CONTENTS

5 Preface

7 Authors MAIN TOPICS

9 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership Regina M. Hechanova

25 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China Liu Lige

37 Status of Women in and Trends in Braema Mathiaparanam

51 Gender and Islam in Indonesia (Challenges and Solution) Zaitunah Subhan

57 Civil Society Movement on Sexuality in Thailand: A Challenge to State Institutions Varaporn Chamsanit

DOCUMENTS

67 Joint Statement of the ASEAN High-Level Meeting on Good Practices in CEDAW Reporting and Follow-up

3 WEB LINKS

69 Informative websites on Europe and Southeast Asia

ABSTRACTS

73

4 PREFACE

conomic progress and political care giver. Similarly, conservative Eliberalisation have contributed religious interpretations undermine greatly to tackling the challenges of reform of outdated concepts of the role poverty and inequality in Asia. Creating and status of women in Asian societies. equal opportunities and ensuring equal The articles presented in this edition treatment for women is a key concern for of Panorama are testimony to the civil society groups and grassroots leaders multitude of challenges faced by women across the region. Undoubtedly, in most across Asia in the struggle to create parts of Asia, women today enjoy greater gender equality. They range from freedoms than their did before addressing a shift in traditional gender them including improved access to roles derived from advancing healthcare, enhanced career opportunities, modernisation and globalisation to the and increased participation in political need to identify ways and means to decision-making. Nonetheless, key support women in their rightful quest challenges persistently remain. Besides the to fully participate in the work-force as need to further improve the basic living well as in political decision-making. conditions for women, especially in the The five writers whose papers are poorest countries in Asia, another prominent collected here are academics and activists example refers to women’s participation in from East Asia and Southeast Asia who the work force, where traditional structures shared their insight into the multi- continue to hinder them from reaching top faceted issue of gender equality with positions in their respective careers. As experts from across Asia and grassroots Braema Mathiaparanam highlights in her leaders from China during the recent article, this systemic neglect has potentially ‘Forum on Gender Issues’ which was negative repercussions not only for society held in Xi’an, China from 19 to 20 but also for the national economy at large. October 2007. The Forum on Gender Instead, she argues, government policies Issues is an annual meeting co-organised need to focus on nurturing the potential of by the Regional office of the Konrad- the female part of the workforce to stop Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS) Singapore them from falling behind their male and the Institute of Southeast Asian competitors. Studies (ISEAS) since 2005. In 2007, However, progressive government KAS and ISEAS jointly co-organised policies also need to be matched by a the “Forum on Gender Issues in East major shift in public perception and Southeast Asia” for the first time concerning the role of men and women with the Shaanxi Women’s Federation in society. Dr Regina M. Hechanova (SWF). points to the traditional understanding of a women’s role as that of a caregiver which continues to enjoy widespread support across Asia. Increasingly, women feel the pressure to juggle two tasks – contributing to the family income by joining the workforce while also Dr. Colin Dürkop fulfilling the traditional role of primary Singapore, March 2008

5

AUTHORS

DR VARAPORN CHAMSANIT is currently faculty member of the Office of Human Rights Studies and Social Development at Mahidol University in Thailand. She has previously worked as a journalist and researcher writing on women’s and gender related issues. Her academic background is in Anthropology and Women’s Studies. Dr Varaporn Chamsanit’s academic interests include gender issues, gender and religion, , human rights theory, gender and human rights, sexuality and sexual rights.

DR REGINA M. HECHANOVA is Director at the Ateneo Center for Organization Research and Development (CORD), Ateneo de Manila Department of Psychology. CORD provides training, research and organisation development services to both profit and non-profit organisations. An associate professor at Department of Psychology, she holds a Ph.D. in Industrial/Organisational Psychology from the Central Michigan University and obtained her M.A. in Psychology and B.S. from the University of the (UP) Diliman. She has over 20 years of experience as an HR practitioner and consultant in organisations both in the Philippines and in the US. In 1996, she received the UP Chancellor’s Award for Most Outstanding Faculty. In 2005, Dr Hechanova was also named Outstanding Young Scientist in 2005 by the National Academy of Science and Technology. She is co-editor of the book “The Way We Work: Research and Best Practices in Philippine Organizations which was a finalist at the 2006 National Book Awards.

MS LIU LIGE is Chairwoman of the Shaanxi Provincial Women’s Federation. She has held numerous political appointments including Delegate to the 17th Central Committee of the Committee of People’s Congress, and Member of the 10th Shaanxi Provincial Standing Committee of People’s Congress. She currently serves as Deputy Director of the Women and Children Working Committee under the Shaanxi Provincial People’s Government. Ms Liu Lige holds as a Postgraduate degree in sociology from the Central Party School. She has received numerous awards for her work in the area of gender equality and women’s development.

MS BRAEMA MATHIAPARANAM is currently a Visiting Research Fellow and Gender Studies Programme Coordinator at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) in Singapore. Her current work is on micro-finance and poverty reductions. She is also involved in various civil society groups in Singapore including Transient Workers Count Too (TWC 2), an advocacy group on migrant workers; Association of Women for Action and Research (AWARE); Action for Aids (AFA); and the Singapore Working Committee for an ASEAN Human Rights Mechanism. She has previously worked as a journalist and a teacher and was appointed Nominated Member of Parliament.

7 PROFESSOR ZEITUNAH SUBHAN obtained her Masters degree at Al-Azhar University of Cairo in Egypt and her PhD from the State Islamic University of Indonesia (UIN Syarif Hidayatullah). She is Expert Staff for the Ministry of Women Empowerment Republic of Indonesia and lectures on Islamic Studies at the same university (UIN) in Jakarta. Prof Zaitunah has published widely on the issue of Gender and Islam.

