involvement involvement in in pacifist pacifist activities activities continued continued until until her her death. death. Millicent Millicent was was an an
after after reading reading Archibald's Archibald's letter letter and and never never looked looked back. back. After After marrying marrying Archibald Archibald her her
significant significant as as in in the the family family as as Archibald's Archibald's war-time war-time stance. stance. Millicent Millicent adopted adopted pacifism pacifism
passed passed on on to to her her sons. sons. This This conviction conviction was was just just as, as, if if not not more, more, important important and and
had had a a strong strong conviction conviction (never (never tested tested because because women women were were not not called called up) up) that that she she
Archibald Archibald choosing and and rejecting rejecting the the values values of of her her own own family. family. In In this this way way she she clearly clearly
her her influence influence on on her her boys boys is is very very important important in in this this narrative. narrative. She She created created the the family family by by
a a different different path, path, his his mother mother especially especially disapproving. disapproving. Millicent's Millicent's role role in in the the family family and and 38 38
Belinda Belinda Cumming Cumming interview interview with with Terence Terence Baxter, Baxter, 18/08/07, 18/08/07,
Dunedin Dunedin 50 50
based based on on 'conscientious 'conscientious and and logical logical grounds.' grounds.'
Appeal Appeal Letter Letter to to the the authorities, authorities, declaring declaring his his objections objections to to military military service service were were
futility futility of of war. war. He He clearly clearly set set out out his his reasons reasons for for adopting adopting his his anti-war anti-war stance stance in in his his
believed believed in in his his mission mission for for pacifism pacifism and and shared shared a a vision vision with with his his father, father, seeing seeing the the
Whatever Whatever the the nature nature of of Archibald's Archibald's influence, influence, what what is is clear clear is is that that James James too too clearly clearly
experiences. experiences.
the the fact fact that that neither neither man man appeared appeared to to retain retain any any bitterness bitterness following following their their war-time war-time
hardships hardships and and remaining remaining committed committed to to their their cause. cause. What What is is especially especially remarkable remarkable is is
similar similar nature, nature, and and came came to to be be united united by by their their war-time war-time experiences, experiences, both both enduring enduring
condemnation condemnation on on them them for for their their war-time war-time actions. actions. Terence Terence and and Archibald Archibald were were of of
and and compassion compassion of of other other soldiers, soldiers, making making an an effort effort not not to to direct direct any any blame blame or or
illustrated illustrated in in Archibald's Archibald's We We Will Will Not Not Cease, Cease, in in which which he he focuses focuses on on the the generosity generosity
displaying displaying any any judgement judgement or or impatience impatience towards towards those those with with opposing opposing views. views. This This is is
In In this this way way Terence Terence was was very very much much like like his his father, father, both both humble humble and and humane, humane, neither neither
lives lives their on on the the line.
50 50
feel feel strongly strongly about about it it and and naturally naturally direct direct their their anger anger towards towards those those who who refused refused to to put put
because because if if someone someone was was to to a a lose brother brother or or father father in in war, war, it it is is no no wonder wonder they they would would
thoughts thoughts or or intolerance. intolerance. He He easily easily comprehended comprehended their their antagonism antagonism and and resentment, resentment,
Terence, Terence, instead instead he he saw saw it it as as natural natural and and certainly certainly did did not not blame blame them them for for their their
men men under under him him who who disagreed disagreed with with his his views views on on war. war. This This did did not not anger anger or or surprise surprise
supervisor supervisor at at Reid Reid and and Grays, Grays, and and he he has has commented commented on on a a degree degree of of friction, friction, with with the the
for for involvement involvement their in in war-combat. war-combat. In In years years following following the the war war Terence Terence was was made made
and and understand understand why why others others did did not not share share his his views. views. He He certainly certainly did did not not judge judge others others
because because unlike unlike many many other other pacifists pacifists Terence Terence was was able able to to observe observe all all sides sides of of the the issue issue
quoted, quoted, which which seems seems to to exhibit exhibit a a certain certain degree degree of of uncertainty, uncertainty, is is not not surprising, surprising,
by by his his father's father's actions actions and and beliefs, beliefs, but but that that the the cause cause was was his his own. own. His His statement statement last last
I I believe believe that that Terence Terence was was committed committed to to pacifism, pacifism, that that he he was was inevitably inevitably influenced influenced 39 39
Grant, Grant, Out Out in in the the Cold, Cold, 23 23
53 53
McKay McKay Book Book Chapter Chapter MS MS 17/4, 17/4, Baxter Baxter Box Box Seventeen, Seventeen, Beaglehole Beaglehole Room, Room, Victoria Victoria University University
52 52
Letter Letter from from Baxter Baxter to to Forces Forces Armed Appeal Appeal Board, Board, MS-0975/212, MS-0975/212, Baxter Baxter Family Family Papers Papers
(HC) (HC) 51 51
schools, schools, and and during during World World Two Two War he he interceded interceded with with authorities authorities on on behalf behalf of of
conference conference in in Copenhagen, Copenhagen, had had campaigned campaigned against against compulsory compulsory military military training training in in
1928. He He had had represented represented New New Zealand Zealand at at the the War War Resisters Resisters International International
53 53
of of the the No No More More War War Movement, Movement, which which had had been been established established first first in in Christchurch Christchurch in in
peace peace movement movement long long after after that. that. He He took took the the main main part part in in forming forming the the Dunedin Dunedin branch branch
perseverance perseverance remarkable in in the the First First World World War, War, though though he he remained remained active active in in the the
Archibald's Archibald's most most enduring enduring contribution contribution to to the the cause cause of of pacifism pacifism was was no no doubt doubt his his
of of pacifism pacifism throughout throughout his his entire entire life. life.
war. war. He He came came to to his his pacifist pacifist stance stance his his on own own and and was was convincing convincing in in his his declarations declarations
being, being, intelligent who who had had plenty plenty of of time time and and opportunity opportunity to to form form his his own own views views on on
of of man man is is sacred. sacred. has has been been It It shed shed too too much. much. We We are are Christians.' Christians.' James James was was an an
52 52
Chief Chief who who had had explained explained to to the the Governor-General Governor-General during during the the Maori Maori Wars: Wars: 'The 'The blood blood
the the protest protest movement, movement, and and when when arguing arguing a a case case for for a a pacifist pacifist view, view, quoted quoted a a Maori Maori
University, University, in in his his position position against against the the war war in in Vietnam. Vietnam. He He quickly quickly became became involved involved in in
James James later later adopted adopted the the same same pacifist pacifist stance stance while while he he was was a a student student at at Otago Otago
arrived arrived at at my my present present attitude attitude in in the the main main by by independent independent thinking.' thinking.'
51 51
immoral,' immoral,' but but declared declared that that despite despite his his father's father's history history and and attitude: attitude: 'I 'I have have
He He went went on on to to explain explain that that he he was was brought brought up up to to regard regard 'all 'all wars wars as as futile futile and and
international international politics politics and and economics. economics.
humanitarian. humanitarian. My My logical logical objections objections are are based based on on my my knowledge knowledge of of
form form of of murder. murder. .. .. My My conscientious conscientious objections objections are are both both religious religious and and
and and that that War War in in any any circumstances circumstances is is not not more more justifiable justifiable than than any any other other
reinforced reinforced my my belief belief that that the the difference difference between between nationalities nationalities are are slight slight
people people of of various various nationalities, nationalities, including including Germans. Germans. My My experiences experiences
During During a a trip trip to to Europe Europe in in 1937 1937 and and 1938 1938 I I had had opportunity opportunity to to observe observe 40 40
Millicent Millicent
interview interview cassette cassette tapes, tapes, March March 1979, 1979, Catley, Catley, Christine Christine Cole: Cole: Papers Papers (81-035), (81-035),
HC HC
55 55
Letter Letter from from John John Cookson, Cookson, 29/1, 29/1, in in Baxter Baxter Box Box Ten, Ten, Beaglehole Beaglehole
Room, Room, Victoria Victoria University University 54 54
Association. Association.
Amnesty Amnesty International, International, and and active active in in the the United United Nations Nations
Memories Memories
of of Millicent Millicent
Baxter) Baxter)
the the death death of of her her husband husband in in 1970, 1970, being being a a member member of of
her her Dunedin Dunedin home home (The (The
Figure Figure 16. 16. Millicent Millicent
Baxter Baxter
in in
carried carried on on working working for for the the cause cause of of pacifism pacifism long long after after
Millicent: Millicent: regret regret 'I 'I it it very very much much indeed.' Millicent Millicent
55 55
although although he he could could do do little little about about it it at at the the time, time, told told
the the son son of of Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter was was in in detention detention and and
with with Sir Sir Walter Walter Nash. Nash. He He claimed claimed he he had had not not known known that that
objectors' objectors' sentences, sentences, and and she she was was given given a a private private meeting meeting
visited visited personally parliament parliament to to ask ask for for the the revision revision of of
nearly nearly all all sittings sittings of of the the Appeal Appeal Board. Board. In In 1943 1943 she she
women's women's anti-war anti-war movement movement in in Dunedin Dunedin and and attended attended
also also was was for for president a a time time of of the the local local branch branch of of the the
the the anti-war anti-war cause. cause. As As well well as as organising organising petitions, petitions, she she
Millicent Millicent was was also also remarkably remarkably active active during during her her life life for for
Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent Baxter) Baxter)
Figure Figure 15. 15. Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter (The (The
findings findings were were by by reversed newly newly established established Revision Revision Boards. Boards.
for for the the rehearing rehearing of of the the cases cases of of objectors objectors in in camps, camps, and and a a short short while while later, later, many many
pacifists pacifists and and conscientious conscientious objectors. objectors. He He and and Millicent Millicent also also carried carried 5 a a petition petition asking asking
4 4 41 41
Michael Michael King, King, "Foreword" "Foreword" We We Will Will Not Not Cease, Cease, by by Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter (Cape (Cape
Catley Catley Ltd, Ltd, 2003), 2003), II II
58 58
Stover, Stover, New New Zealand Zealand Herald Herald
57 57
Sue Sue Stover, Stover, "Being "Being a a pacifist pacifist proved proved far far from from peaceful", peaceful",
New New Zealand Zealand Herald, Herald, (22/09/1979) (22/09/1979) 56 56
the the family family facing facing hostility hostility and and antagonism antagonism from from wider wider society. society. The The supportive supportive family family
Quaker Quaker education; education; and and secondly secondly their their social social inheritance inheritance of of stigma, stigma, every every member member of of
family family customs, customs, in in terms terms of of values values and and attitudes attitudes held, held, shaped shaped by by their their upbringing upbringing and and
gained gained by by Terence Terence and and James James explored explored in in this this chapter chapter has has two two aspects aspects to to it, it, firstly firstly in in
and and once once again again each each member member of of the the Baxter Baxter family family was was to to suffer. suffer. The The inheritance inheritance
In In 1939 1939 war war had had arrived arrived on on Archibald's Archibald's doorstep doorstep to to test test his his convictions convictions once once more, more,
Millicent Millicent
lived lived on on to to 1984, 1984, passing passing away away aged aged 96.
