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Female Emancipation in a Colonial Context: the Chinese Community in Singapore 1900-1942 Qualification: Phd

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Female Emancipation in a Colonial Context: the Chinese Community in Singapore 1900-1942 Qualification: Phd Access to Electronic Thesis Author: Wei-an Yang Thesis title: Female Emancipation in a Colonial Context: the Chinese Community in Singapore 1900-1942 Qualification: PhD This electronic thesis is protected by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. No reproduction is permitted without consent of the author. It is also protected by the Creative Commons Licence allowing Attributions-Non-commercial-No derivatives. If this electronic thesis has been edited by the author it will be indicated as such on the title page and in the text. Female Emancipation in a Colonial Context: the Chinese Community in Singapore 1900-1942 By Wei-an Yang A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History June 2014 Abstract The advent of female Chinese immigrants was an important factor in shaping the Chinese community from an immigrant society into a stabilized community in Singapore at the beginning of the 20th century. Using a combination of Chinese language press and Colonial Office records, my study explores those primary sources to assess the voices of Chinese women, and examine how Chinese women were constituted as a group in the Chinese community during the colonial era. Chinese newspapers were an effective tool for disseminating information concerning nationalism in China as well as stirring up a consciousness of national identity within the Chinese community. Those activities carried out by the Kuomintang pushed forward the development of Chinese female education, and offered them opportunities to participate in the National Salvation Movement in the 1930s. On the other hand, three archetypes of Chinese woman - prostitutes, mui- tsais (domestic servants) and educated women - are introduced so as to examine their role in the formation of the Singapore Chinese community. The Colonial Office records are thus used to identify those Chinese female-related issues in order to examine the practices and attitudes of the British authorities with regard to the social ills within the Chinese community. The difference between the values of the western and eastern culture reflected in their policies towards these social problems among Chinese women, and how those social reforms represent the variation in Chinese females’ family position and status in society throughout the colonial era will be discussed in my research. Acknowledgements My deepest gratitude goes first to my primary supervisor Dr. Clare Griffiths, for her expert guidance and encouragement through my graduate career. To my second supervisor, Professor Bob Moore, I thanks for his comments in the revisions of chapters. I have also benefited comments from Associate Professor Jeremy Taylor, for providing valuable information on Singapore’s Chinese community. Their thoughtful comments were valued greatly. I am also grateful to staffs in Britain and Singapore who have provided technical supports in assisting me to retrieve sources from the libraries and archives. The SOAS library, British Library, the National Archive in Britain, the Library and Archive of Singapore which supported my research in various ways. Many thanks to my friends Hsin-hui, Fang, Tzu-pei, Tzu-ling, and Xueyan. Their constant companionship and warm support relieved most of my anxiety and frustrations throughout my life in Britain. I would especially like to thank their help for practicing mock viva with me during the final stage of my PhD student life. My deepest thanks go to my family, for cheering me up at crucial moments. Without their encouragement and support, this thesis would not be completed. I would like to thanks my sister Wei-Ning and dog Genie and Marble, for their comfort and fun in my life. I am especially grateful to my parents and grandmother, for their love, support and encouragement in my study in Britain. This thesis is dedicated to them. Contents List of figures Introduction 1 Research Aim Literature Review Methodological Approach and Content of Thesis Chapter I Chinese Female Migration to Singapore 38 I.I Chinese Female Immigration into Singapore I. II Cultural Difference between Peranakan Chinese and China-born Chinese Women I.III Social Problems of Chinese Women in Singapore Chapter II Getting Educated: from Family to Public Sphere 74 II.I Establishment of Chinese Female Education II.II The Development of Chinese Female Education Chapter III The Development of Chinese Female Activities in the 1920s 120 III.I Development of Female Education III.II The Life of Educated Women III.III The Life of Uneducated Women Chapter IV The Development of Chinese Female Activities in the 1930s 177 IV.I Progress and Changes in Female Education IV II Chinese Women’s Participation in the National Salvation Movement IV III Solutions to Chinese Women’s Social Problems: Prostitution and the Mui-tsai System Epilogue 226 Conclusion 236 Glossary 244 Glossary of Chinese Names 247 Appendix I 249 Appendix II 251 Bibliography 252 List of