8 MAIN TOPICS

Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

Regina M. Hechanova

Introduction

From serving as the chief priestess of a taken as being inferior to men. Even tribe to fighting in the revolution, before marriage, the Filipino is Filipina women have played an considered special. Unlike in other important role in the development of societies where the bride’s parents give the nation from pre-colonial times to present to the groom, in the Philippines the present. The country currently it is the opposite. Dowry in the ranks 35th in the United Nations Gender Philippines means a gift of the groom’s Empowerment Measure (GEM) - one family presented to the bride (Fulgado, of the highest among developing 1992). nations. Even more importantly, the In ancient times prior to Spanish country holds the distinction of already colonialism, the Filipina wife was having had two female Heads of State consulted by the husband who could since 1986. Considering between the not enter into any agreement or contract end of the Second World War and 1997 without her knowledge and approval. only 28 women had been elected as She also retained her maiden name. Heads of State or Government around Traditionally, her married name was the world this indicates the relatively just added to her maiden name and all high status afforded to Filipina women her children carried her maiden name (United Nations, 1999). as their middle name (Fulgado, 1992). Women in the Filipino family are Unfortunately, years of Spanish viewed with much respect and are influence diminished this role and highly esteemed. This is quite unique in emphasised the subordination of the Far East where women continue to women. walk behind men and are generally

9 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

Gender Roles in the Contemporary studies show that with more wives entering the workplace, Filipino Family men are gradually yielding to the The Filipino family is generally pressure of getting more involved in considered paternalistic. The father is household chores (McCann Erikson, the acknowledged head of the Filipino 1996). In 1997, two of three female family and the wife is the treasurer and workers (66%) who responded to a purse-keeper of the family. It is not 1997 Work Orientation Survey said unusual to find a husband receiving an that they are mainly responsible for “allowance” from his wife after having domestic duties; 24 percent said that handed over his entire pay check to her they shared duties with their partners; (Fulgado, 1992). Traditionally, mothers and 10 percent reported that others are take on the majority of care giving roles responsible for domestic duties. such as preparing food, taking care of Interestingly, among male workers, only the house, helping children with their 9 percent reported that they are mainly school work, attending to school responsible for domestic duties, whereas matters, and disciplining children. 35 percent claimed that they share Fathers, on the other hand, are domestic duties (Hechanova, Uy, and responsible for earning an income while Presbitero 2004). A recent study sharing the task of disciplining the conducted by the author, however, children. reveals a more egalitarian division of These gender stereotypes are also household work. In this study of dual reflected in the children are brought up. career couples with children, women Daughters are typically assigned reported to be responsible for slightly household work (preparing food, doing more than half (58%) of household the dishes, doing the laundry, feeding responsibilities. The study also indicated pets, tending to plants, cleaning and generational differences. In the study, caring for younger siblings) to prepare the share of women was 68% among her to be a wife. Sons, on the other those in their 50s, 59% for those in hand, are assigned more physical chores their 40s, 58% among those in their such as farming and fishing for those 30s and 50% among those in their 20’s. living in rural areas (Liwag, Dela Cruz, A caveat to this, however is that the & Macapagal, 2002). sample represented mostly professionals However, it appears that these roles and white-collar workers. Whether the are beginning to change as more and sharing of roles among lower-income more women share the burden of and blue collar workers is becoming earning. In the 1960s, less than a third more egalitarian is still unknown. of Filipinas worked. Today, one out of two women works. Not surprisingly, Work-Life Balance there has been a rise in dual-career couples. Currently, both father and The changing nature of the family is work outside the home in 37 paralleled by changes in the workplace. percent of Filipino families (Hechanova, Technological advancement, job loss, Uy, & Presbitero 2004). mergers and acquisitions, cut-throat

10 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership competition are putting pressure on both genders, it is telling that in today’s organisations and their workers to work Philippine society, males continue to harder, better, and faster. As Filipino outnumber females by three to two in workers are faced with new demands, the labour force. The rate of expectations, and roles, work occupies unemployment has also always been an increasing portion of people’s lives higher for female workers than for male with family and social life often playing workers although the difference between only a secondary role. male and female workers is getting The Work Foundation defines work- smaller (Illo, 1997; NCRFW, 2003). life balance as “[…] people having a The labour market also remains gender- measure of control over when, where segmented as male workers are still and how they work (Visser & Williams, preferred in certain industries and 2006). It is achieved when an individual’s female workers in others. The industry right to a fulfilled life inside and outside groups dominated by women are paid work is accepted and respected as education (75.4%), health and social the norm, to the mutual benefit of the work (71.8%), as well as wholesale and individual, business and society.” Thus retail trade (62.6%) (Illo, 1997). although what consistutes work-life The emergence of call centres and balance may be different for each person the outsourcing industry has bided well – the issue of work-life balance appears for women. The boom in the service to hinge on two important concepts, industry (particularly call centre work) namely flexibility and choice. Flexibility has opened more employment has to do with one’s ability to fulfill opportunities for both men and women. obligations of both work and family In addition, compensation in these life. Choice, on the other hand, has to industries is typically higher than do with one’s control over work and family arrangements. average, making it very attractive This paper examines these two especially among fresh graduates. concepts as it looks at work life balance However, the downside to this industry in the Philippines. Furthermore, it are the working hours, in particular the looks at these concepts through the lens so-called ‘graveyard shifts’ (night shift), of gender as it describes how Filipino that may cause health and safety women seek to balance work and life. problems. A recently conducted study of the call centre industry suggests that one out of four workers is experiencing Women in the Philippine burnout. Typical symptoms reported Workforce were physical exhaustion, inability to sleep, and falling sick more often. Employment Options for Female workers who take on graveyard Filipino Women shifts also reported increased security The issue of work-life balance assumes risks because going home in the early that workers have a choice over the kind hours of the morning makes them more of work they do. Even if population and vulnerable to thefts and other crimes. literacy rates are almost the same for In addition, the issue of work-life