58 58
she she could could live live her her life life over over she she immediately immediately
answered: answered: 'Marry 'Marry my my husband husband again. again. '
57 57
hardships hardships Millicent Millicent was was never never one one to to complain, complain, and and when when asked asked what what she she would would do do if if
and and comfort, comfort, chose chose to to associate associate herself herself with with a a notorious notorious objector. objector. Despite Despite her her
fathers' fathers' history history brought brought upon upon the the family, family, Millicent Millicent chose chose to to leave leave her her life life of of wealth wealth
father's father's past past actions. actions. Unlike Unlike her her sons sons who who inherited inherited the the consequences consequences that that their their
watching watching her her youngest youngest suffer suffer through through his his difficult difficult teen teen years, years, clearly clearly paying paying for for his his
seeing seeing her her eldest eldest son son be be taken taken away away and and kept kept locked locked up up for for four four long long years, years, while while also also
problems. problems. He He could could not not have have coped coped without without her her love love and and support. support. She She had had to to endure endure
experiences experiences and and plagued plagued by by ill ill health, health, suffering suffering from from bad bad circulation circulation and and heart heart
Millicent Millicent nursed nursed Archibald Archibald as as he he continued continued to to be be affected affected by by his his horrific horrific war war
believed believed in in until until her her death. death.
and and functioning functioning through through terrible terrible times, times, and and continued continued to to work work for for a a cause cause she she truly truly
remarkable remarkable woman woman with with incredible incredible strength strength of of character. character. She She held held her her family family together together
of of one one of of New New Zealand's Zealand's most most legendary legendary poets. poets. However, However, in in her her own own right right 5 she she was was a a
6 6
the the British British Empire, Empire, wife wife of of the the nation's nation's best-known best-known conscientious conscientious objector objector and and mother mother
Professor Professor John John Macmillan Macmillan Brown Brown and and the the first first woman woman to to receive receive a a masters masters degree degree in in
Baxter Baxter lived lived her her entire entire life life in in the the shadow shadow of of famous famous people: people: daughter daughter of of noted noted
could could possibly possibly have have been been overlooked. overlooked. As As journalist journalist Sue Sue Stover Stover illustrated, illustrated, Millicent Millicent
played played Millicent a a vital vital and and significant significant role role in in the the family, family, though though her her importance importance 42 42
objector objector in in their their midst, midst, or or alternatively, alternatively, tum tum their their backs backs and and walk walk away. away.
families families are are forced forced to to find find different different ways ways of of coping coping with with having having a a conscientious conscientious
adoption adoption of of pacifism pacifism never never simply simply affects affects one one soul, soul, it it affects affects entire entire families, families, and and these these
cause cause of of upset upset and and chaos, chaos, tearing tearing kin kin apart apart and and destroying destroying familial familial relationships. relationships. The The
entire entire Baxter Baxter clan clan across across generations. generations. However, However, for for many many families families pacifism pacifism was was the the
Clearly, Clearly, in in this this case case pacifism pacifism was was a a family family commitment, commitment, adopted adopted and and shared shared by by the the
face face the the hostility hostility inevitably inevitably brought brought upon upon them. them.
network network allowed allowed the the men men to to take take a a difficult difficult position position in in society society and and enabled enabled them them to to 43 43
Cathy Cathy Casey, Casey, "Wars "Wars are are
Never Never Won Won Everybody Everybody Loses", Loses",
Red Red and and Green, Green, no!. no!. (2003), (2003), 129-131 129-131 2 2
J. J. R. R. McCreary, McCreary, "A "A Study Study
of of Social Social
Deviation" Deviation" (Thesis, (Thesis, Victoria Victoria University University Wellington, Wellington, 1948), 1948), 51 51 1 1
them them unduly. unduly. Terence Terence Baxter Baxter was was convinced convinced that that he he should should allow allow his his own own son son
independent independent thought thought in in their their children, children, and and made made conscious conscious efforts efforts to to not not influence influence
Many Many parents, parents, like like Archibald Archibald and and Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, encouraged encouraged and and valued valued
decided decided 'never 'never to to go go to to fight fight in in a a
war,' war,' appearing appearing as as a a witness witness at at his his appeal.' appeal.'
2 2
stupid stupid thing thing that that a a man man could could think think about', about', and and was was clearly clearly proud proud when when her her son son
detained, detained, and and clearly clearly helped helped Ray Ray arrive arrive at at his his point point of of view view that that 'war 'war was was the the most most
Ray Ray to to to to Wanganui show show him him where where objectors objectors from from the the Great Great War War had had been been unfairly unfairly
hearing hearing about about her her brother's brother's experience experience in in Gallipoli, Gallipoli, had had changed changed her her attitude. attitude. She She took took
War War effort effort that that she she had had sent sent white white feathers feathers to to conscientious conscientious objectors objectors but, but, after after
'fervent 'fervent patriot' patriot' into into a a determined determined pacifist. pacifist. She She had had felt felt so so strongly strongly about about the the Great Great
conscious! conscious! y y influenced influenced her her son's son's beliefs beliefs after after she she herself herself was was transformed transformed from from a a
the the case case of of Ray Ray Weeber, Weeber, an an objector objector from from World World War War Two, Two, it it appears appears his his mother mother
and and nature nature of of that that influence influence can can be be a a conscious conscious decision decision on on the the part part of of the the parent. parent. In In
parent parent will will always always inevitably inevitably influence influence their their children children to to some some extent, extent, but but the the strength strength
the the
home home ...... most most
of of his his basic basic opinions, opinions, attitudes, attitudes, values values and and modes modes of of behaviour. behaviour. A A .I .I
J. J. R. R. McCreary McCreary asserts asserts in in his his 1948 1948 thesis thesis social social on deviation, deviation, 'a 'a child child receives receives from from
pacifist pacifist way way of of life. life.
and and cope cope with with what what they they inherited inherited from from the the family family member member electing electing a a non-conformist non-conformist
All All had had to find find to ways ways to to deal deal with with the the hostility hostility inevitably inevitably faced faced in in their their communities, communities,
choose choose to to support support and and assist assist the the objector objector or or to to turn turn their their backs backs in in shame shame and and disgust. disgust.
member member of of that that unit unit paid paid a a price price for for his his commitment commitment to to pacifism. pacifism. Families Families could could
forever. forever. Whether Whether or or a a not conscientious conscientious objector objector was was supported supported by by his his kin, kin, every every
not not change change only only his his own own life. life. His His entire entire family family was was affected, affected, lives lives their changed changed
ideas, ideas, to to resist resist conscription conscription and and go go against against the the dominant dominant view view of of his his country, country, he he did did
When When a a man man decided decided to to adopt adopt pacifist pacifist views views prior prior to to 1960, 1960, to to espouse espouse radical radical anti-war anti-war
Source Source of of pride pride or or shame? shame? Families Families pay pay the the price price for for pacifism pacifism
CHAPTER CHAPTER THREE: THREE: 44 44
1994): 1994): Papers Papers (MS-Group-0487), (MS-Group-0487), Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington Wellington
Barracks, Barracks, May May 1918", 1918", Conscientious Conscientious objectors objectors in in WWI, WWI, MS-5969-2, MS-5969-2, O'Connor, O'Connor, Peter Peter Selwyn: Selwyn: (1926-
allegations allegations to to be be substantially substantially true. true. For For more more information information see: see: O'Connor O'Connor "Wanganui "Wanganui Detention Detention
in in Wanganui Wanganui Detention Detention Barracks. Barracks. A A magisterial magisterial enquiry enquiry ordered ordered by by Sir Sir James James Allen Allen found found the the
In In May May 9 9 8 8 I I complaints complaints I I
were were publicised publicised about about brutal brutal
and and violent violent treatment treatment of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors 5 5
Mike Mike
Crean, Crean, "Memories "Memories of of an an Objector", Objector", The The Press Press (25103/2002), (25103/2002),
9 9
4 4
Belinda Belinda Cumming Cumming interview interview with with Terence Terence
Baxter, Baxter, 18/08/07, 18/08/07, Dunedin Dunedin 3 3
often often looked looked over over is is the the effect effect on on the the objector's objector's family. family.
Voices Voices Wake Wake Us Us tell tell the the story story of of the the men's men's experiences experiences of of imprisonment, imprisonment, but but what what is is
and and subjected subjected to to Fabuse Fabuse and and hostility. hostility. Works Works such such as as Ian Ian Hamilton's Hamilton's Till Till Human Human
history history
less less well-known. Conscientious Conscientious objectors objectors in in both both wars wars were were publicly publicly harassed, harassed,
5 5
abused abused behind behind the the gates gates of of Wanganui Wanganui Detention Detention Camp Camp during during that that time, time, this this chapter chapter in in
publicised publicised case case of of ill-treatment. ill-treatment. However, However, men men were were also also ill-treated ill-treated and and brutally brutally
deported deported to to the the Front Front Line Line during during World World War War One One was was the the most most infamous infamous and and
prison prison bars bars or or camp camp fences fences for for indefinite indefinite sentences. sentences. The The story story of of the the fourteen fourteen men men
Conscientious Conscientious objectors objectors were were punished punished by by being being imprisoned, imprisoned, incarcerated incarcerated behind behind
and and difficult difficult time time for for parents parents of of both both conscientious conscientious objectors objectors and and soldiers soldiers alike. alike.
the the safety safety of of their their loved loved ones. ones. Suffering Suffering was was widespread, widespread, the the war war time time being being a a terrible terrible
terrible terrible pain, pain, the the majority majority of of people people with with sons sons at at the the Front Front constantly constantly worrying worrying about about
sons sons depart depart for for war, war, never never knowing knowing if if he he was was to to return. return. Communities Communities were were suffering suffering
hostility. hostility. However, However, it it must must be be compared compared to to the the experience experience of of a a parent parent watching watching their their
difficult difficult and and inevitably inevitably place place them them in in unpleasant unpleasant situations, situations, enduring enduring hardship hardship and and
and and take take the stance stance the of of an an objector objector when when it it was was clearly clearly going going to to make make life life far far more more
It It never never would would have have been been easy easy for for a a parent parent to to watch watch their their children children adopt adopt pacifist pacifist views views
training training during during the the Vietnam Vietnam
War, War, was was proud proud to to support support his his appeal.
4 4
influencing influencing his his own own children's children's views,' views,' but but when when his his son son 'drew 'drew a a ballot' ballot' for for military military
consciously consciously influencing influencing offspring. offspring. He He tried tried 'to 'to emulate emulate his his own own father father in in not not
objector objector detained detained in in the the Second Second World World War, War, shared shared Terence's Terence's views views about about
own own came came to to the the decision decision not not accept accept the the ballot? ballot? Jack Jack Rogers, Rogers, another another conscientious conscientious
the the Vietnam Vietnam War. War. Kenneth Kenneth independently independently discovered discovered his his own own views views on on war war and and on on his his
would would not not forbid forbid Ke1meth Ke1meth to to undertake undertake compulsory compulsory military military training training when when it it came came to to
Kenneth Kenneth to to make make up up his his own own mind, mind, and and he he and and his his wife wife Lenore Lenore made made it it clear clear they they 45 45
Belinda Belinda Cumming Cumming interview interview with with
Chris Chris Palmer, Palmer,
2/6/07, 2/6/07, Upper Upper Moutere, Moutere, Nelson Nelson
9 9
Papers Papers (84- 204 204 ), ), Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington Wellington
Prison Prison
and and Detention Detention
Camp Camp Correspondence Correspondence
MS MS
84-204-53, 84-204-53, Hansen, Hansen, Raymond Raymond Ernest, Ernest, 1910-1985: 1910-1985:
8 8
University University of of Otago, Otago, 1978), 1978), 55 55
Jan Jan
Catherine Catherine
McLeod, McLeod, "Activities "Activities of of
New New
Zealand Zealand Women Women during during World World War War One" One" (BA(Hons), (BA(Hons), 7 7
Frank Frank
McKay, McKay,
The The Life Life
oflames oflames
Baxter, Baxter, K. K. (Auckland, (Auckland,
NZ: NZ: Oxford Oxford University University Press, Press, 1990), 1990), 60 60 6 6
the the Quakers. Quakers.
9 9
detention, detention,
people people
stopped stopped attending attending his his services services he he and was was forced forced to to resign resign and and join join
Methodist Methodist
church. church.
He He had had been been a a local local preacher preacher but but after after his his sons sons were were placed placed in in
confirmed confirmed
after after
his his sons sons adopted adopted such such beliefs, beliefs, and and he he suffered suffered for for such such beliefs beliefs in in his his
deal deal because because
of of his his son's son's pacifism pacifism and and incarceration. incarceration. Theodore's Theodore's pacifism pacifism was was only only
bitterness bitterness
or or
anger, anger, but but recognised recognised that that his his father father Theodore Theodore suffered suffered and and lost lost a a great great
was was philosophical philosophical
about about his his own own views views and and emerged emerged from from his his experience experience without without
struggles struggles
far far more more than than his his own.
Chris Chris Palmer, Palmer, also also a a Second Second World World War War
pacifist, pacifist, 8 8
the the long long
run.' run.'
He He believed believed his his actions actions added added to to her her burdens, burdens, and and worried worried about about her her
equivalent equivalent
of of a a
holiday holiday for for me me ...... not not so so for for you you ...... you you will will be be the the greater greater sufferer sufferer in in
objector, objector,
believed believed
that that his his sentence sentence fell fell on on his his mother mother more more than than on on him: him: is is 'It 'It the the
stand stand
more more
than they they than did did as as individuals. individuals. Raymond Raymond Hansen, Hansen, a a World World War War Two Two
Some Some
conscientious conscientious
objectors objectors acknowledged acknowledged that that their their families families felt felt the the effects effects of of their their
group group
was was tantamount tantamount to to being being traitor traitor
to to one's one's country.' own
7 7
patriotism patriotism the the 'noblest 'noblest of of all all civic civic duties,' duties,' so so 'to 'to belong belong to to an an anti-conscriptionist anti-conscriptionist
misunderstood misunderstood
and and detested. detested. War War was was service seen seen as as the the ultimate ultimate duty duty of of a a man, man, and and
actions actions and and beliefs. beliefs. Conscientious Conscientious objectors objectors were were despised despised in in communities, communities,
degrees, degrees,
most most suffering suffering social social ostracism ostracism and and all all paying paying the the price price for for that that member's member's
pacifists.
