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Options and Opportunities for New Zealand and France 1918-1935

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Options and Opportunities for New Zealand and France 1918-1935 Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. OPTIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR NEW ZEALAND AND FRANCE 1918-1935 : Les Liaisons dangereuses? A THESIS PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HISTORY AT MASSEY UNIVERSITY, ALBANY, NEW ZEALAND. ALISTAIR CLIVE WATTS 2019 2 Abstract The New Zealand histories typically assert that a new national identity evolved after World War I to substitute for the pre-war British-based model. This assumption has resulted in the creation of a British-centric historiography that understates the important role of other non-British influencers - especially the French – in the evolution of post-war New Zealand. Systematic sampling of newspaper articles in the PapersPast database has revealed that within New Zealand’s post-1918 public discourse there was a diverse seam of opinion and news related to France that sat alongside that from Britain. This suggests that events concerning France were more prevalent in shaping the New Zealand story than the earlier histories have indicated. These additional perspectives have been integrated into aspects of the New Zealand post-World War I narrative, supplemented where appropriate with articles from French newspapers and the archive. When the First World War finally ended, New Zealand attempted to disengage from Europe in order to put the collective national trauma in the past. Resuming the traditional dislike of the French was a reflexive rejection of the war years rather than a considered policy. It was a self-imposed rather than an obligatory restraint which manifested as official resistance to repatriating bodies and haste in preparing the local monuments that replicated the grander memorials being constructed in France. Thus, when France attempted to maintain contact with her New Zealand ally through trade and diplomacy, the clear wish of New Zealand to identify as a British-dependent entity led to rejection. Nevertheless, France remained a significant global power owing to the Versailles Treaty and post-war political and economic realities. As a result New Zealand was reluctantly drawn into further interactions with the French. As the other Dominions chose a more independent path it was New Zealand - having spurned the French overtures – that was left by choice diplomatically isolated, while clinging culturally, economically and diplomatically to the remnants of a British Empire that had no need for the former colony. 3 4 Acknowledgements My Massey University supervisors - Associate Professor Kirsty Carpenter and (now retired) Professor Peter Lineham - have been exceptional sources of inspiration and guidance. Their depth of knowledge and time spent in reading drafts has been generous and exceptional. Other Massey University staff including Professor Michael Belgrave, Dr Adam Claasen, Dr James Watson and especially Dr Geoff Watson have greatly assisted with suggestions during post-graduate seminars and in responding to casual queries generated by research that has necessarily touched on their specialist knowledge. It would be unfair to name individuals from the various archives because all were helpful. Staff at the Hocken in Dunedin, the National Archives in Wellington, the Alexander Turnbull Collection and National Library, Auckland Museum Library, the Auckland City Library and Archive, the British Library and the Kew Archives in London as well as the relevant French archivists assisted in searches. Often the investigation was a tedious process that sought to confirm what did not exist as much as reconfirming the existence of documents that New Zealand should have possessed. I thank you all. Karen Watts drank many cups of coffee in those archival centres and waited patiently, so my eternal thanks go to her for her gracious tolerance and quiet inspiration. Author’s note: Permission has not been obtained to reproduce the series of postcards from the collection of the Horopapera Karauti on pages 77-79, despite the best efforts of ATL (Alexander Turnbull Library) staff to contact the designated family representative. These are therefore included but with great regret are only available for the thesis Examiners’ use. They can however still be viewed in the ATL collection. The full database of sampled newspaper articles summarized in the Appendix is available in the MS-EXCEL file that has been submitted with this thesis. 5 6 Table of contents Soft copy users: Hyperlinks in the table of contents will take the user directly to the selected chapter, sub-section or illustration/table heading. Sub-titles within chapters return the reader to the relevant chapter heading which will link to this point. ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................ 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................................... 7 LIST OF GRAPHS, CHARTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS ......................................................................... 9 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 11 1.1 Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 14 1.2 Literature Review .............................................................................................................. 28 1. RELICS FROM FRANCE .......................................................................................................... 53 1.1 Antipodean French history – the popular version .......................................................... 54 1.2 Learning French history: formal and self-selected sources ............................................. 67 1.3 Temporary warriors and war time tourists: New Zealand’s soldiers in France and Britain ................................................................................................................................ 70 1.4 Official histories ................................................................................................................. 71 1.5 Contemporary accounts: letters, postcards and oral histories ....................................... 72 1.6 Later, edited accounts of war ........................................................................................... 80 1.7 Legends in retrospect ....................................................................................................... 82 1.8 Outcomes and implications ............................................................................................. 86 2. REPARATION AND REPATRIATION - VERSAILLES AND BEYOND ..................................... 89 2.1 Escaping Europe’s problems ............................................................................................. 90 2.2 Separating Fact and Fiction: Repatriating memories not bodies ................................... 111 2.3 Return and resettlement ................................................................................................. 126 2.4 The ‘conchies’ ................................................................................................................... 130 2.5 Sequestering the memories: Gallipoli and France .......................................................... 132 2.6 Outcomes and implications ............................................................................................ 135 3. TRADE AND ENGAGE OR DISCONNECT AND FORGET? .................................................... 137 3.1 Vice-Consul Hippeau’s initiatives ................................................................................... 139 3.2 General Pau’s mission ...................................................................................................... 143 3.3 New Zealand’s response to French trade initiatives ....................................................... 154 3.4 French exports to New Zealand ....................................................................................... 171 3.5 Outcomes and implications ............................................................................................ 177 4. POST WAR OPTIONS: EMPIRE CITIZENSHIP, INDEPENDENCE, OR MEMBRE DE LA SOCIÉTÉ DES NATIONS? ............................................................................................................... 181 4.1 Empire citizen .................................................................................................................. 186 4.2 The New Hebrides ........................................................................................................... 193 4.3 New Zealand, France and the League of Nations ........................................................... 198 4.4 Could God defend New Zealand? .................................................................................... 219 4.5 New Zealand becomes an ‘other’ within the Empire .................................................... 223 4.6 Outcomes and implications ............................................................................................ 231 7 5. FINANCE
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