11 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

balance also appears to be particularly export companies. These informal salient for these workers. Because of the sector workers do not enjoy social unusual working hours, call centre protection because there are often no workers reported diminished contact formal contracts but only verbal time with family and friends. As one agreements on terms and conditions. customer service representative Thus, informal sector workers generally recounted, “I have no social life anymore suffer from irregular employment, low because my friends have normal day jobs income, poor working conditions, and and I’m the only one working nights. I are not entitled to social security still live at home but hardly talk to my benefits. Child care is an issue that is family anymore. Even when I am home, I particularly problematic among workers am asleep so my parents just communicate in the informal sector because, unlike with me via text” (Hechanova, in professional women who can hire press). household help, the income of informal Although call centres have overall workers is not adequate to hire substitute provided greater employment child care. Another common issue in opportunities for women, the the informal sector is the limited access concentration of growth and to credit (NCRFW, 2006). development in a few urban and regional centres has made these jobs inaccessible Equality in the Philippine to poor women in rural areas. Not Workplace surprisingly, a 1997 Work Orientation Filipino women have steadily progressed Survey revealed that women in the up the management hierarchy in recent agricultural sector register the least years and have substantially advanced satisfaction with their work. It is in this into middle management positions. In group of workers that we find the widest fact, Filipino women outnumber men gap between work preferences and 2:1 in administrative, management and actual working conditions (Hechanova, executive positions in private and Uy, and Presbitero 2004). government offices (NCRFW, 2004). Thus, it seems that Filipino women Ironically, despite this, their climb may still have less employment options to the top has been slow and difficult than Filipino men. The lack of and top management in the Philippines employment opportunities has pushed remains male-dominated. The latest more and more into the data from the Securities and Exchange informal sector. As of 2004, about half Commission (SEC) show that only 5% of all Filipino workers are in the of CEO’s in the Top 500 Philippine informal sector – which means they are corporations are women (SEC, 2003). self-employed and unpaid family Moreover, women in top executive workers. Of these, forty percent are positions receive lower earnings than women doing mostly self-employment their male counterparts (NCRFW, work such as sewing rags, doing laundry, 1995) and are found in areas deemed vending food or petty goods or doing appropriate for them such as the arts, subcontracted piece-rate work for public relations, and personnel

12 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership management (Eviota, 1992). that asked corporate leaders to identify This representation of women is also characteristics of effective leaders evident in government positions. showed that the Filipino manager still Although, the country is currently led has a tendency to perceive successful by its second female president, a rare managers as possessing traits more feat for any country, these women were commonly ascribed to men than to not exactly elected under normal women. The association of the circumstances. Both female presidents masculine stereotype with successful came into power based on ‘people managers may be one explanation for power’ revolutions. Females represented the under-representation of women in only 20% of all candidates in the 1995 senior management positions. It also senatorial election. In that year, women suggests that given the stereotypes, only won 2 of the 12 Senate positions women may be perceived to be less (16%) and 25 of the 207 Congressional qualified and suitable than men for seats (12%). Women also comprise only managerial positions thus affecting 18% of judges in Philippine courts women’s chances for advancement in (Ortega, n.d.) the management hierarchy. The A study on gender discrimination acceptance of a male model of revealed that women managers report management also implies that female being excluded from informal networks, managers are likely to be assessed based and experiencing difficulties in finding on the extent to which they exhibit mentors. Male managers also reported stereotypical male characteristics (Lim that they are given more responsibilities & Hechanova, 2005). than women in the same position (Lim However, the study also found that & Hechanova, 2005). Women in a 1997 each gender seems to favour its own Work Orientation Survey also reported kind with male managers having a more less job satisfaction than men. In masculine view of management and comparison to male workers, responses female managers having a more feminine by female interviewees revealed less view. On the positive side, it means that agreement with statements such as work female managers are less likely than provides them high with income, male managers to make selection, opportunities for advancement, and promotion, and placement decisions allows them to work independently against women and may even favour (Hechanova, Uy, & Presbitero 2004). fellow women. Therefore, increasing The UNESCO study on women in local the number of women in management government mirrors these findings. can facilitate the entry and progress of Women in local government reported other women in the management facing discrimination from colleagues hierarchy. On the other hand, it also and members of the local community means that as long as management (Ortega, n.d.). remains a male-dominated field, women Studies of both female corporate and will continue to have difficulties government leaders suggest that the breaking through the glass ceiling. This issue is partly a cultural one. A study is because senior managers have a great

13 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

influence in the recruitment and obtaining a mentor as well as their promotion of lower level managers exclusion from the so called “old boys below them. Since men occupy most network” hinders their advancement in senior positions it is likely that they the management hierarchy. What is would favour a male candidate over an alarming is that male managers are less equally competent female candidate aware of the difficulties faced by women (Lim & Hechanova, 2005). in these two aspects because these are Although there were no gender areas that they have direct control over. differences in the overall perception of Male managers are often tasked with gender discrimination, differences were establishing mentoring relationships found for specific organisational with younger managers because they practices. Female managers perceived hold more senior positions. The same is that women are penalised harsher for true with establishing informal mistakes, are excluded from informal networks; men are usually the ones who networks, and have a harder time organise interaction outside of the office finding a mentor than men (Lim & in order to foster camaraderie between Hechanova, 2005). These results are them. Whether conscious or not, validated in a United Nations study research has shown that male managers among women local government tend to favour taking on a male rather officials. Women in local government than a female protégé and are not were asked about barriers that restrict inclined to let women in on their women from taking on leadership informal interactions. What is apparent, position. They identified the following; therefore, is that despite legislation the need to balance family and work against discrimination against women, responsibilities, attitudes that leadership more subtle forms of discrimination and decision-making are a male domain, still exist. a culture where important decisions are Not surprisingly, aside from the made in informal drinking sessions that continued gender segmentation of exclude women from fully participating industries, there is still a discrepancy in decision-making (Ortega, n.d.). between the wages received among the The results are important to women two sexes. Based on the earnings of in management because they are key employed men and women in all organisational factors that keep the occupational groups, women’s earnings glass ceiling in place. Mentoring is of constitute less than half of men’s particular relevance because studies earnings - 40% in 1988 and 47% in have shown that mentoring relationships 1992 (NCRFW, 2004). This is true are associated with career development even in female-dominated industries and success. Inclusion in informal (Illo, 1997). Gender income differences networks is also an important factor are greatest in the sales and services because it is usually in informal sector where women tend to be found interactions where critical information in micro and small enterprises as is exchanged (Lyness & Thompson, compared to men who are found in 2000). The difficulties of women in bigger firms (NCRFW, 2004).