Families Families with with an an objector objector
in in their their midst midst experienced experienced
harassment harassment to to varying varying 6 6
were were
emptied emptied all all over over the the lawn lawn of of another another Brighton Brighton family family suspected suspected of of being being
of of
harassment harassment
to to which which families families of of objectors objectors were were subjected. subjected. On On one one occasion occasion faeces faeces
antagonism antagonism
in in
their their communities. communities. The The Baxter Baxter family family are are a a telling telling example example of of the the type type
The The
entire entire
family family of of a a conscientious conscientious objector objector suffered, suffered, as as victims victims of of hostility hostility and and 46 46
Gaylene Gaylene Presion, Presion, War War Stories Stories
Our Our Mothers Mothers Never Never Told Told
Us Us (NZ: (NZ: Gaylene Gaylene Preston Preston Productions, Productions, 2005) 2005) 12 12
Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington Wellington
Janet Janet Barrington, Barrington, "My "My War", War",
Barrington, Barrington, Archibald Archibald
Charles: Charles: Papers Papers (MS-Papers-5230), (MS-Papers-5230), Alexander Alexander
11 11
Publishing Publishing Co. Co. Ltd), Ltd), 20 20
H. H. E. E. Holland, Holland, Armageddon Armageddon
or or Calvary, Calvary,
(Wellington, (Wellington, NZ: NZ: Maoriland Maoriland Worker Worker Printing Printing and and 10 10
their their daughter. daughter.
The The wives wives and and mothers mothers of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors did did not not suffer suffer
12 12
support support of of her her husband, husband, he he had had deserted deserted her her and and left left her her alone alone to to mourn mourn the the death death of of
found found herself herself overwhelmed overwhelmed with with anger; anger; in in a a time time when when she she desperately desperately needed needed the the
had had been been taken taken from from him him and and he he was was unable unable to to write. write. Rita Rita
papers/gprestpn.asp) papers/gprestpn.asp)
to to the the camp, camp, Rita Rita received received notice notice that that Allen's Allen's
privileges privileges (http://pssm.ssc.govt.nz/1999/ (http://pssm.ssc.govt.nz/1999/
Our Our Mothers Mothers Never Never
Told Told
Us Us
and and had had
to to report report daily daily
to to
the the police police station. station. On On returning returning
interviewed interviewed in in War War Stories Stories
Figure Figure
17. 17. Rita Rita Graham Graham allowed allowed to to leave leave the the house house or or interact interact with with large large groups groups
for for three three days days to to attend attend Heather's Heather's funeral funeral but but was was not not
Detention Detention Camp. Camp. He He was was allowed allowed compassionate compassionate leave leave
died died while while Allen Allen was was incarcerated incarcerated in in Strathmore Strathmore
his his daughter daughter the the day day he he left, left, and and never never again; again; Heather Heather
daughter daughter Heather Heather was was only only twelve twelve months months old. old. Allen Allen saw saw
years, years, her her husband husband Allen Allen being being taken taken away away when when their their
Rita Rita Graham Graham spoke spoke of of the the emotional emotional trauma trauma of of her her war war
censored censored and and visiting visiting was was restricted restricted and and difficult. difficult.
given given to to the the public public concerning concerning the the running running of of detention detention camps, camps, letters letters were were heavily heavily
pass pass without without any any news news received received by by the the women women at at home. home. Little Little information information was was ever ever
between between camps camps without without warning, warning, and and removal removal of of privileges privileges meant meant that that months months could could
conscientious conscientious objectors objectors imprisoned imprisoned during during the the war. war. Husbands Husbands were were transported transported
feathered, feathered,
or or with with broken broken limbs.' limbs.' Worry Worry was was a a constant constant emotion emotion for for wives wives of of
11 11
safety safety of of her her husband, husband, often often imagining imagining him him 'thrown 'thrown in in the the harbour, harbour, or or being being tarred tarred and and
'worked 'worked fiercely fiercely to to make make time time pass pass quickly.' quickly.' She She would would constantly constantly worry worry about about the the
of of bringing bringing up up three three young young children children with with her her husband husband gone, gone, and and described described how how she she
extremely extremely active active and and outspoken outspoken conscientious conscientious objector. objector. She She discussed discussed the the difficulties difficulties
unpublished unpublished account account of of her her war war experience experience as as the the wife wife of of Archibald Archibald Barrington, Barrington, an an
War War 'the 'the
wives wives and and the the mothers mothers suffered suffered most.' Janet Janet Barrington Barrington wrote wrote an an
10 10
dedicated dedicated 'to 'to the the women women who who suffered'; suffered'; as as Holland Holland believed believed that that during during the the Great Great
Politician Politician H. H. E. E. Holland's Holland's book book Armageddon Armageddon or or Calvary Calvary published published in in 1919 1919 is is 47 47
Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library Library
Letter Letter 13/7/45, 13/7/45, Prison Prison
and and Detention Detention Camp Camp Correspondence Correspondence
MS MS 84-204-53, 84-204-53, Hansen Hansen Papers Papers (84-204), (84-204),
15 15
Turnbull Turnbull Library Library
Letter Letter 27/11/41, 27/11/41, J. J. A. A.
Handyside Handyside Letters Letters 1941, 1941, Handyside Handyside Papers Papers
(MS-Group-0099), (MS-Group-0099), Alexander Alexander 14 14
Papers Papers (MS-Group-0088), (MS-Group-0088), Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington Wellington
"Review "Review by by Ross Ross Annabel!", Annabel!",
in in
Echoes Echoes of of the the Forties, Forties, Handyside, Handyside, Allen Allen James James (Rev) (Rev) fl fl 1940-1986: 1940-1986: 13 13
women women during during the the wars, wars, as as discussed discussed in in chapter chapter two. two. Mothers Mothers of of the the boys boys detained detained on on
Baxter Baxter serves serves as as a a model, model, illustrating illustrating the the increased increased social social and and political political activity activity of of
activity activity and and involvement involvement of of women women in in public public affairs affairs can can also also be be identified. identified. Millicent Millicent
While While the the suffering suffering of of women women during during the the wars wars has has been been identified, identified, the the increased increased
mind. mind.
parents, parents, siblings siblings and and children children their their men men were were safe safe and and in in healthy healthy states states of of body body and and
Positive Positive reports reports of of life life in in detention detention reassured reassured and and comforted comforted families, families, informing informing
Grievous Grievous
travesty travesty of of right right and and reason? reason? No. No.
15 15
Misfortune Misfortune to to be be here? here? Why Why think think so? so?
trying, trying, making making the the most most of of his his time, time, and and a a poem poem composed composed by by him him sent sent home home began: began:
and and some some were were in in fact fact enjoying enjoying life. life. Raymond Raymond Hansen Hansen clearly clearly did did not not find find prison prison life life
back.' back.'
Other Other letters letters explained explained that that the the men men were were getting getting plenty plenty
of of food food and and exercise exercise 14 14
tribulations tribulations have have about about as as much much effect effect upon upon my my spirit spirit as as water water has has on on a a duck's duck's
reassured reassured his his parents parents there there was was no no need need to to worry worry about about him, him, for for his his 'trials 'trials and and
a a life life not not unpleasant, unpleasant, which which helped helped comfort comfort parents. parents. A A Strathmore Strathmore inmate inmate in in 1941 1941
to to families families from from conscientious conscientious objectors objectors behind behind prison prison walls walls or or camp camp fences fences portrayed portrayed
were were nothing nothing
like like
the the inhumanities inhumanities dished dished out out to to Baxter.' Baxter.' Many Many letters letters written written home home
13 13
treated treated harshly harshly and and barbarically, barbarically, 'instances 'instances of of cruelty cruelty to to objectors objectors in in World World War War Two Two
been been 'some 'some progress progress between between the the wars.' wars.' She She recognised recognised that that although although the the men men were were
detained detained as as conscientious conscientious objectors, objectors, Ross Ross Annabell Annabell observed observed that that there there had had clearly clearly
In In a a 1986 1986 review review Out Out the the Cold, Cold, David David Grant's Grant's record record of of the the experiences experiences of of men men
support support of of their their husbands husbands and and sons. sons.
separation separation from from their their loved loved ones ones and and from from coping coping without without the the emotional emotional and and financial financial
incarceration incarceration in in prisons prisons or or camps, camps, but but suffered suffered psychologically psychologically from from the the forced forced 48 48
Holland, Holland, Armageddon Armageddon or or Calvary, Calvary, 20 20
20 20
"Foolish "Foolish Boys Boys __ __ or or Martyrs?" Martyrs?" , ,
19 19
McLeod, McLeod, Activities Activities of of New New Zealand Zealand Women, Women, 60 60
18 18
McLeod, McLeod, Activities Activities of of New New Zealand Zealand Women, Women, 57 57
17 17
"Foolish "Foolish Boys Boys or or Martyrs?" Martyrs?" __ __ , , Timaru Timaru
Herald Herald (22/03/2003) (22/03/2003) 16 16
made made difficult difficult for for offspring offspring of of pacifists, pacifists, and and ever-present ever-present propaganda propaganda reminded reminded
objectors objectors 'were 'were
made made to to pay pay the the bitter bitter
price price of of want want and and destitution. destitution. ' School School life life was was
20 20
their their fathers fathers and and brothers brothers were were denying. denying. Holland Holland recognised recognised that that the the children children of of
considered considered and and responded responded in in some some way way to to the the messages messages about about war war and and duty duty which which
Children Children were were confronted confronted with with propaganda propaganda of of the the state, state, and and they they naturally naturally would would have have
help help husbands, husbands, brothers brothers and and sons sons to to follow follow the the law law and and enlist enlist for for service. service.
For For women women at at the the home message message was was clear clear - pull pull your your weight weight on on the the home home front, front, and and
propaganda propaganda calling calling for for the the nation nation to to support support the the war war effort effort and and carry carry out out their their duties. duties.
conscientious conscientious objectors objectors also also were were constantly constantly confronted confronted with with images images and and messages messages of of
to to keep keep them them in in line. line. As As well well as as facing facing hostility hostility and and harassment, harassment, families families of of
the the mothers' mothers' duty duty to to bring bring up up their their sons sons in in the the correct correct way; way; it it was was their their responsibility responsibility
he he would would let let them them
go go to to the the island island every every day.' day.' He He was was clearly clearly insinuating insinuating that that it it was was
19 19
Minister Minister of of Defence Defence responded: responded: 'If 'If mothers mothers would would persuade persuade their their boys boys to to keep keep the the law law
attacked attacked Sir Sir James James Allen Allen for for taking taking away away their their sons sons and and not not allowing allowing them them to to visit, visit, the the
1913 1913 for for refusing refusing to to do do compulsory compulsory military military training. training. When When the the outspoken outspoken mothers mothers
Ripapa Ripapa Island Island was was in in Lyttleton Lyttleton Harbour, Harbour, and and a a group group of of men men were were detained detained there there in in
women women could could emerge emerge
publicly publicly and and voice voice their their protests.' protests.'
18 18
concluding concluding that that 'the 'the anti-conscription anti-conscription movement movement was was an an important important vehicle vehicle by by which which
away away and and deported. deported. Jan Jan McLeod McLeod focuses focuses women's women's on involvement involvement in in her her 1978 1978 thesis, thesis,
deputation deputation to to Parliament, Parliament, protesting protesting on on behalf behalf of of mothers mothers whose whose sons sons had had taken taken been
meetings meetings and and conferences, conferences, increasingly increasingly voicing voicing their their opinions, opinions, and and the the WIL WIL sent sent a a
League League
(WIL) (WIL) and and the the
Canterbury Canterbury Women's Women's Institute Institute (CWI). Women Women attended attended
17 17
formed, formed, which which worked worked in in close close cooperation cooperation with with the the Women's Women's International International Peace Peace
lads lads . .
In In 1916 1916 a a women's women's .J branch branch of of the the Anti-Conscription Anti-Conscription League League
(WA-CL) (WA-CL) was was 6 6
and and calling calling on on Members Members of of Parliament Parliament 'to 'to stop stop this this iniquitous iniquitous persecution persecution of of our our
Ripapa Ripapa Island Island in in World World War War One One became became involved involved by by writing writing letters letters to to local local papers papers 49 49
1945), 1945), 9 9
H. H. Urquhart, Urquhart, R. R. The The Searchlight Searchlight on on R.S.A. R.S.A.
'sand 'sand C.O. C.O.
's 's (Auckland, (Auckland, NZ: NZ: Times Times Printing Printing Works, Works,
24 24
McLeod, McLeod, Activities Activities of of New New Zealand Zealand Women, Women, 54 54
23 23
Walter Walter Lawry, Lawry, We We Said Said No No To To War! War!
