The Cult of Guangze Zunwang and Its Religious Network in the Chinese Diaspora, 19Th Century—2009

SACRED TIES ACROSS THE SEAS: THE CULT OF GUANGZE ZUNWANG AND ITS RELIGIOUS NETWORK IN THE CHINESE DIASPORA, 19TH CENTURY—2009 CHIA MENG TAT JACK (B.A. (Hons.), NUS) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2009 ii Acknowledgements Truly, those who are good people are thankful and grateful. Vinaya IV 55 Many people and institutions have assisted me in the course of writing this thesis, and I am truly grateful to all of them. First of all, I wish to thank my advisor, Assoc Prof Huang Jianli, for his guidance, fatherly concern, and for reading the earlier drafts and making many insightful suggestions. I am grateful to Assoc Prof Thomas DuBois for his encouragement, friendship, and sound advice throughout my education at the National University of Singapore (NUS). I give my heartfelt thanks to Dr Quek Ser Hwee for her constant encouragement and helpful guidance. Many teachers have taught me over the past few years, but a few do deserve special mention: Barbara Andaya, Tim Barnard, Beatrice Chong, Ian Gordon, Hong Lysa, Bruce Lockhart, Shelley Low, Tony Reid, Sai Siew Min, and Yang Bin. They have taught me what it takes to be a good history teacher. I am very grateful to the administrative staff and graduate community at the Department of History for making my two years of graduate studies so fun and enjoyable. Kelly Lau, our friendly graduate secretary, has provided me with a great deal of assistance and helpful advice. Guo Jingyu, Hu Wen, Edgar Liao, Liu Guoyi, Ng Eng Ping, Pang Yang Huei, Robin Chee, Shu Shengqi, Wang Luman, Wei Bingbing, Yang Shaoyun, Yang Zhiqiang, Jackie Yoong, and Zhang Jing, are just few of the many who have constantly helped and supported me. I am also grateful to Loh Kah Seng for his constant encouragement and practical advice. Special thanks to Mok Mei Feng for her friendship and for everything she has done for me. My research in China, Malaysia, and Singapore was made possible with the kind assistance and support of several friends and informants. Prof Huang Guosheng, Pan iii Rongyang, and Zhou Tingting from Fujian Normal University were great hosts during my stay in Nan’an. Wu Cuirong, the Director of Quanzhou Museum of Overseas Chinese History, had greatly facilitated my access to the museum library. Much appreciation is due to Tim Yap Fuan and other staff at the NUS Central Library and Chinese Library for their kind assistance. I am especially grateful to Chen Zhonghe of Shishan Fengshan Si, Cheah Chay Tiong of Shanyun Gong, and Tan Aik Hock of Singapore Hong San See, for providing me with important information, contacts, and granting me access to invaluable research materials. I must also thank Huang Shiqun, H. T. Lau, Li Tianxi, Helen Low, Lü Mingcong, Ronni Pinsler, Yeo Cheng Hee, Victor Yue, Zhao Wanchao, and Zhou Xinjia, for their readiness and patience in answering my endless queries. Needless to say, all errors and inaccuracies remain my sole responsibility. Portions of this thesis have been presented at the “20th Conference of the International Association of Historians of Asia” at Jawaharlal Nehru University and “Pacific Worlds in Motion II: An Interdisciplinary Conference on Asian Migrations” at NUS. I am grateful to Prof Henry Yu and the participants in each of these conferences for their helpful comments. My deepest and most heartfelt gratitude goes to my friends for their love and support. I am grateful to Soh Gek Han for her tireless help and support, and above all, for taking time off from her busy schedule to proofread my work. Gina Phang, my dear friend and buddy, for her encouragement and concern. I thank my Dharma teachers and friends, Bhante Dhammika, Ven. Kwang Phing, Yamizi Quek, Richmond Tan, and Yap Ching Wi, for keeping me in their prayers. I am also grateful to my friends from iv Sociology Society 2004/05, in particular Johan, Jono, Mindy, Shah, Shuli, and Weijing, for always being there for me, and making my life in NUS more fun and meaningful. I am most grateful to my family for providing me with emotional and financial support throughout my years of education—my grandmother, to whom this thesis is dedicated, for first introducing me to Chinese religion; Mum and Dad, for believing in me and supporting my decision to pursue an academic career; and Melissa, for her endless love and understanding. Finally, to Buddha, for His boundless grace and compassion. Chia Meng Tat Jack November 8, 2009 v Table of Contents Acknowledgements ii Summary vii List of Illustrations ix Note on Conventions x Introduction 1 Dealing with Issues Pertaining to the Cult of Guangze Zunwang 2 Grafting a Religious Dimension onto Chinese Diasporic Studies 6 Research Methodology and Sources 17 Chapter Overview 19 Chapter 1 22 Background: Chinese Migratory Flow from Nan’an and Settlements in Singapore and Malaya Chinese Migration and the Nan’an Migrants 22 Migratory Flow into Singapore and Malaya 25 Nan’an Settlements in Singapore and Malaya 28 Chinese Migration and Religious Transplantation 32 Chapter 2 35 Incense from Southeast China: Early Temple Building and Pre-1949 Religious Network Who is Guangze Zunwang? 