14 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

Diaspora of Filipino Women migrant mothers on the emotional well- The lack of occupational choice for being of children. Children of OFWs Filipino workers is evident in the fact appear to be more vulnerable to both that the Philippines is one of the biggest physical and verbal abuses by adults exporters of labour to other countries. who care for them. Interestingly, more Seventy percent (70%) of all overseas boys than report being belittled Filipino workers are women (POEA, and hurt by their surrogate caregivers. 2006). The majority of these women In addition, the feeling of being work as nurses, entertainers or abandoned was more pronounced household workers. The departure of among children of migrant mothers and women, especially those who are those who have both parents abroad. mothers, has raised a number of Children of migrant mothers reported concerns especially with regards to their feeling lonely, angry, unloved, afraid, and their families’ quality of life. worried compared to all other groups of Indeed, how can these workers achieve children. work-life balance when their work takes Children of OFWs are not the only them far away from their families? ones who experience adverse impacts. The departure of mothers has also The OFWs themselves also experience raised serious concerns on the impact of contract violations that reduce their the welfare of the children left behind. salaries or subject them to poor working OFW children do appear to benefit conditions. Just like the children they economically. OFW families are more leave behind, women OFWs are also likely to own homes than non-OFW vulnerable to physical and sexual abuse. families. Families of migrant workers For example, domestic helpers complain are also more likely to have major of insufficient food, too much work, household appliances and access to little time to rest, prohibition to use the communication compared to non- telephone, limited socialisation and migrant workers (Scalibrini Migration baths, verbal abuse from female Center, 2003). employers and sexual harassment from Beyond the economic rewards, male employers (NCRFW, 2004) however, migration appears to have changed the family dynamics. How Initiatives Empowering does such reconfiguration affect children? Although children of OFW Filipino Women to Achieve parents in general appear to do better in Work-Life Balance school than children of non-migrant Gender and Family-Sensitive workers, the children of migrant mothers appear to do worse academically Policies and socially. This suggests the There has been much effort to ensure importance of the mother’s presence in gender equality in the country at the the academic performance of children level of policy and plans. The Philippine (Scalibrini Migration Center, 2003). government also established the More problematic is the impact of National Commission on the Role of

15 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

Filipino Women (NCRFW) in 1975 • Special Leave such as family care and created the Philippine Plan for leave, death of a family member Gender-responsive Development (1995 leave, and emergency leave -2025), a 30-year framework for • Flexitime that allows workers to pursuing full equality and development adjust their work schedules for women and men. • Compressed work week where The government has also put in place workers spend longer hours in a day gender and family-sensitive policies. For but less working days a week example, in the past five years, the • Job sharing following new laws were enacted: Solo Parents Act which prohibits employers On the other hand, organisations also from discriminating against single tend to categorise family-benefits parents, Paternity Leave Act providing 7 among work-life balance initiatives. days leave for married men whose spouse These may include the following. has given birth. The revised labour code • Housing loan also contains provisions against sexual • Educational assistance for harassment, discrimination against any dependents female employee as well as provisions • Summer workshops for kids for institutionalised child care in • Food allowance organisations of a certain size. • Day care services • Car loan Work-Life Initiatives • Calamity loan • Transportation service or allowance What bodes well, especially for workers • Salary loan in the formal sector, is that corporations in the Philippines have begun taking Finally, the third cluster of work-life their cue from more global organisations balance initiatives seeks to ensure the and have started to implement work- continued growth and well-being of the life programs and services. Work-life individual worker. Among these balance programs are initiatives adopted initiatives are the following. by organisations to help workers achieve • Career planning/mentoring better quality of work and life. Thus, • Career counselling these initiatives are varied and may be • Health & wellness programs and clustered in three general categories; facilities those related to providing; 1) flexibility • Educational assistance for in time and space, 2) family-related employees needs, and 3) personal development • Stress management courses and well-being. • Study leave There are a number of initiatives to • Personal interest seminars increase the flexibility of workers to • Resource library balance the needs of work and family. • Personal counselling These include the following. • Outreach programs • Telecommuting or work at home • Family counselling arrangements

16 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

• Worship facilities support offered by organisations are • Work-related seminars salary loans, work-related seminars, transportation allowances, car loans, Cognisant of the stressful nature of its and educational assistance (Cabochan, industry, business process outsourcing 2002 in Hechanova, 2005). organisations are at the forefront of Interestingly, however, there appears to providing work-life balance initiatives be a discrepancy between what is – from recreation rooms, to gyms and provided and what the employee needs massages. A study conducted by the (see Table 1). For example, although Personnel Management Association of workers seek day care services for their the Philippines and Resources and Inner children, only one company in the Strategies for Excellences, Inc. (RISE) survey provided this service. reveals that the most common work-life

Table 1: Work-life Programs Sought and Provides in Philippine Organizations

% of Employees % of Organizations Work-Life Programs who seek who provide (n=156) (n=138) Housing loan 49 21 Telecommuting 47 4 Career planning/mentoring 42 29 Career counselling 42 22 Educational Assistance to dependents 41 28 Health & Wellness programs 38 35 Summer workshops for kids 36 6 Educational Assistance to Employees 35 51 Food Allowance 35 48 Special Leaves 35 30 Stress Management courses 35 25 Study Leave 34 38 Extended Family Care leaves 33 17 Personal Interest Seminars 32 27 Day Care Services 31 1 Flexitime 31 39