(Dunedin, (Dunedin, NZ: NZ:
Wordspinners Wordspinners Unlimited, Unlimited, 1994), 1994), 7 7
22 22
Janet Janet Barrington, Barrington, "My "My War", War", Barrington Barrington
Papers, Papers, (MS-Papers-5230), (MS-Papers-5230), Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library Library 21 21
reason reason for for an an objector objector
refusing refusing
to to undertake undertake military military service. A A column column written written
24 24
one one
correspondent correspondent suggesting suggesting that that the the presence presence of of a a 'yellow 'yellow streak' streak' the the explained real real
Clear Clear indications indications of of attitudes attitudes of of the the time time can can be be observed observed in in the the newspaper newspaper columns, columns,
established established to to urge urge
the the government government to to adopt adopt compulsory compulsory
military military service service regulations.Z
3 3
the the country country could could least least afford afford to to lose,' lose,' and and pro-conscription pro-conscription organisations organisations were were
deficient deficient in in public public spirit; spirit; while while men men willing willing to to volunteer volunteer were were the the responsible responsible citizens citizens
blatantly blatantly obvious obvious to to these patriots patriots these that that 'men 'men who who remained remained safely safely at at home home were were
patriotic patriotic in in both both wars; wars; 'equality 'equality of of sacrifice' sacrifice' the the catchword catchword of of the the time. time. appeared appeared It It
law, law, a a criminal. criminal. '
The The overwhelming overwhelming majority majority of of the the population population were were
extremely extremely 22 22
Lawry Lawry
explained, explained, an an objector objector is is 'in 'in the the eyes eyes of of the the public, public, a a coward; coward; in in the the eyes eyes of of the the
In In the the
eyes eyes of of a a patriot, patriot, a a conscientious conscientious objector objector is is a a despicable despicable dodger. dodger. As As Walter Walter
w/conMediaFile.39230) w/conMediaFile.39230)
(http://www (http://www .iwm.org.uklserver/sho .iwm.org.uklserver/sho
[Poster, [Poster, (Imperial (Imperial War War Museum) Museum)
!Figure !Figure 18. 18. British British Propaganda Propaganda
stops stops wars.' wars.'
21 21
asked asked 'What 'What does does your your daddy daddy do?' do?' the the four four year year old old proudly proudly responded responded 'My 'My daddy daddy
their their fathers fathers elected elected to to adopt. adopt. However, However, when when Archibald Archibald Barrington's Barrington's son son John John was was
Progeny Progeny of of pacifists pacifists often often experienced experienced harassment harassment and and because because isolation of of the the stance stance
shaming shaming a a father father into into enlisting, enlisting, and and the the message message was was also also conveyed conveyed to to young young children. children.
reading reading 'Daddy 'Daddy what what did did YOU YOU do do in in the the Great Great War?' War?' had had the the intended intended purpose purpose of of
British British
poster poster presenting presenting an an image image of of a a father father with with his his children, children, accompanied accompanied by by a a text text
children children of of the the war war effort effort and and the the expected expected roles roles of of their their parents. parents. A A 50 50
Urquhart, Urquhart, Searchlight Searchlight on on R.S.A. R.S.A. 'sand 'sand
C.O. C.O. 's, 's, 14 14 25 25
and and saw saw him him as as making making a a 'perfect 'perfect ass' ass' of of himself. himself. She She asked, asked, or or told told him, him, to to consider consider
that that the the entire entire family family felt felt 'quite 'quite ashamed', ashamed', could could not not understand understand his his 'religious 'religious mania,' mania,'
Ronald's Ronald's objection. objection. His His sister sister Dorothy Dorothy wrote wrote him him a a letter letter in in June June of of 1940 1940 explaining explaining
Letters Letters written written between between family family members members illustrate illustrate the the extremity extremity of of their their feelings feelings about about
feeling feeling ashamed, ashamed, disgraced, disgraced, angry angry and and hurt, hurt, clearly clearly unable unable to to accept accept his his pacifism. pacifism.
conscientious conscientious objector. objector. He He had had to to suffer suffer hardships hardships and and detention detention alone, alone, his his family family
understanding understanding
from from their their families, families, Ronald Ronald Megget Megget was was not not supported supported in in his his stand stand as as a a
Unlike Unlike many many conscientious conscientious objectors objectors who who were were blessed blessed with with support support and and
anti-war anti-war stance, stance, and and were were not not able able to to give give their their support. support.
gruelling gruelling and and challenging challenging to to stand stand behind behind the the men men in in their their families families who who adopted adopted an an
was was not not an an easy easy stand stand to to take take either. either. Some Some families families inevitably inevitably found found it it too too trying, trying,
despised despised objector objector and and admit admit to to having having someone someone regarded regarded as as a a 'shirker' 'shirker' in in your your midst midst
even even more more difficult difficult without without the the support support of of loved loved ones. ones. But But to to connect connect yourself yourself to to a a
wars, wars, so so to to identify identify oneself oneself as as an an objector objector was was clearly clearly a a very very difficult difficult move move to to make, make,
Jingoistic Jingoistic patriotism patriotism dominated dominated the the mood mood throughout throughout the the entire entire country country during during both both
contempt contempt and and social social ostracism. ostracism.
to to perform perform their their duty duty and and protect protect their their homeland, homeland, along along with with their their families, families, faced faced
Loyalty Loyalty to to the the Mother Mother Country Country was was strongly strongly felt, felt, and and those those who who would would not not take take arms arms
prisoners prisoners of of war war ......
25 25
comfort, comfort, but but they they should should be be shipped shipped to to the the Pacific Pacific to to work work with with Japanese Japanese
comfortable comfortable camps, camps, well well fed fed and and housed housed ...... they they should should not not be be kept kept here here in in
wars, wars, to to find find the the conscientious conscientious objectors objectors still still sleeping sleeping well well o'nights, o'nights, in in
returned, returned, invalided, invalided, after after three three years years campaigning campaigning in in this, this, the the greatest greatest of of
I I had had four four years years of of active active service service m m the the last last war, war, and and have have recently recently
type type of of view view dominant dominant at at the the time: time:
under under the the pseudo-name pseudo-name 'Staunch 'Staunch Still' Still' during during the the Second Second World World War War illustrates illustrates the the 51 51
Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library Library
Letter Letter 16112/41, 16112/41, A. A.
J. J. Handyside Handyside Letters Letters 1941, 1941, Handyside Papers Papers Handyside
Papers Papers (MS-Group-0099), (MS-Group-0099),
29 29
Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library Library
Letter Letter 26/10/1941, 26/10/1941, A. A. J. J. Handyside Handyside
Letters Letters 1941, 1941, Handyside Handyside
Papers, Papers, Papers Papers (MS-Group-0099), (MS-Group-0099),
28 28
Letter Letter 21/06/40, 21/06/40, Inward Inward
Correspondence, Correspondence, Megget Megget Papers, Papers,
Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library Library
27 27
Ronald Ronald
Calvery, Calvery, 1913-1996: 1913-1996: Papers Papers (MS-Group-1344), (MS-Group-1344), Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington Wellington
Letter Letter 21106/40, 21106/40, Inward Inward Correspondence Correspondence
relating relating to to Conscientious Conscientious Objectors Objectors MS-7655-06, MS-7655-06, Megget, Megget, 26 26
significant significant
abuse abuse and and was was sent sent white white feathers feathers on on several several occasions, occasions, but but believed believed that that
as as a a husband. husband. After After admitting admitting publicly publicly that that Allen Allen was was detention detention in she she experienced experienced
that that she she found found herself herself ready ready to to admit admit to to the the crime crime of of having having a a conscientious conscientious objector objector
shame shame attached attached to to his his position, position, fearing fearing abuse abuse and and isolation. isolation. was was It It not not for for some some time time
openly openly admit admit that that her her husband husband Allen Allen was was an an objector objector in in detention detention because because of of the the
Rita Rita Graham, Graham, along along with with her her mother mother and and mother-in-law, mother-in-law, found found herself herself unable unable to to
but but explained explained that that he he felt felt he he must must
act act on on his his principles.
29 29
any any ingratitude' ingratitude' to to them, them, and and recognised recognised the the burden burden his his actions actions had had placed placed on on them, them,
Detention Detention
Camp Camp also also asked asked that that his his parents parents not not think think his his behaviour behaviour to to be be 'the 'the result result of of
that that your your sons sons have have
at at least least some some standard standard
of of character.' An An inmate inmate in in Strathmore Strathmore
28 28
imprisoned imprisoned for for conscience conscience sake sake and and not not as as a a 'bad 'bad egg', egg', asking asking them them to to 'be 'be thankful thankful
overcome overcome their their feelings feelings but but they they suggested be be consoled consoled by by the the fact fact that that he he was was
to to be be inevitable inevitable to to some some extent. extent. admitted admitted He that that he he could could do do little little to to help help them them
the the acknowledged shame shame and and disgrace disgrace felt felt by by his his parents, parents, understanding understanding such such feelings feelings
beliefs beliefs and and ideals. ideals. In In a a letter letter sent sent from Wi Wi from Tako Tako Prison Prison in in October October 1941, 1941, an an inmate inmate
shame shame that that might might understandably understandably be be felt felt by by parents parents who who did did not not share share their their sons' sons'
Letters Letters sent sent horne horne to to parents parents from from detention detention camps camps often often discussed discussed the the feelings feelings of of
way way they they are.'
27 27
and and
hardships. hardships. She She complained: complained: 'I 'I can't can't stand stand hearing hearing everyone everyone talking talking about about you you the the
focused focused more more on on the the family's family's shame shame and and social social standing standing than than on on Ronald's Ronald's difficulties difficulties
perception perception
of of her her and and her her family family was was clearly clearly a a key key concern concern for for Dorothy Dorothy Megget, Megget, who who
outcast outcast as as far far as as your your
Dunedin Dunedin friends friends
and and relations relations are are concerned.' Public Public
26 26
permed, permed, but but rn rn I' I' not not a a coward coward ...... and and unless unless you you change change your your tune, tune, you you will will be be an an
his his
family family and and come come to to his his senses: senses: 'I 'I might might smoke, smoke, and and use use lipstick, lipstick, and and have have my my hair hair 52 52
Peter Peter Kitchin, Kitchin, "Conscientious "Conscientious
Objector Objector Paid Paid Price Price for for Beliefs", Beliefs",
Evening Evening Post, Post, (21/09/2000), (21/09/2000), 5 5 34 34
Belinda Belinda
Cumming Cumming interview interview with with Chris Chris Palmer, Palmer, 2/6/07, 2/6/07, Upper Upper Moutere, Moutere,
Nelson Nelson 33 33
W. W. J. J. Foote, Foote, Bread Bread
and and Water, Water, (Wellington, (Wellington, NZ: NZ: Philip Philip Garside Garside
Publications, Publications, 2000), 2000), 46 46 32 32
Belinda Belinda Cumming Cumming
nterview nterview with with Chris Chris Palmer, Palmer, 2/6/07, 2/6/07, Upper Upper Moutere, Moutere,
Nelson Nelson 31 31
Preston, Preston, War War Stories Stories Our Our Mothers Mothers Never Never
Told Told Us Us 30 30
the the decision decision to to object object to to war war and and face face the the consequences consequences alone, alone, without without support support from from
while while imprisoned imprisoned
and and he he was was never never again again offered offered a a parish. men men Some had had to to make make
34 34
other other way way as as he he was was tried tried and and jailed jailed for for sedition. sedition. His His church church would would not not stand stand by by him him
Seatoun, Seatoun, felt felt betrayed betrayed by by his his church church when when the the Presbyterian Presbyterian establishment establishment looked looked the the
a a united body body united
publicly publicly
supported supported the the war. Basil Basil Dowling, Dowling, a a Presbyterian Presbyterian Minister Minister at at
33 33
supported supported the the war. war. Church Church members members individually individually defended defended the the right right to to opinion opinion but but as as
appearing appearing supportive supportive of of pacifism, pacifism, when when it it came came to to the the occasion occasion members members openly openly
frowned frowned on on conscientious conscientious objectors. objectors. Despite Despite Methodist Methodist Church Church resolutions resolutions of of 1935 1935
Palmer Palmer explained explained how how his his church church during during World World War War Two Two favoured favoured volunteers volunteers and and
religious religious objectors, objectors, in in reality reality many many found found they they were were rejected rejected by by their their church. church. Chris Chris
strength. strength. one one While would would expect expect religious religious institutions institutions to to be be a a source source of of support support for for
When When men men were were not not supported supported by by their their family, family, their their faith faith could could provide provide a a source source of of
indication indication of of Theodore's Theodore's support support for for his his sons. sons.
helped helped
ale1t ale1t
the the public public to to what what was was going going on. on. Such Such public public actions actions were were a a clear clear
32 32
inmates. inmates. It It was was quickly quickly apparent apparent that that the the case case was was destined destined to to fail, fail, but but the the publicity publicity
Prisons Prisons Department Department in in the the Magistrate's Magistrate's Court Court in in Hamilton Hamilton for for their their treatment treatment of of
solitary solitary confinement confinement at at Hautu Hautu Detention Detention Camp, Camp, Theodore Theodore brought brought a a case case against against the the
sons sons who who spent spent the the duration duration of of the the war war behind behind bars. bars. In In 1945, 1945, Chris Chris when was was in in
ordeal. ordeal. Chris' Chris'
father father had had been been in in two two minds minds before before the the war war but but came came
to to support support his his 31 31
along along with with his his brother brother Arthur, Arthur, appreciated appreciated the the support support of of Theodore Theodore during during their their
hardships hardships and and hostility, hostility, as as illustrated illustrated in in the the Baxter Baxter family family case case example. example. Chris Chris Palmer, Palmer,
appreciated appreciated the the cost cost of of such such support. support. Familial Familial support support helped helped the the men men to to cope cope with with
Pacifists Pacifists supported supported and and encouraged encouraged in in their their mission mission by by their their families families no no doubt doubt
great great strength strength and and confidence. confidence.