Figures Figures I.1: Growth of the Chinese Population of Singapore 40 Figures I.2: Number of Prostitutes and Brothels in Singapore 61 Figure III.1: Circulation rates of Newspapers1919-1930 139 Introduction Research Aim From the first days of Singapore, it has been an immigrant society, with a majority of Chinese immigrants throughout the colonial era. Being one of the largest and busiest ports in the world, Singapore plays an important role in maintaining social orders and political stability in Southeast Asia as well as dominating the economic sphere. In the post-1945 era, most scholarly works have focused on the political, socio-economic, and cultural elements of the Chinese community and how its leadership has led to Singapore becoming a prosperous, modernizing country. Against this background, I began to analyse the relevant research on the Singapore Chinese community and found that there have been few attempts to examine how the social status of Chinese women and their position within the family has changed over time. In exploring the formation of the Chinese community in the late 19th century, the advent of female migrants could be viewed as an important factor in transforming the Chinese community from an immigrant society into a stabilised community by the turn of the 20th century. In this respect, my research will explore the developing role of women within the Chinese disapora from the late 19th century to the fall of Singapore to the Japanese (on 15 February 1942). Of the relevant sources, the Chinese language press1played a vital role in reporting matters concerning the Chinese 1 See Xu Guoqi, ‘Nationalism, Internationalism, and National Identity: China from 1895 to 1919’, in C.X. George Wei and Liu Xiaoyuan (eds), Chinese Nationalism in Perspective: Historical and Recent Cases (London: Greenwood Press, 2001), p. 104. In the Chinese context, the press serves as a tool for disseminating information considering the rise of Chinese nationalism in the 20th century in China. The content of the press aimed to report foreign and domestic affairs as well as introducing new ideas, new terminology, and new information to the general public. In this respect, the press became an effective vehicle through which the Chinese community could share their feelings and understanding about China and the rest of the world; Hung Chang-Tai, War and Popular Culture: Resistance in Modern China, 1937-1945 (London: University of California Press, 1994), pp.39-47. In the 1930s, press also symbolized a weapon for spreading patriotic messages and politicizing public opinion in China. This originated from the rise of modern journalism in the 1920s. The press was a powerful instrument for 1 community, including political, educational and social problems. Thus, it will be used as the main resource for assessing the voices of Chinese women, and examining how they were constituted as a group within the Chinese community during colonial era. On 30th January 1819, Singapore was founded by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826), and was incorporated into the Straits Settlement along with Penang and Malacca in 1826. A vast number of Chinese males, driven by the poverty in China soon arrived in the colony, seeking work. These migrants were known as coolies (苦 力 cheap menial labourers), and were dominated by various dialect groups.2 In the 1850s, the Taiping Rebellion (太平天國 1850-1864)3 caused great social unrest and economic recession in China. Against this background of hunger, poverty, and insecurity, many Chinese women also migrated to Singapore. There were two ways in which they could move to Singapore: either arriving with their family or being sold by traffickers. The former group were mainly Chinese immigrants’ wives or relatives who came to Singapore on a voluntary basis without being indebted; and most of these returned to China after a few years, with only a few choosing to settle in Singapore permanently. The latter group consisted of prostitutes and mui-tsais (妹仔 female domestic servants) imported by traffickers to the colony illegally.4 They were often sold to brothels or Chinese families on their arrival in Singapore. In the 1860s, spearheading social change and raising public consciousness, and was effective in disseminating information and shaping the minds of a wider audience. 2 See Henrietta Harrison, Inventing the Nation: China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 70. In the 19th century, Chinese workers were shipped as bonded labourers from Guangdong to Southeast Asia. Most of them worked in the opium farms, tin and rubber factories. 3 The Taiping Rebellion was a civil war in southern China that lasted from the 1840s to the 1860s. It was led by Hong Xiuquan (洪秀全 1814-1864) who fought against the Qing regime. The rebellion ended in 1864, and Fujian and Guangdong Provinces were devastated. This situation caused social unrest and an economic recession in China: many felt insecure and migrated overseas. 4 Lai Ah Eng, Peasants, Proletarians and Prostitutes: A Preliminary Investigation into the Work of Chinese Women in Colonial Malaya (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1986), p.16.
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