17 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

Resource Library 29 35 Car Loan 28 55 Compressed work week 27 18 Personal counselling 27 25 Outreach programs 26 27 Calamity loan 25 41 Family Counselling 22 9 Transportation service 19 45 Worship facilities 18 41 Salary loan 16 89 Job sharing 15 13 Transfer entitlements 15 25 Transportation allowance 15 67 Work-related seminars 12 85

The government also put in place a penalties for the violation of rules. It programme for civil servants. This has also posted female labour attaches programme includes flexi-time that and social workers to countries with allows workers to freely adjust their large populations of female overseas work schedule as long as they complete workers (NCRFW, 2004). NGOs, such an eight-hour work day. The SWAP as the Scalibrini Migration Center, programme also allows civil service continue to work towards enhancing employees to exchange similar posts knowledge and education of migrant with colleagues in other areas so they workers and their families. can work geographically closer to home (NCRFW, 2004). Empowering the Informal Sector Protection of Migrant Workers The most common problems faced by and their Families workers in informal sectors are access to To provide better protection to its credit, lack of employable skills and overseas workers, the Philippine absence of social protection. Both government initiated bilateral and social NGOs and GOs have sought to address welfare agreements with foreign these issues through micro-financing countries who regularly receive its initiatives and capability-building OFWs. In 2002, the Philippine Overseas programmes. One example is the labour Employment Authority (POEA) department’s Women Workers implemented stricter rules for new Employment and Entrepreneurship recruitment agencies and stiffer Development (WEED) Programme

18 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership which has trained about 22,980 women Continuing Issues and in the period 2001 to 2003. To provide more social protection to informal Challenges to Work-Life sector workers, the Revised SSS Act has Balance legally extended SSS to self-employed The past decade has seen many notable workers. However, implementation of improvements in the plight of women the law has been hindered by difficulties workers in the Philippines. The gains, in remittance of premiums (NCRFW, however, are still fragile and there are 2004). still many remaining issues that will Another common problem of impact on both the quality of work and informal workers is access to child care. life of women workers. To address this, the Philippine government in 1990 mandated the establishment of a day care centre in Improving Participation of every village. The social welfare Women in Leadership department has also built about 37,422 Key to ensuring the policies and preschools all over the country. Although programmes are gender sensitive is there is criticism that the day care ensuring that women are represented in centres allow only little time-off for leadership positions and are part of women with young children to policy development. As noted earlier, undertake gainful employment, it still women are still under-represented in frees up some time for women for top leadership positions. How can income generation (NCRFW, 2004). women workers break through such More than half of women in rural glass ceilings? Employers need to be areas labour in their family farms made aware of such a culture and make without pay. Rural women share the a commitment to promoting a culture same problems as informal sector of fairness and equity. Employers need workers in cities and towns. However, to ensure that human resource and their issues are magnified by their development systems promote and location. In addition, their role as protect women workers. Recruitment producers are often overlooked because and the provision of mentoring for generally men are considered as farmers, women leaders are other important fishers or livestock raisers and are given mechanisms. more access to natural resources. For example, in 1992 only 12% of recipients Culture change in the Filipino of land patents were women. To address this, the Comprehensive Agrarian Family Reform Program (CARP) was instituted However, equity in the workplace will and included gender equality provisions only be possible if there is also equity in such as the issuing of certificates in the the family. As long as Filipina women names of both spouses. By 2001, women continue to bear the lion’s share of received 33% of land certificates household responsibilities, their ability awarded (NCRFW, 2004). to take on greater responsibility in the

19 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

workplace will be greatly hampered. To a minimum of 14 weeks of paid this end, education and culture change maternity leave while other countries of both wives and husbands are such as Bulgaria provide as much as 36 important. Empowered wives need weeks (Bolgar, 2001). enlightened husbands. Child-rearing and socialisation practices also need to Support Services for Migrant be re-examined to break the stereotypes of gender roles. Workers and their Families Although there are programmes that target families of migrant workers, the Monitoring and studies suggest there is greater need for psychological programmes directed at Implementation of Gender protecting migrant families from the and Family-Friendly Policies difficulties associated with the There have been a number of laws separation of child and parents. enacted to protect Filipina women both Counselling and parenting programs in the formal, informal and overseas may be particularly important in work environments. Unfortunately, empowering both migrant workers and many of these laws have yet to be fully the spouses left behind. Protection enforced or monitored. For example, especially of women migrant workers is the country implemented its Anti- still a concern and needs to be pursued Sexual Harassment Act in 1990. Yet more vigorously. from 1994 to 2000, the implementing Civil Service Commission received only Improving Access to Resources 38 complaints. Of these, 15 respondents and Education were dismissed from service, 7 were suspended for a period ranging from 3 A critical issue, especially for workers in months up to a year, and 2 were the informal sector, is the lack of access acquitted. The rest were dismissed for to resources and education to allow various reasons such as lack of evidence them to earn a living. Despite the high and desistance of complainant literacy rate in the country, (NCRFW, 2004). The implementation unemployment is high, especially of other family-friendly laws, such as among women. This suggests a gap in the provision of day care, remains the nature of education that Filipinos questionable. In addition, some of these receive and which is required by Philippine laws are still a far cry from employers. The issue of choice is useless the family friendly policies of the more if workers do not have the skills required developed countries. For example, to compete for jobs and positions. women who give birth are provided 60 Bridging competence gaps by providing days maternity leave for normal delivery workers with greater access to resources and 78 for a caesarean delivery. In and education is still vital to providing European countries, mothers are assured greater choice.