30 30
her her confession confession public marked marked a a positive positive change change in in her her life, life, a a move move which which gave gave her her 53 53
NZ: NZ: Canterbury Canterbury University University Press, Press, 2005), 2005), 76 76
Melanie Melanie Nolan, Nolan, Kin: Kin: A A Collective Collective Biography Biography
of of a a New New Zealand Zealand
Working Working Class Class Family Family (Christchurch, (Christchurch,
37 37
Pat Pat Baskett, Baskett, "Prisoners "Prisoners
of of Conscience", Conscience", NZ NZ Herald. Herald. (28/0411990), (28/0411990),
2 2
36 36
Janet Janet Barrington, Barrington, "My "My War", War",
Barrington Barrington Papers, Papers,
(MS-Papers-5230), (MS-Papers-5230), Turnbull Turnbull Library Library 35 35
Fellowship Fellowship of of Conscientious Conscientious Objectors Objectors was was set set up up in in December December 1941 1941 by by a a small small group group
significant significant network network of of organisations organisations had had been been established established by by World World War War Two. Two. The The
about about their their families. families. From From a a limited limited number number of of organisations organisations in in World World War War One, One, a a
objectors objectors and and their their respective respective families, families, which which gave gave solace solace to to objectors objectors who who worried worried
Various Various organisations organisations were were established established during during the the wars wars to to provide provide support support for for
and and
the the issue issue of of pacifism pacifism tore tore Jack Jack
McCullough's McCullough's family family apart.
37 37
had had to to endeavour endeavour not not to to dissuade dissuade him, him, or or show show feelings feelings of of disappointment. disappointment. The The war war
conscientious conscientious objector objector intolerable. intolerable. Jack's Jack's last last son son Jim Jim volunteered volunteered in in 1916 1916 and and Jack Jack
training. training. Frank Frank ultimately ultimately fled fled to to the the United United States States in in 1915, 1915, finding finding life life as as a a
jailed jailed for for street street speaking speaking and and was was eventually eventually exempted exempted from from compulsory compulsory military military
leading leading a a campaign campaign against against compulsory compulsory military military training. training. Jack's Jack's third third son son Frank Frank was was
speaker, speaker, and and Jack's Jack's sons sons William William and and Roy Roy joined joined the the Passive Passive Resister's Resister's Union, Union,
pacifist, pacifist, was was greatly greatly affected affected by by the the war. war. His His brother brother Jim Jim had had been been a a regular regular pacifist pacifist
McCullough McCullough was was a a prominent prominent political political trade trade unionist unionist in in Christchurch Christchurch and, and, being being a a
ideal ideal example example of of a a family family torn torn apart apart by by pacifism. pacifism. During During the the first first World World War War Jack Jack
the the Air Air Force.
The The McCullough McCullough
family family
function function as as
an an
36 36 Family, Family, 1892 1892 (Nolan, (Nolan, Kin) Kin)
Figure Figure 19. 19. McCullough McCullough Christian Christian pacifist pacifist while while his his two two brothers brothers rushed rushed of of to to join join
objector objector in in the the same same war, war, Neil Neil decided decided Smith he he was was a a
and and one one imprisoned imprisoned
as as a a conscientious conscientious objector. Another Another
35 35
mother, mother, who who had had one one son son abroad abroad as as Lieutenant-Colonel Lieutenant-Colonel a
war war was was a a very very sad sad and and confusing confusing time time for for Archibald's Archibald's
changing changing actions actions taken. taken. In In the the case case of of the the Barrington's, Barrington's, the the
conscientious conscientious objection, objection, loyalties loyalties split split and and drastic drastic and and life
Families Families were were literally literally torn torn apart apart by by the the issue issue of of
such such decisions. decisions.
their their families families or or from the the from institutions institutions representing representing the the faith faith which which led led them them to to making making 54 54
Lincoln Lincoln Efford, Efford,
Penalties Penalties on on Conscience Conscience (NZ: (NZ: Caxton Caxton Press, Press,
1945), 1945), 30 30
41 41
McLeod, McLeod, Activities Activities of of New New Zealand Zealand Women, Women, 62 62
40 40
David David Grant, Grant, Out Out
in in the the Cold Cold (Auckland, (Auckland, NZ: NZ: Reed Reed Methuen, Methuen,
1986), 1986), 129 129
39 39
(MSX-3884), (MSX-3884), Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington Wellington
Meeting Meeting 28/9/41, 28/9/41, Minute Minute Book Book for for Dunedin Dunedin
Branch Branch of of the the Fellowship Fellowship of of Conscientious Conscientious Objectors, Objectors, 38 38
shillings shillings extra extra for for each each child.
41 41
made made a a weekly weekly allowance allowance of of thirty thirty shillings shillings for for a a wife wife with with one one child, child, with with ten ten
nothing nothing apart apart from from this this unless unless they they had had children. children. The The Social Social Security Security Department Department
able able to to send send out out five five or or six six shillings shillings per per week week to to their their dependents, dependents, wives wives receiving receiving
being being out out paid to to dependents.
During During World World War War Two, Two, men men in in detention detention camps camps
were were 40 40
had had grown grown so so that that one one pound pound for for a a wife wife and and five five shillings shillings for for each each child child per per week week was was
were were either either imprisoned imprisoned or or forced forced to to leave leave the the country. country. By By June June of of that that year year the the fund fund
concerts concerts and and sales, sales, produce for for the the dependents dependents of of the the conscientious conscientious objectors objectors who who
Dependents Dependents Fund. Fund. Their Their aim aim was was to to raise raise money money by by means means of of picture picture shows, shows, dances, dances,
January January 1918 1918 a a group group of of women women organised organised and and formed formed a a Conscientious Conscientious Objectors Objectors
wives wives
and and children, children, who who struggled struggled to to survive survive with with their their bread-winners bread-winners behind behind bars. bars. In In
Men Men would would have have been been relieved relieved to to hear hear of of some some financial financial assistance assistance available available for for their their
could could find find some some support support in in their their communities communities in in the the form form of of such such organisations. organisations.
in in wider wider society. society. Conscientious Conscientious objectors objectors were were comforted comforted to to know know that that their their families families
with with allies allies in in their their cause, cause, allowing allowing a a break break from from the the ostracism ostracism and and isolation isolation often often felt felt
of of objectors, objectors, providing providing support support and and understanding, understanding, and and allowing allowing people people to to associate associate
Christian Christian Pacifist Pacifist Society Society (CPS) (CPS) and and the the Society Society of of Friends Friends were were available available to to families families
them them and and their their families.'
Groups Groups such such as as the the Peace Peace Pledge Pledge Union Union (PPU), (PPU), the the
39 39
Appeal Appeal Board Board hearings, hearings, but but also also to to 'keep 'keep open open the the lines lines of of communication communication among among
The The
Conscientious Conscientious Advisory Advisory Board Board was was set set up up also also to to provide provide advice advice for for objectors objectors in in
opinions opinions to to
and and making making enquiries enquiries of of the the Government
38 38
and and financial financial relief relief to to those those victimised; victimised; to to be be a a means means of of voicing voicing
provide provide fellowship, fellowship, advice advice to to members, members, and and financial financial advice advice to to members, members,
organisation organisation was was to: to:
of of people people to to help help defaulters defaulters and and their their dependents. dependents. The The intended intended purpose purpose of of the the 55 55
Preston, Preston, War War Stories Stories Our Our Mothers Mothers Never Never Told Told Us Us
44 44
0314 0314 ), ), Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington Wellington
PPU PPU Notes, Notes, 3/6/1941, 3/6/1941, Pacifism Pacifism MS MS
82-213-08, 82-213-08, Roth, Roth,
Herbert Herbert Otto, Otto, 1917-1994 1917-1994 Papers Papers (MS-Group-
43 43
Meeting Meeting 24/8/1941, 24/8/1941, Minute Minute Book Book
for for
Dunedin Dunedin Branch Branch of of the the Fellowship Fellowship of of Conscientious Conscientious Objectors Objectors 42 42
war war ended ended in in August August of of 1945. 1945. It It was was not not until until 31 31 May May 1946 1946 that that the the last last conscientious conscientious
Financial Financial difficulties difficulties for for dependents dependents of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors did did not not cease cease after after the the
watch watch
and and of of so so much much greater greater value. value. '
44 44
was was paid paid into into Rita's Rita's bank bank account account weekly. weekly. To To Rita, Rita, this this was was 'far 'far more more than than any any gold gold
staff staff collecting collecting money, money, and and for for all all three three years years that that Allen Allen was was in in detention, detention, ten ten shillings shillings
the the request request to to the the manager, manager, only only to to meet meet the the same same reply. reply. Campbell Campbell then then went went amongst amongst
which which unsurprisingly unsurprisingly met met an an angry angry and and negative negative response. response. A A returned returned soldier soldier echoed echoed
Campbell Campbell Patterson Patterson made made a a special special request request to to the the manager manager for for a a watch watch for for Allen, Allen,
a a watch watch when when he he was was taken taken into into detention. detention. One One worker worker in in the the bank bank by by the the name name of of
of of staff staff a a gold gold watch watch when when they they left left the the firm. firm. Allen, Allen, of of course, course, was was not not presented presented with with
worked worked in in the the Auckland Auckland Savings Savings Bank, Bank, which which had had a a policy policy of of awarding awarding each each member member
Graham's Graham's financial financial assistance assistance is is even even more more extraordinary. extraordinary. Before Before the the war war Allen Allen had had
friends friends who who helped helped her her through through her her financial financial difficulties, difficulties, while while the the story story of of Rita Rita
supporters supporters they they had had in in their their communities. communities. Janet Janet Barrington Barrington was was fortunate fortunate to to have have good good
could could not not be be organised organised for for all all cases, cases, but but a a lucky lucky minority minority were were helped helped by by the the few few
The The allowances allowances granted granted to to dependents dependents were were indeed indeed low, low, and and additional additional assistance assistance
Headquarters Headquarters
had had heard heard of of her her situation situation and and
understood understood it it to to be be necessary.