35 Early Temple Building in Singapore and Malaya 43 Temples, Communal Integration, and Social Welfare 50 Religious Network in the Chinese Diaspora 53 Chapter 3 58 Turbulence: Distancing, Disruption, and Reconnections in Diasporic Religious Network, 1949-1978 The Distancing: 1949 Divide and the Malayan Emergency 59 Disruption of Diasporic Network: The Cultural Revolution, 1966-1976 63 Establishment of New Temples in the Period of Distancing and Disruption 67 Setting the Context for Religious Reconnections 72 vi Chapter 4 75 Recent Quest for Religious Roots: Temple Network, Pilgrimages, and Inter-Temple Rivalries, 1978-2009 Rebuilding of Shishan Fengshan Si and Resurgence of Religious Network 76 Pilgrimages and Religious Exchanges 84 Religious Competition and Inter-Temple Rivalries 91 Conclusion: Sacred Ties across the Seas 97 Character Glossary 102 Bibliography 108 Appendix A 119 Brief Biographies of Informants Appendix B 121 Paintings Depicting the Life of Guangze Zunwang vii Summary Large scale Chinese emigration began in the mid-nineteenth century and lasted through the first half of twentieth century. Since the early nineteenth century, there were many instances of Nan’an people leaving their homeland and migrating to different parts of Southeast Asia. The migration of the Nan’an people contributed to the spread of Guangze Zunwang’s cult from Southeast China to Southeast Asia in general, and Singapore and Malaysia in particular. Following the arrival and settlement of the Nan’an migrants, the need for spiritual and emotional support, as well as a permanent place of worship, prompted the establishment of Guangze Zunwang temples in the two host countries. This study examines the cult of Guangze Zunwang and its religious network connecting Southeast China and the Chinese communities in Singapore and Malaysia as they overlap with the larger forces of migration and socio-political changes, over the course of two centuries, from the early nineteenth century to 2009. It argues that the diasporic religious network of the Guangze Zunwang’s cult has a significant role in the trans-regional movement of resources—including knowledge, money, and people— between China and the Chinese overseas. As this research will illustrate, temples were important institutions for the Chinese diaspora, in which they served as important nodes in this diasporic network. The changes to the Guangze Zunwang religious network took place against a wider socio-political backdrop of multiple events, including the mass Chinese migration, religious dispersion, Sino-Japanese War, Malayan Emergency, Cultural Revolution, and the reform and opening of China. This study has divided such developments into the three broad phases of formation, disruption, and revival. The first phase, from the viii nineteenth century to the pre-1949 period, marked the creation of this diasporic religious network. It began with the mass Chinese migration and the arrival of Nan’an migrants to Singapore and Malaysia. This was quickly followed by the spread of the cult of Guangze Zunwang and establishment of temples in the host countries. The years from 1949 to 1978 constituted the second phase of the cult’s diasporic network. These three decades began with the dramatic distancing, and subsequently the disruption of religious ties and traumatic destruction of the cult in China. The final phase of the diasporic religious network, from 1978 onwards, was ushered in with the end of the Cultural Revolution, introduction of a Reform and Open-Door Policy, and gradual liberalization of religious policy in China. The rebuilding of Shishan Fengshan Si and the revival of religious network once again made possible the trans-regional movement of resources. This research concludes that the significance of diasporic religious networks can by no means be underestimated. ix List of Illustrations Maps 1. Nan’an in present-day Fujian, China 23 2. Initial residential concentration of early Nan’an migrants in Singapore, 29 circa nineteenth century 3. Initial residential concentration of early Nan’an migrants in Malaya, 31 circa nineteenth century Figures 1. Images of Guangze Zunwang and Zunfei 37 2. Shishan Fengshan Si 42 3. The Global Spread of Guangze Zunwang’s Cult 44 4. Singapore Hong San See 45 5. Kuching Hong San Si 48 6. Qilinling Fengshan Si 48 7. Chen Xijing 62 8. Beheaded immortal carvings on the temple pillars at Weizhen Miao 65 9. Wu Hongye 77 10. Shishan Fengshan Si in present-day Nan’an, China 81 11. Taiwang Ling 83 12. Longshan Gong 83 13. Pilgrims from Papar Tengnan Tang and Yabi Binan Tang of Sabah, 85 Malaysia 14. Director Huang Shiqun presenting a plaque to Chen Yinglai, the Chairman 91 of Singapore Hong San See Diagrams 1.

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