20 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

Improving Job Creation first even if it means less spare time. Attitudes towards leisure, however, and Productivity appear to be influenced by income Finally, the issue of choice assumes that levels. The World Values Survey reveals there are adequate employment that workers with higher incomes place opportunities for the workforce. The a higher value on leisure than those high rate of labour migration is with less education and income. The testimony to this dearth. Even the high higher the income, the more likely they growth rate of the business process are to have discretionary funds for outsourcing and call centre industries is leisure. In a country where more than not expected to provide a solution to one-third or a total of 26.5 million the country’s unemployment problem. Filipinos fall below the poverty line This is because only about 4% of (National Statistics Coordination Board applicants are selected and many are 2002), the results do suggest that for university graduates with good English lower-income workers, survival takes for whom a call centre job is a form of priority over leisure (Hechanova, Uy, & under-employment. Thus, to increase Presbitero, 2005). occupational choice of workers the To conclude, initiatives to help expansion of other industries is vital. workers achieve greater work-life For example, the service sector is the balance are already beginning to take fastest growing industry in Asia. Services root in the formal sector. It appears that such as tourism and travel, retailing and at least for educated women in rural distribution, education and health are areas, work-life balance may be within alls sectors where a relatively large their reach because of increased choices number of jobs can be created. Women and flexibility. However, for the Filipino in rural areas also remain the most workers who are in lower level jobs, the vulnerable to poverty. Therefore, informal sector or overseas, work-life improving rural infrastructure, balance may just be a far flung dream. transportation, electrification and For these workers, the more pressing agricultural technologies are critical to concern may not even be work-life improving agricultural productivity, balance but may be more fundamental reducing poverty reduction and - finding decent work to provide a providing workers greater quality of life decent life. (NCRFW, 2004).

Conclusion I would like to end with some interesting facts. A 2005 World values survey showed that Filipinos, in general, place more importance on work than on leisure or recreation. 82 percent of respondents to the World Values Survey agreed that work should always come

21 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

References Bolgar, C. (2001). struggle to mix work and family. Wall street journal online. Retrieved http://www.careerjournal.com/myc/workfamily/ 20010405-bolgar.html Eviota, E.U. (1992). The political economy of gender: Women and the sexual division of labour in the Philippines. London: Zed Books. Fulgado, C. (1992) The Filipina woman and family traditions. Heritage, 6(2), 6-7. Hechanova, M.R. (in press). “Caring and Keeping Call Center Workers”. In: M.R. Hechanova and E.P. Franco (Eds). Leading Philippine Organizations in a Changing World. Ateneo de Manila University Press. Hechanova, M.R., Uy, M., & Presbitero, A. “Who is the Filipino Worker?” In: M.R. Hechanova & E.P. Franco (Eds.) (2005). The Way We Work: Research and Best Practices in Philippine Organizations. City, Phil: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Illo, J.F.(1997). . Asian Development Bank. Lim, A.R. L. & Hechanova, M.R. (2005) “Dissecting the Glass Ceiling: Leadership Stereotypes and Gender Discrimination as perceived by Filipino Managers”. Philippine Journal of Psychology, 38, 75 – 96. Liwag, M.E., Dela Cruz, A.S, Macapagal, M.E. (2002). “How we raise our daughters and sons: Child-rearing and gender socialization in the Philippines”. Philippine Journal of Psychology, 35(1-2), 142-168. Lyness, K.S. & Thompson, D. E. (2000). “Climbing the corporate ladder: Do female and male executives follow the same route”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(1), 86-101. McCann-Erikson Philippines (1995, July). “The McCann Erikson Metro Male Study: Insights on the urban Filipino males”. Highlights, 1-6. National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (2004) Report on the State of the Filipino Women. Philippines: Author. National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (2003,March). Filipino women: Facts and figures. Philippines: Author. National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (1995). Filipino women: Issues and trends. Philippines: Author. Securities and Exchange Commission. (2003). Philippines Top 5000 Corporations (2002 ed.). Philippines: Author. United Nations (1996). Country Report: Philippines. United Nations: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

22 Work-Life Balance: The Philippine Experience in Male and Female Roles and Leadership

United Nations (1999). Women 2000: Women and Decision Making. United Nations: Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Ortega, M.J. (n.d.) Women in Urban Local Government. Philippine Report for United Nations Economic and Social Commision for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). Retrieved at http://www.unescap.org/huset/women/reports/philippines.pdf Visser, F. & Williams, L (2006). Work-life balance: Rhetoric versus reality. The Work Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.theworkfoundation.com/products/ publications/azpublications/worklifebalancerhetoricversusreality.aspx

23

MAIN TOPICS

Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China

Liu Lige

Abstract Political rights are important rights for After great efforts by all parties, the women. The improvement of women’s proportion of rural women has been participation in politics is significant markedly enhanced. This paper analyses yet there are more opportunities to the full course of the election. It will promote women’s development, to also discuss the significance of rural safeguard women’s rights and interests, women’s participation in elections and and to achieve gender equality. Along politics while also looking at necessary with economic and social developments, policies and measures to further more and more women participate in promote rural women’s participation in the management of national and social politics. affairs, particularly with regards to matters that affect women. Nevertheless, I. Brief Summary of due to historical, economic, and cultural reasons women’s participation, along Women’s Participation with discussions on governmental and in Elections and Politics political affairs, remain at a lower level th in China than in most other developing in the 6 Village-level countries. This is especially the case in election in Shaanxi rural areas where women form large parts of the population but show low Province in 2005 levels of political participation. In light In 2005, Shaanxi Province conducted of this situation, the Shaanxi Women’s the 6th village-level election. The Federation in the 6th village-level Women’s Federation in Shaanxi attached election in 2005 gave greater importance great importance to enhancing women’s to promoting rural women’s participation participation. The analysis of the in elections and politics with the aim of process from pre- to post-election raising the proportion of women reveals a number of important lessons represented in Villager Committees. for the next elections. The 4th and 5th