43 43
babe.' babe.' She She had had not not made made an an appeal appeal for for assistance, assistance, but but the the organisation's organisation's National National
pacifist pacifist convictions, convictions, and and who who has has several several children children to to support, support, including including a a very very young young
advance advance
that that had had been been made made to to assist assist a a Mrs Mrs Lyttle, Lyttle, 'whose 'whose husband husband is is in in prison prison for for his his
funds funds for for dependents. dependents. In In June June 1941, 1941, the the President President of of the the organisation organisation wrote wrote of of an an
victimised victimised
cases cases and and
their their dependents. The The PPU PPU was was another another group group which which organised organised
42 42
of of collecting collecting money money from from each each member, member, viewing viewing sacrifice sacrifice as as essential essential to to support support
The The Christchurch Christchurch branch branch of of the the Fellowship Fellowship of of Conscientious Conscientious Objectors Objectors used used a a method method 56 56
Argot, Argot, (1974), (1974), 13, 13, in in Roth Roth Papers, Papers, (MS-Group-0314), (MS-Group-0314), Turnbull Turnbull Library Library
Stephen Stephen Hunter, Hunter, "Till "Till Human Human Voices Voices Wake Wake
Us: Us: Stephen Stephen
Hunter Hunter Interviews Interviews Ian Ian Hamilton", Hamilton", New New
49 49
Kitchin, Kitchin,
Conscientious Conscientious Objector Objector Paid Paid Price Price for for Beliefs, Beliefs,
5 5
48 48
Urquhart, Urquhart, Searchlight Searchlight on on R.S.A R.S.A 'sand 'sand O.s, O.s, C. C. 21 21
47 47
Thompson, Thompson, Sedition Sedition
46 46
Russell Russell Thompson, Thompson,
Sedition Sedition (Wellington, (Wellington,
NZ: NZ: Vanguard Vanguard Films, Films, 2005) 2005) 45 45
disability disability
after after his his war-time war-time experience. experience. Neither Neither the the New New Zealand Zealand government government nor nor the the
between between them them and and the the people people they they knew, knew, Terence Terence especially especially identifying identifying his his social social
and and Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter commented commented on on the the feeling feeling of of a a gap gap which which had had been been created created
have have felt felt natural natural or or easy easy for for a a pacifist pacifist who who had had been been detained detained for for years. years. Both Both Terence Terence
pacifist pacifist among among them. them. Also, Also, social social readjustment readjustment back back into into the the family family home home may may not not
conscientious conscientious
objectors objectors continued continued to to suffer, suffer, bearing bearing constantly the the burden burden of of having having a a
War, War, most most obviously obviously
illustrated illustrated when when
his his house house was was set set alight. Families Families of of
49 49
continued continued to to experience experience personal personal animosity animosity after after his his detention detention in in the the Second Second World World
pacifists, pacifists, who who continued continued to to face face social social ostracism ostracism and and harassment. harassment. Ian Ian Hamilton Hamilton
The The end end of of the the war war certainly certainly did did not not mark mark the the end end of of intense intense negative negative feelings feelings towards towards
conscientious conscientious objectors objectors
until until the the 1951 1951 election.
48 48
to to continue continue to to deal deal with with pacifists pacifists harshly harshly and and severely, severely, not not restoring restoring voting voting rights rights to to
government government considerably, considerably, and and with with public public opinion opinion behind behind them, them, politicians politicians were were able able
overseas overseas
have have been been
rehabilitated. rehabilitated. ' This This organisation organisation appeared appeared to to sway sway the the
47 47
civil civil rights rights for for ten ten years years after after cessation cessation of of hostilities, hostilities, or or until until all all men men and and women women from from
Returned Returned The Services Services Association Association (RSA) (RSA) demanded demanded that that objectors objectors be be 'deprived 'deprived of of
objectors. objectors.
finding finding employment, employment, but but financial financial concerns concerns remained remained a a reality reality for for many many conscientious conscientious
work. work. This This varied varied from from place place
to to place place and and some some were were more more
fortunate fortunate than than others others in in 46 46
and and any any who who had had been been employed employed in in private private enterprise enterprise found found it it very very difficult difficult to to get get
after after the the war, war, conscientious conscientious objectors objectors were were not not allowed allowed to to return return to to government government jobs, jobs,
detained detained were were not not allowed allowed to to return return to to their their profession profession for for about about ten ten to to fifteen fifteen years years
stabilisation stabilisation was was not not restored restored to to families families for for some some time. time. Teachers Teachers who who had had been been
conscientious conscientious objectors, objectors, making making life life difficult difficult for for their their family family members, members, and and financial financial
objector objector was was
released released
from from detention. detention. Employers Employers were were not not keen keen to to employ employ
45 45 57 57
the the despised despised pacifists. pacifists.
to to fight, fight, or, or, because because life life became became too difficult difficult too in in the the community community for for those those connected connected to to
comprehend comprehend the the principles principles behind behind their their stance stance or or understand understand why why they they would would not not want want
families families found found it it too too hard hard to to stand stand behind behind these these men, men, because because they they were were unable unable to to
men men to to cope cope with with the the hardships hardships and and hostility hostility faced. faced. However However in in a a number number of of instances instances
shirkers shirkers and and cowards. cowards. Family Family support support made made taking taking a a stand stand a a lot lot easier easier and and allowed allowed
and and bullying bullying at at school school for for having having non-conformist non-conformist parents parents who who were were regarded regarded as as
of of verbal verbal and and physical physical abuse. abuse. Children Children without without their their fathers fathers around around faced faced harassment harassment
and and concern concern for for their their sons, sons, cold cold and and hungry hungry behind behind bars, bars, subjected subjected to to varying varying degrees degrees
and and social social ostracism, ostracism, bringing bringing up up children children alone. alone. Mothers Mothers were were plagued plagued with with worry worry
pacifists pacifists in in their their midst. midst. Wives Wives were were left left at at home home to to struggle struggle with with financial financial hardship hardship
hurt hurt the the entire entire family. family. Every Every member member paid paid the the price price for for the the beliefs beliefs and and actions actions of of
The The stance stance of of a a conscientious conscientious objector objector was was difficult difficult to to take, take, one one that that would would clearly clearly
objectors objectors and and their their families families difficult. difficult.
wider wider public public were were willing willing to to forget forget the the past, past, continuing continuing to to make make life life for for conscientious conscientious 58 58
Wellington Wellington
(July/August, (July/August,
1974), 1974), 13, 13, in in Roth, Roth,
Herbert Herbert
Otto, Otto, 1917-1994 1917-1994 Papers Papers (MS-Group-0314), (MS-Group-0314), Turnbull Turnbull
Library, Library,
Stephen Stephen
Hunter, Hunter, "Till "Till
Human Human
Voices Voices
Wake Wake Us: Us: Stephan Stephan Hunter Hunter
Interviews Interviews Ian Ian Hamilton" Hamilton" New New Argot Argot 1 1
kind kind
of of
influence influence
would would
always always have have been been inevitable. inevitable. is is It It natural natural that that a a child child would would
extent extent
consciously consciously
choose choose
how how much much they they influenced influenced their their children, children, but but clearly clearly some some
family, family,
the the
Baxter Baxter
family family
providing providing an an appropriate appropriate case case example. example. A A parent parent could could to to an an
Having Having
a a focus focus
on on the the
family family has has illustrated illustrated how how values values may may be be shaped shaped within within a a
communities. communities.
position position
themselves, themselves,
and and families families were were harassed harassed and and ostracised ostracised within within their their
associated associated
with with a a pacifist pacifist
in in many many ways ways was was seen seen to to be be just just as as bad bad as as adopting adopting the the
and and
were were
targeted targeted
by by
the the wider wider public, public, viewed viewed as as traitors. traitors. To To be be connected connected to to or or
made made
them them a a
despised despised
minority, minority, suffering suffering for for their their beliefs. beliefs. The The families families also also suffered suffered
conscientious conscientious
objector objector
went went against against prevailing prevailing opinion, opinion, against against majority, majority, the and and
and and antagonism antagonism
from from their their communities. communities. The The attitudes attitudes and and principles principles of of a a
suffer suffer
the the
pains pains of of
separation separation from from their their loved loved ones, ones, but but had had to to face face constant constant hostility hostility
changed changed
the the
lives lives
of of all all
his his
family family members, members, not not just just his his own. own. Families Families not not only only had had to to
one one man's man's
adoption adoption
of of
pacifism. pacifism. When When a a man man publicly publicly espoused espoused anti-war anti-war ideals ideals he he
focus focus
on on
the the family family
has has
most most clearly clearly indicated indicated that that the the entire entire family family was was affected affected by by
Departing Departing
from from
previous previous
scholarship scholarship on on conscientious conscientious objection objection in in New New Zealand, Zealand, my my
and and the the consequences consequences made made much much more more bearable. bearable.
and and were were
capable capable
of of the the supporting
men, men, the the stand stand of of an an objector objector was was far far easier easier to to take take
objectors' objectors'
pacifism pacifism
in in a a time time where where hysterical hysterical patriotism patriotism swept swept through through the the country, country,
struggles struggles
it it invited invited
into into their their lives. lives. If If the the family family were were able able to to comprehend comprehend the the
of of
the the
family family
was was
affected affected
by by the the pacifist pacifist stance stance and and all all had had to to adapt adapt to to cope cope with with the the
suffered, suffered,
and and
the the role role
they they played played was was both both significant significant and and important. important. Every Every member member
others others
fervently fervently
supported supported and and celebrated: celebrated: war. war. The The family family of of the the objector objector also also
paid paid
the the
price price
for for going going
against against the the prevailing prevailing opinion opinion of of the the time time and and opposing opposing what what
'A 'A
conscientious conscientious objector objector is is against against
his his own- his his herd.' herd.' A A conscientious conscientious objector objector
1 1
CONCLUSION CONCLUSION 59 59
for for price pacifism, pacifism, their their life-long life-long family family commitment. commitment.
stood stood together, together, supported supported one one another another with with love love and and understanding, understanding, and and all all paid paid the the
hands,' hands,' may may discover discover the the remarkable remarkable story story of of the the Baxter Baxter family family from from Brighton, Brighton, who who
hostility hostility and and harassment harassment into into their their lives. lives. These These children, children, who who 'hold 'hold the the future future in in their their
men men who who stood stood to to their their principles principles and and opposed war war opposed even even though though to to do do so so was was to to invite invite
film. film.
The The children children of of today today may may well well learn learn the the truth truth about about this this committed committed minority minority of of
future, future, as as there there are are indications indications that that Archibald's Archibald's work work might might soon soon be be produced produced as as a a
Will Will Not Not Cease. Cease. However However it it seems seems her her dream dream just just might might to to come fruition fruition in in the the near near
not not get get her her final final wish; wish; she she did did not not witness witness the the production production of of her her husband's husband's book, book, We We
war war activities activities until until her her death, death, her her commitment commitment to to pacifism pacifism unfaltering. unfaltering. Sadly Sadly she she did did
This This dissertation dissertation opened opened with with Millicent Millicent Baxter. Baxter. Millicent Millicent remained remained involved involved in in anti
conscientious conscientious objector objector in in New New Zealand, Zealand, in in both both World World War War One One and and World World War War Two. Two.
overlooked overlooked areas areas in in research, research, to to explore explore and and analyse analyse the the role role of of the the family family of of a a
particularly particularly difficult difficult to to endure. endure. I I have have attempted attempted to to remedy remedy neglect neglect the of of hitherto hitherto
families. families. these these In In cases, cases, where where the the objector objector was was not not supported supported by by his his family, family, life life was was
the the social social consequences, consequences, as as communities communities were were openly openly hostile hostile to to pacifists pacifists and and their their
families families
could could not not support support and and assist assist conscientious conscientious objectors objectors in in stand stand their was was fear fear of of
support support to to conscientious conscientious objectors objectors in in their their families. families. Another Another reason reason why why some some
Zealanders, Zealanders, and and parents parents in in many many instances instances were were unable unable to to understand understand or or give give their their
strong. strong. To To oppose oppose war war was was simply simply incomprehensible incomprehensible to to the the majority majority of of New New
respect respect for for war, war, and and the the sentiment sentiment 'Home', 'Home', of with with a a duty duty to to Britain, Britain, remained remained very very
generations generations
of of both both World World War War One One and and World World War War Two Two had had been been brought brought up up with with a a
men men to to take take the the difficult difficult stand stand and and confront confront the the negative negative repercussions. repercussions. The The
from from family family made made assuming assuming the the position position of of an an objector objector a a far far easier easier task; task; it it allowed allowed
could could determine determine the the experience experience of of an an objector. objector. Understanding Understanding encouragement encouragement and
This This exploration exploration into into role role the of of the the family family has has also also revealed revealed how how family family support support
an an interesting interesting aspect aspect of of research, research, and and is is an an area area previously previously largely largely ignored. ignored.
McCreary McCreary
asserted asserted 1948 1948 thesis. thesis. The The effect effect of of pacifism pacifism on on the the family family of of an an objector objector is is
have have
received received most most of of their their attitudes, attitudes, values values and and opinions opinions from from home, home, the as as R. R. J. J. 60 60
Peace Peace Pledge Pledge Union, Union, "Conscientious "Conscientious Objection Objection Today" Today"
2 2
http://www.ppu.org.uk/coproject/cotoday.html http://www.ppu.org.uk/coproject/cotoday.html (September (September 2007) 2007)
Peace Peace Pledge Pledge Union, Union, "Conscientious "Conscientious Objection Objection Today" Today"
1 1 ( ( www www .amnesty .amnesty .org.nz) .org.nz)
International International
Figure Figure 21. 21. Amnesty Amnesty
continuously continuously expressed expressed concerns concerns about about Israeli Israeli conscripts conscripts and and
conditions conditions and and even even torture.' torture.' Amnesty Amnesty International International has has
2 2
accepted accepted and and 'there 'there have have been been grim grim reports reports of of harsh harsh prison prison
punishable punishable by by imprisonment. imprisonment. Conscientious Conscientious objection objection is is not not
In In Turkey, Turkey, military military service service is is compulsory compulsory and and refusing refusing to to serve serve is is
alternative alternative service service have have been been sent sent to to prison. prison.