25 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China

village-level election revealed problems Committee in Rural Areas in Heyang concerning women’s participation in County”. All women’s federations took elections and politics. After the 4th action simultaneously. The campaign village-level election in 1998, there focused on the important role of women were 11,279 committee women in in the economic and social development 32,332 administrative villages in of the countryside. The electorate Shaanxi Province, presenting 10% of received posters and leaflets while also the total, of which 179 were women being informed through the medium of directors (0.7% of the total number). theatre that made its rounds through After the 5th village-level election in villages and towns. By promoting the 2001, there were 11,061 committee significance of women’s participation in women in 28,991 administrative villages elections and politics a consensus for in the province, accounting for 9% of enhanced participation emerged. The the total, of which 184 were women committee also visited the countryside directors (0.6% of the total). The to launch surveys, to introduce comparison between the results of the candidates, and to hold training sessions 4th and the 5th election suggests that the for women leaders to boost women’s proportion of women’s participation is abilities in their participation in in decline as the portion of participation elections and politics. Their efforts paid was lower than the average national off in the 6th village-level election in level during the same period. which women’s participation was greatly In response to this situation, women’s improved. In this election, 12,337 federations at all levels were seeking to committeewomen were elected, address this deficit by arranging accounting for 13.35% (a rise of 1.79% campaign affairs and focusing on the compared to the previous election); 272 implementation of their strategies. All women directors were elected, taking women’s federations were involved in up 1.01% of the total, and up from structuring election organising 0.41%. Among the 107 counties and committees and to clarify the cities (districts) in the province, 43 responsibilities for the potential areas elected more than three female candidates in the 6th village-level directors. Among them is Heyang election. The organising committee County which elected 20 women within the provincial women’s federation directors, representing 5.69% of the and the civil affairs office of the province total number. jointly issued orders, proposing detailed indices and requirements for women’s participation in the elections. The provincial women’s federation set up 4 demonstrative counties in Guanzhong Region, South Shaanxi and North Shaanxi, and launched the “Demonstrative Project to Elevate Women Proportion in Village

26 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China

II. Significance for Rural participation in village committee elections is a basic political right Women to Participate provided through the law. It is proven in Villager Committee in practice that village autonomy is unsound without the participation of Elections women. Village autonomy cannot be (1) First of all, participation realised without the care, participation of rural women in Villager and support of women in rural areas. Committee elections helps (3) Thirdly, it can maintain to promote economic and benefits of women groups social development in the Due to differences in physiological countryside. structure, social division, educational With the adjustment in rural industrial status and position, women differ in structure and fastened steps in thought pattern, focus and pursuit. transferring surplus labour from the Women’s participation in village countryside to cities, more and more committee elections and the men leave their hometowns to find management of village affairs can bring work elsewhere. Therefore, women are different viewpoints for the construction the main labour force in agricultural of village committees. It can also help production and play a significant role put forward issues that are for the in the economic and social development benefit of women such as the protection of the countryside. In 1990, women of women’s rights in land contracts, or comprised 52.4% of the labour force in the protection of women in the family. rural areas and this figure rose to 61.6% in 2000. Women’s participation in (4) Fourth, the election politics as well as in the management of benefits the development of village affairs can be a boost to the economic and social development in individual women the countryside. For a long time, women rarely participated in social affairs and as a (2) Secondly, it benefits the result had limited experiences in this field. Village committee elections strengthening and perfection provide a stage for women to assert of rural democratic politics. themselves. Through participation in The village committee is the primary these elections, women can enrich their mass organisation of self-governance in experiences in political involvement which villagers manage their own affairs and boost their abilities in participating and in which elections are conducted, and discussing political affairs. decisions adopted, administration Meanwhile, with greater insights and maintained, and supervision exercised abilities obtained through the by democratic means. Women’s participation in village committee

27 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China

elections, they can better maintain their and politics and to manage social affairs rights and interests and improve their in the countryside. status both in society at large and in their own families. (2) Policies (a) State policy: The Outline for the III. Opportunities and Development of Chinese Women states Advantages for Women that “There shall be an appropriate proportion of women deputies in residents’ to Participate in Villager committees and Villager Committees”. It Committee Elections is necessary to constitute perfect regulations and policies for women to (1) Legal Regulations equally participate in decisions and The constitution of the People’s management, and to encourage and Republic of China states that “all guide women to actively participate in citizens of the People’s Republic of China competitions. In 2002, the General who have reached the age of 18 have the Office of the State Council and the right to vote and stand for election, General Office of the Central regardless of ethnic status, race, sex, Government issued the “Notice on occupation, family background, religious Further Conducting Villagers- belief, education, property status or length Committee Election”, stipulating that of residence,” and “women enjoy the same “We should guarantee women’s legal rights rights as men in politics, economy, culture, in villagers-committee election and society and family life.” Organic Law of maintain appropriate women members in the Villager Committees states that Villager Committee.” The Ministry of “The members of a Villager Committee Civil Affairs of the People’s Republic of shall include an appropriate number of China, in view of the decline in women women.” Law of the People’s Republic members elected to Villager Committees of China on the Protection of Rights in rural areas, has proposed detailed and Interests of Women states that “the counter-measures in “Opinions on state shall guarantee that women enjoy Guaranteeing Appropriate Women equal political rights with men,” “women Members in Villager Committees in have the right to conduct state affairs, Rural Areas”. manage economic and cultural undertakings and administer social affairs (b) Policy of Shaanxi Province: The through various channels and in various General Office of the Provincial ways,” “women shall enjoy the equal right Committee of CPC and the General with men to vote and to stand for election Office of the Provincial Government and there shall be an appropriate number have issued the “Notice on Conducting of women deputies in residents committees the 6th Villager Committee Election in and Villager Committees”. All these Shaanxi Province”, requiring that provisions provide evidence for women “Effective measures should be taken to in rural area to participate in election guarantee women’s proper rights in the