1 1
conscientious conscientious objectors objectors who who have have refused refused both both military military and and
roject/cotoday.html) roject/cotoday.html)
they they refuse refuse compulsory compulsory military military service, service, and and in in Finland Finland
(http://www.ppu.org.uklcop (http://www.ppu.org.uklcop
objectors objectors
are are
imprisoned imprisoned
Armenia, Armenia, men men continue continue to to be be arrested arrested for for 'draft-dodging' 'draft-dodging'
if if
where where conscientious conscientious
Tunnelling Tunnelling into into a a prison prison service service because because of of moral moral or or religious religious convictions. convictions. In In
Figure Figure 20. 20. Finland, Finland, 2004 2004 : :
nations nations failing failing to to accept accept people's people's objections objections to to military military
conscientious conscientious objectors objectors in in many many countries countries at at present, present, many many
to to be be a a closed closed chapter chapter in in history, history, in in reality reality there there are are still still
consequences. consequences. While While conscientious conscientious objection objection may may appear appear
alternative alternative to to refusing refusing military military service service and and suffering suffering the the
detested detested war war and and violence, violence, and and because because they they saw saw no no
wholeheartedly wholeheartedly in in the the cause cause of of pacifism, pacifism, because because they they
endured endured hardships hardships and and detention detention because because they they believed believed
The The men men introduced introduced and and discussed discussed in in this this dissertation dissertation
and and proudly proudly about about their their pacifist pacifist pasts. pasts.
Zealand Zealand regarding regarding war war have have changed, changed, which which has has meant meant that that families families can can speak speak openly openly
training training or or service. service. Over Over the the course course of of the the last last half half century, century, societal societal attitudes attitudes in in New New
pacifists pacifists facing facing imprisonment imprisonment and and punishment punishment for for refusing refusing compulsory compulsory military military
The The issue issue of of conscientious conscientious remains remains objection in in parts parts many of of the the world, world, with with
AFTERWORD AFTERWORD 61 61
Peace Peace Pledge Pledge Union, Union, http://www.ppu.org.uk/indexa.html http://www.ppu.org.uk/indexa.html (September (September 2007) 2007)
6 6
irg.org/news/alerts/msgOO irg.org/news/alerts/msgOO 02.html 02.html (September (September I I 2007) 2007)
Andreas Andreas Speck, Speck, "Four "Four total total objectors objectors sentenced sentenced to to prison", prison", (14/09/2007) (14/09/2007) http://wri
5 5
action-co action-co (September (September 2007) 2007)
Amnesty Amnesty International, International, "Conscientious "Conscientious Objectors", Objectors", (20/03/07) (20/03/07) http://www.amnesty.org/pages/isr
4 4
Peace Peace Pledge Pledge Union, Union, "Conscientious "Conscientious Objection Objection Today" Today"
3 3
(http://www.ppu.org.uk/indexa.html) (http://www.ppu.org.uk/indexa.html)
Figure Figure 22. 22. Peace Peace Pledge Pledge Union Union - Anti-war Anti-war Activity Activity Header Header
causes causes of of war. war. '
6 6
believes believes war war to to be be a a 'crime 'crime against against humanity,' humanity,' vowing vowing to to 'work 'work for for the the removal removal of of all all
Union Union recognises recognises that that violence violence continues continues to to be be a a destructive destructive force force in in the the world world and and
continues continues to to experience experience violence violence and and suffer suffer its its consequences. consequences. The The Peace Peace Pledge Pledge
against against war war and and violence, violence, and and this this struggle struggle continues continues for for many many today, today, as as the the world world
Conscientious Conscientious objectors objectors such such as as Archibald Archibald Baxter Baxter were were engaged engaged in in a a campaign campaign
punishment, punishment, the the cause cause of of pacifism pacifism still still clearly clearly prevailing prevailing in in contemporary contemporary society. society.
conscientiously conscientiously objecting objecting to to military military service service and and continue continue to to face face imprisonment imprisonment and and
embassies embassies abroad. abroad. Men Men and and women women from from all all around around the the globe globe are are still still
5 5
called called for for letters letters of of protest protest to to the the Finnish Finnish Prime Prime Minister Minister Matti Matti V V anhanen anhanen or or Finnish Finnish
sentencing sentencing of of four four Finnish Finnish objectors objectors charged charged with with 'alternative 'alternative service service crime', crime', and and
on on behalf behalf of of imprisoned imprisoned pacifists. pacifists. In In September September of of this this year year WRI WRI reported reported the the
War War Resisters Resisters International International publicise publicise issues issues of of conscientious conscientious objection objection and and campaign campaign
considered considered by by Amnesty Amnesty International International to to be be a a 'prisoner 'prisoner of of conscience. conscience. '
4 4
recognition? recognition? A A person person who who is is imprisoned imprisoned as as a a result result of of their their refusal refusal to to serve serve is is
have have campaigned campaigned on on their their behalf, behalf, these these 'refuseniks' 'refuseniks' gaining gaining international international fame fame and and
reservists reservists being being imprisoned imprisoned because because of of their their refusal refusal to to perform perform military military service, service, and and 62 62
www.couragetoresist.org/x/content/view/33/ www.couragetoresist.org/x/content/view/33/ (September (September I I I I 2007) 2007)
Courage Courage to to Resist, Resist, "May "May 15: 15: Int'l Int'l Conscientious Conscientious Objector Objector Day", Day",
11 11
irg.org/wiki!index.php/International irg.org/wiki!index.php/International Conscientious Conscientious Objectors Objectors Day Day
Rudi Rudi Ft·eidrich, Ft·eidrich, "History "History of of Conscientious Conscientious Objectors' Objectors' Day" Day" (31/08/2007), (31/08/2007), http://www.wri
10 10
Millicent Millicent Baxter, Baxter, Memories Memories of of Millicent Millicent Baxter Baxter (NZ: (NZ: Cape Cape Ltd, Ltd, Catley 1981), 1981), 143 143
9 9
Pat Pat Baskett, Baskett, "Prisoners "Prisoners of of Conscience", Conscience", NZ NZ Herald, Herald, (28/0411990), (28/0411990), 2 2
8 8
Cathy Cathy Casey, Casey, "Wars "Wars are are never never won- everybody everybody loses", loses", Red Red and and Green, Green, no. no. 1 1 (2003), (2003), 134 134
7 7
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Figure Figure
23. 23. Courage Courage to to Resist Resist Poster Poster Figure Figure 24. 24. Courage Courage to to Resist Resist Logo Logo
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support support of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors and and war war resisters. resisters. II II
for for groups, groups, organisations organisations and and individuals individuals to to take take up up May May 15 15 as as a a day day of of action action in in
produced produced and and distributed distributed posters posters to to publicise publicise Conscientious Conscientious Objectors' Objectors' Day, Day, calling calling
service service members members who who have have resisted resisted war war and and who who are are facing facing punishment. punishment. They They
groups groups affiliated affiliated to to WRI.I° WRI.I° Courage Courage to to Resist Resist is is a a group group concerned concerned with with supporting supporting
Conscientious Conscientious Objectors' Objectors' Meeting Meeting (ICOM), (ICOM), organised organised between between 1981 1981 and and 1997 1997 by by
established established joint joint day day of of action. action. The The day day is is closely closely linked linked to to the the International International
There There is is now now an an international international Conscientious' Conscientious' Objectors' Objectors' Day, Day, 15 15 May May being being the the
devastating devastating conflict conflict rages rages in in Iraq. Iraq.
decades decades later, later, and and today today the the world world continues continues to to witness witness war, war, as as the the grim grim and and
War, War, the the war war to to end end all all wars, wars, was was followed followed by by another another World World War War only only two two short short
violence. violence. Wars Wars breed breed other other wars.' Millicent's Millicent's view view appears appears to to ring ring true. true. The The Great Great
9 9
war.' Finally, Finally, Millicent Millicent Baxter Baxter asserted asserted in in her her Memoirs, Memoirs, 'Violence 'Violence of of any any kind kind breeds breeds
8 8
until until a a person person understands understands the the meaning meaning of of violence violence there there will will always always be be the the threat threat of of
companies.' companies.' Ian Ian Hamilton Hamilton identifies identifies that that 'there 'there is is a a lot lot of of violence violence in in society society now now and and
7 7
worse. worse. Wars Wars are are never never won. won. Everybody Everybody loses, loses, except except the the munitions munitions makers makers and and the the oil oil
commented commented on on the the war war in in Iraq, Iraq, 'War 'War does does not not cure cure anything anything except except makes makes things things
Ray Ray Weeber, Weeber, a a conscientious conscientious objector objector in in New New Zealand Zealand during during World World War War Two Two 63 63
(26/04/07) (26/04/07) http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/P00704/S0032l.htm http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/P00704/S0032l.htm (April (April 2007) 2007)
Press Press Release: Release: Peace Peace Action Action Wellington, Wellington, "Anzac "Anzac Day Day Protest- Lest Lest We We Forget: Forget: Already Already Forgotten" Forgotten"
12 12
war war have have changed changed significantly significantly since since the the mid-twentieth mid-twentieth century. century.
many, many, conscientious conscientious objectors objectors have have to to come be be celebrated celebrated and and that that attitudes attitudes towards towards
protests protests as as an an insult insult and and disgrace disgrace to to the the country, country, but but they they clearly clearly demonstrate demonstrate that that for for
great great deal deal of of controversy controversy and and the the group group were were condemned condemned by by those those who who saw saw the the
New New Zealand Zealand military military and and the the glorification glorification of of war.' war.' Naturally Naturally the the protests protests stirred stirred a a
12 12
Day, Day, believing believing the the anniversary anniversary to to be be 'a 'a celebration celebration of of the the e/display/72937/indcx.php) e/display/72937/indcx.php)
(http://indymedia.org.nz/newswir (http://indymedia.org.nz/newswir
group group
was was
protesting protesting
the the message message being being given given on on Anzac Anzac
Protests, Protests, April April 2007 2007
Figure Figure 25. 25. Wellington Wellington Anzac Anzac Day Day heroes.' heroes.' Spokesperson Spokesperson Valerie Valerie Morse Morse explained explained that that the the
Timor Timor Leste' Leste' and and 'Conscientious 'Conscientious Objectors: Objectors: the the real real
Already Already Forgotten- Afghanistan, Afghanistan, Solomon Solomon Islands, Islands,
service service displaying displaying banners banners that that read read 'Lest 'Lest We We Forget: Forget:
Action Action Wellington Wellington (PAW) (PAW) demonstrated demonstrated at at the the dawn dawn
in in the the nation's nation's capital capital city, city, where where members members of of Peace Peace
anniversary anniversary in in New New Zealand Zealand witnessed witnessed a a march march of of protest protest
country country at at Gallipoli. Gallipoli. The The most most recent recent Anzac Anzac Day Day
celebrate celebrate the the memory memory of of the the men men who who fought fought for for their their
Anzac Anzac Day Day is is traditionally traditionally a a day day to to pay pay respects respects and and
observed observed in in many many arenas arenas of of everyday everyday life life for for New New Zealanders. Zealanders.
public public attitudes attitudes concerning concerning conscientious conscientious objection. objection. This This change change in in attitudes attitudes can can be be
of of shame shame has has diminished diminished and and dissolved dissolved over over the the past past decades decades with with the the changing changing of of
unable unable to to publicly publicly admit admit that that one one of of their their own own was was in in detention. detention. However, However, this this aspect aspect
perception perception of of an an objector objector as as a a coward, coward, denied denied the the existence existence of of a a pacifist pacifist in in their their midst, midst,
families families also also paid paid the the price price for for non-conformity. non-conformity. Many Many families, families, because because of of the the public public
Zealand Zealand men men adopting adopting pacifism pacifism were were subjected subjected to to hostility, hostility, hardship hardship and and abuse; abuse; their their
shift shift in in ideas ideas must must have have occurred occurred since since the the time time of of the the Second Second World World War. War. New New
For For an an international international day day of of conscientious conscientious objection objection to to be be celebrated celebrated annually, annually, a a huge huge 64 64
Objection, Objection, 1940-1 1940-1 ",New ",New Zealand Zealand Journal Journal of of History, History, v.l7, v.l7, no. no. I I (October (October 1983), 1983), 122 122
J. J. E. E. Cookson, Cookson, "Illiberal "Illiberal New New Zealand: Zealand: The The Formation Formation of of Government Government Policy Policy on on Conscientious Conscientious
14 14
http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/-Serlewis/mind/anzachymn.htm http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/-Serlewis/mind/anzachymn.htm (September (September 2007) 2007)
Ken Ken Russell, Russell, "A "A for for Hymn Anzac Anzac Day" Day" (29/04/07) (29/04/07)
13 13
New New Zealand's Zealand's role role in in the the war', war', believing believing the the 'dark 'dark episode episode in in our our military military history' history'
Paul Paul Baker Baker observes observes Anzac Anzac Day Day as as a a 'chance 'chance to to remember remember the the less less glorious glorious aspects aspects of of
values values and and beliefs. beliefs.
14 14
should should have have for for diversity diversity and and dissent, dissent, particularly particularly when when the the conflict conflict is is over over
There There was was little little sign sign of of the the painstaking painstaking respect respect the the liberal liberal democratic democratic state state
Cookson Cookson wrote: wrote:
the the young young nation nation who who prided prided itself itself as as being being enlightened enlightened and and liberal. liberal. Historian Historian J. J. E. E.
absence absence of of tolerance tolerance shown shown towards towards a a minority minority group, group, a a tolerance tolerance perhaps perhaps expected expected of of
for for its its policies policies towards towards objectors, objectors, highlighting highlighting the the illiberal illiberal practices practices and and noting noting the the
to to many. many. Journal Journal and and newspaper newspaper articles articles have have criticised criticised the the New New Zealand Zealand government government
bring bring to to light light the the realities realities of of this this chapter chapter in in New New Zealand Zealand history history previously previously unknown unknown
objectors objectors and and their their cause cause coming coming to to be be publicly publicly celebrated; celebrated; a a conscious conscious effort effort made made to to
Articles Articles in in the the media media further further illustrate illustrate these these changes changes in in attitudes, attitudes, with with conscientious conscientious
enormous enormous shift shift in in attitudes attitudes since since the the time time of of war. war.
exhibited exhibited and and suffering suffering experienced experienced honoured honoured equally, equally, signifying signifying and and highlighting highlighting an an
The The conscientious conscientious objector objector is is placed placed alongside alongside the the soldier soldier in in this this hymn, hymn, their their bravery bravery
Branded Branded as as cowards cowards in in our our country's country's name.
13 13
Suffered Suffered in in prison prison of of contempt contempt and and shame, shame,
Answered Answered no no bugle, bugle, went went against against the the wall, wall,
Honour Honour the the brave brave whose whose conscience conscience was was their their call, call,
pacifism pacifism was was detested detested and and the the objector objector perceived perceived as as an an unpatriotic unpatriotic coward: coward:
the majority majority the of of New New Zealanders Zealanders for for a a long long time time following following the the World World Wars, Wars, when when
calls calls for for the the conscientious conscientious objector objector to to be be honoured, honoured, a a call call which which would would have have offended offended
which which includes includes in its its in verses verses the the plight plight of of the conscientious conscientious the objector. objector. The The second second verse verse
A A new new Anzac Anzac Hymn Hymn was was composed composed this this year year by by Shirley Shirley Murray Murray and and Colin Colin Gibson, Gibson, 65 65
Dean Dean Parker, Parker, "The "The heroes heroes who who did did not not fight, fight, New New Zealand Zealand Herald, Herald, (24/0412006) (24/0412006)
19 19
Karen Karen Tay, Tay, "Men "Men of of War" War" Sunday Sunday Star Star Times, Times, (22/04/2007), (22/04/2007), 19 19
18 18
Raybon Raybon Kan Kan
17 17
Raybon Raybon Kan, Kan, "Raybon "Raybon Kan" Kan" Sunday Sunday Star Star Times, Times, (29/04/2007) (29/04/2007)
16 16
Paul Paul Baker, Baker, "Prisoners "Prisoners of of Conscience," Conscience," NZ NZ Listener, Listener, (25/04/1998), (25/04/1998), 70 70
15 15
simply simply 'scared.' 'scared.'
19 19
Day Day are are those those in in the the war war resisters resisters ranks ranks who who gave gave their their reasons reasons for for refusing refusing service service as as
member member of of New New Zealand Zealand Writers Writers Guild Guild Dean Dean Parkers Parkers admits admits that that his his heroes heroes of of Anzac Anzac
celebration celebration but but 'a 'a remembrance remembrance that that the the cost cost of of war war is is too too high.' high.' Going Going a a step step further, further,
18 18
time.' time.' In In line line with with Raybon Raybon Kan's Kan's premise, premise, Tay Tay believes believes Anzac Anzac Day Day should should not not be be a a
of of Anzac Anzac Day: Day: 'the 'the pacifists pacifists who who stayed stayed and and went went against against prevailing prevailing opinion opinion at at the the
A A week week earlier earlier the the same same paper paper published published an an article article by by Karen Karen Tay Tay about about the the real real heroes heroes
contemporary contemporary society. society.
sentiments sentiments being being voiced voiced publicly, publicly, yet yet now now they they are are prevalent prevalent and and acceptable acceptable in in
New New Zealand Zealand never never could could have have imagined imagined such such strong strong and and un-patriotic un-patriotic anti-war anti-war
scream scream with with loudhailers, loudhailers, 'I 'I told told you you so.'' so.'' Families Families of of pacifists pacifists during during both both wars wars in in
17 17
that that Anzac Anzac Day Day 'should 'should be be run run by by a a group group of of messy messy conscientious conscientious objectors, objectors, who who can can
He He calls calls for for a a celebration celebration of of 'those 'those people people with with vision, vision, who who objected objected to to war,' war,' arguing arguing
enough enough reason. reason. Even Even if if it it kills kills them. them.
16 16
That's That's the the Anzac Anzac sprit. sprit. They They don't don't seem seem to to ask ask why. why. The The social social pressure pressure is is
tragedy. tragedy. A A waste waste of of life. life. Why Why do do lemmings lemmings do do it? it? Well, Well, because because the the others others are. are.
the the human, human, armed armed equivalent equivalent of of lemmings lemmings hurling hurling themselves themselves off off a a cliff. cliff. It's It's a a
Star Star Times Times in in April April about about the the spirit spirit of of Anzac. Anzac. He He understands understands Gallipoli Gallipoli to to be: be:
Columnist Columnist Raybon Raybon Kan Kan published published a a witty, witty, sarcastic sarcastic and and clever clever article article in in the the Sunday Sunday
War War effort. effort.
15 15
(the (the treatment treatment of of conscientious conscientious objectors) objectors) to to remain remain 'a 'a potent potent blemish blemish on' on' the the Great Great 66 66
Nigel Nigel Benson, Benson, "Fighting "Fighting a a better, better, brutal brutal fight", fight", Otago Otago Daily Daily Times Times (16/08/2007), (16/08/2007), 33 33
21 21
Gaylene Gaylene Preston, Preston, War War Stories Stories Our Our Mother Mother Never Never Told Told Us Us (NZ: (NZ: Gaylene Gaylene Preston Preston Productions, Productions, 2005) 2005)
20 20
and and proudly proudly of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors in in their their families. families.
shifts shifts in in ideas ideas and and beliefs beliefs have have allowed allowed families families such such as as the the Baxters Baxters to to speak speak publicly publicly
objected objected to to the the war, war, stood stood by by their their principals principals and and refused refused to to take take arms. arms. Significant Significant
and and have have come come to to celebrate celebrate the the courage courage and and determination determination of of the the small small minority minority who who
treatment treatment of of conscientious conscientious objectors, objectors, especially especially in in contrast contrast to to Australia Australia and and Britain, Britain,
With With the the distance distance from from war war time, time, people people have have come come to to recognise recognise New New Zealand's Zealand's harsh harsh
suffering suffering and and hardships hardships now now recognised. recognised.
respected, respected, his his incredible incredible strength strength of of character character which which enabled enabled him him to to endure endure horrific horrific
grandfather grandfather who who is is now now a a celebrated celebrated hero hero of of war-resistance. war-resistance. Archibald Archibald is is admired admired and and
opening opening of of the the exhibition exhibition and and spoke spoke proudly proudly of of the the courageous courageous actions actions of of her her
Archibald's Archibald's granddaughter, granddaughter, Terence's Terence's daughter, daughter, Katherine Katherine Baxter Baxter attended the the attended official official
Archibald Archibald Baxter's Baxter's experience, experience, 'a 'a harrowing harrowing account account of of one one man's man's war.'
21 21
Bob Bob Kerr Kerr was was displayed displayed at at Dunedin's Dunedin's Milford Milford Gallery, Gallery, which which was was a a visual visual account account of of
This This year year in in August, August, an an exhibition exhibition called called 'Number 'Number One One Field Field Punishment' Punishment' by by artist artist
of of the the war. war.
20 20
about about her her experience experience as as the the wife wife of of a a conscientious conscientious objector objector detained detained for for the the duration duration
about about the the War, War, allowed allowed Rita Rita to to emerge emerge in in public public and and speak speak openly openly and and confidently confidently
about, about, bottled bottled up. up. But But the the production, production, by by including including Rita Rita in in the the group group of of women women talking talking
explaining explaining that that for for so so many many years years her her husband's husband's past past had had to to be be hidden, hidden, not not spoken spoken
Mothers Mothers Never Never Told Told Us, Us, spoke spoke at at the the photo photo shoot shoot before before the the New New Zealand Zealand premiere, premiere,
Graham, Graham, who who appeared appeared on on Gaylene Gaylene Preston's Preston's 1995 1995 documentary documentary War War Stories Stories Our Our
not not now now be be ashamed ashamed of of their their members members who who once once adopted adopted a a pacifist pacifist stance. stance. Rita Rita
time time after after 1945. 1945. This This change change of of image image consequently consequently means means that that New New Zealanders Zealanders need need
depicted depicted during during both both World World War War One One and and Two, Two, images images which which continued continued for for a a long long
These These articles articles portray portray a a very very different different image image of of conscientious conscientious objectors objectors than than that that 67 67 68
Figure 26. Painting of Archibald Baxter, by artists Bob Kerr, exhibition at Milford Gallery, August - September 2007 (http://www.milfordgalleries.eo.nz/exhibition)
Roth, Roth, Herbert Herbert Otto, Otto, 1917-1994 1917-1994 Papers Papers (MS-Group-0314) (MS-Group-0314)
Radio Radio New New Zealand Zealand Wartime Wartime Stories Stories (85-021) (85-021)
O'Connor, O'Connor, Peter Peter Selwyn Selwyn (1926-1994): (1926-1994): Papers Papers (MS-Group-0487) (MS-Group-0487)
Meggett, Meggett, Ronald Ronald Calvery, Calvery, 1913-1996: 1913-1996: Papers Papers (MS-Group-1344) (MS-Group-1344)
Hansen, Hansen, Raymond Raymond Ernest, Ernest, 1910-1985: 1910-1985: Papers Papers (84-204) (84-204)
Handyside, Handyside, Allen Allen James James (Rev), (Rev), 1940-1986: 1940-1986: fl fl Papers Papers (MS-Group-0088) (MS-Group-0088)
Fellowship Fellowship of of Conscientious Conscientious Objectors. Objectors. Dunedin Dunedin Branch Branch Minutebook Minutebook (MSX-3884) (MSX-3884)
Barrington, Barrington, Archibald Archibald Charles: Charles: Papers Papers (Ms-Papers-5230) (Ms-Papers-5230)
b) b) Alexander Alexander Turnbull Turnbull Library, Library, Wellington Wellington
Allen, Allen, Sir Sir James: James: Papers Papers (ARC-0113) (ARC-0113)
Malcolm, Malcolm, Ron: Ron: Papers Papers (AG-775) (AG-775)
Godward, Godward, Robert Robert Bruce: Bruce: Papers Papers (ARC-0509) (ARC-0509)
Ginn, Ginn, Noel: Noel: Papers Papers (ARC-0401) (ARC-0401)
Baxter, Baxter, Millicent Millicent Amiel: Amiel: Literary Literary Papers Papers (ARC-0370) (ARC-0370)
Baxter, Baxter, James James Keir: Keir: Literary Literary Papers Papers (ARC-0027) (ARC-0027)
I I . .
Catley, Catley, Christine Christine Cole: Cole: Material Material Compiled Compiled for for biography biography of of Millicent Millicent Baxter Baxter (81-035) (81-035)
Baxter Baxter Family Family Papers Papers (ARC-0351) (ARC-0351)
Baxter, Baxter, Archibald Archibald McColl McColl Learmond: Learmond: Literary Literary and and Political Political Papers Papers (ARC-0350) (ARC-0350)
a) a) Hocken Hocken Library, Library, Dunedin Dunedin
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