28 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China election and to strive for more women Women economic leaders appear like members to be elected in Villager bamboo shoots after the spring rain and Committees”. A number of detailed they have contributed much to the policy stipulations have forwarded economic and social development in measures to promote rural women’s the countryside. participation in elections and politics. (4) The Influence of Women (3) Upgrade of the Social Village Leaders Status of Women After the launch of democratic elections, With the economic and social women have gained greater access to development in the countryside, women equal competition and with the support have higher education levels. The from villagers many have entered the Women’s Federation launched the committees while some have even “Double Learning and Double entered higher ranking positions. There Comparison” strategy and established are two prominent features for women’s women’s schools, which have greatly participation in politics, namely hard boosted the confidence of rural women. work and clean politics which are There is no major difference in the welcome by the electorate. One example education between boys and girls. are the achievements of Liu Huilian, Schoolgirls in senior middle school secretary of the party committee in amount to 47.1% of the total number Tongtifang Village, Ganjing Town, of students. Second, Women often Heyang County. Through various exhibit outstanding wisdom and talents innovative measures she managed to in economic development and the increase per capita income of the village management of social affairs. In new from RMB 650 Yuan to RMB 1400 economic organisations in the Yuan in three years of her duty. countryside, women take up a good Shijiayuan Village Huoshaodian Town, number. According to surveys launched Liuba County also has a female Secretary by the Policy Research Office of Shaanxi of Party Committee and a female Provincial Committee and the Women’s director. After they took office in 2003, Federation of Shaanxi Province in Jintai they took various measures that greatly District, Qianyang, Fengxiang and increased the income of the villagers. Meixian County of Baoji City, rural Though there are fewer female than economic cooperative organisations male village leaders in the province, that are dominated by women experience they are brave enough to grasp rapid development. There are 585 opportunities and to confront economic organisations which have challenges. Through this they have also been initiated by women or are helped to conquer prevailing prejudices dominated by women, accounting for regarding women’s participation in 65% of all economic organisations in politics. the countryside. Women represent 57% of the members of these organisations.

29 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China

IV. Difficulties and (3) Influence of Traditional Challenges Women Have Thought and Concept 13 dynasties chose their capitals in Faced in Participation Shaanxi Province, due to the deep- in Villager Committee rooted traditional feudal thoughts and concepts in the whole province. The Election problem is more serious in the (1) Organisation of Village Guanzhong Region. Though this region Autonomy enjoys a favourable geographical location and is more developed than The Villager Committee is part of the other regions in the province, Confucian organisation of village autonomy. Its ideology and culture, such as the “Three members are elected by voting according Obediences and Four Virtues” women to stipulations of Organic Law of the in the feudal society had to abide by, Villager Committees. Therefore, the have amassed to such an extent that it election of village committees can only has long been the political and cultural be generated by advocacy and guidance. centre of feudal governments. Therefore, Otherwise it will violate the stipulation feudal thoughts and concepts, such as of the law. To some extent, direct “men superior, women inferior”, “men election by villagers has more dominating, women dominated”, have requirements for women and brings given rise to unfavourable attitudes about new challenges. amongst villagers against women’s participation in politics. A considerable (2) Functional Conversion of number of people take it for granted Villager Committee that a woman is born to cook meals, Previously, village leaders had the main wash clothes, and look after the children task of collecting grain and money while and that only a man can become a also playing a role in implementing the village leader as political affairs are seen government’s family planning policy. to be none of a women’s business. Since 2005, China has exempted Furthermore, the common practice of agricultural tax and family planning women living in the family of their policies have gradually moved towards husbands after marriage makes it more standardisation. Now, work in difficult for them to gain recognition countryside is less difficult and offends and wide support from villagers, thus less people. Therefore, more people are furthering the disadvantaged position willing to work in the countryside and of women in elections. the competition for such jobs is severe. This has led to more challenges for (4) Gender Divisions in women who previously had fewer Labour and Prejudice opportunities to participate in politics. In the opinion of a number of people, it is only natural that men should work outside the home while women take

30 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China care of domestic matters. These people who are involved in politics often also believe that men are responsible for underestimate their own capabilities earning money to support a family, thus and willingly take assistant positions or enjoying power to make decisions in play supporting roles while believing public affairs and playing the dominant that it is common for men to make role. Women are expected to look after decisions. family matters and to be cared for and dominated by their husbands. This role affects women’s participation in social V. Role of Women’s activities, and results in the fact that Federations in Driving most decisions are taken by men. This has an immediate effect on the election the Participation of Rural of Villager Committees. Although many Women in Elections and villagers know that women have the right to vote and to stand for election, Politics it is widely accepted that the men as the Women’s Federations represent and masters of the house have the right to conserve women’s benefits and play an vote on behalf of their wives thus irreplaceable role in driving rural depriving them of their political rights. women’s participation in elections and politics. During the election of the sixth (5) Women’s Lack of Self- Villager Committee, women’s federations at all levels did the following confidence work. Due to limited opportunities and lack of resources available to women they (1) To Draw Lessons from seldom have the opportunity to participate in politics which results in Beneficial Experience their lack of experience and negatively The Ministry of Civil Affairs, many affects the cultivation of their decision- local governments and women’s making capabilities. Therefore, a great federations have done much pioneering number of women are not willing to work for the purpose of driving women’s take part in Villager Committee participation in elections and politics, a elections. Given the power of traditional lot of which proved successful. This thinking, a few women feel inferior. work provides referential experience Due to additional factors, such as family and practice for Shaanxi Province to pressure, lack of support from their increase the proportion of elected fathers- and mothers-in-law, heavy women in Villager Committees. In family burden, or prejudices from 2003, the Ministry of Civil Affairs villagers, they are unwilling to commenced, in Tanggu District, Tianjin demonstrate their own talents. the “Innovative Demonstration Project According to statistics, over 60% of for Raising the Proportion of Elected men are willing to assume leading Rural Women in Villager Committee”. positions, but only few women are It also circulated the “Opinion on willing do the same. Even those women Ensuring Appropriate Portion of

31 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China

Women Members in the Election of distributed them to every county, Villager Committee”, and organised township and village. The Federation training to current and reserve female made great efforts to promote gender village leaders and women representatives equality by means of radio and television prior to the election of Villager programmes, newspaper articles, and Committee. After the election, there blackboard notices. It also circulated were 32 women members in the 34 promotion handbooks, pictures and Villager Committees, making up 28.3% leaflets, and organised mass culture of the total number. activities so as to popularise the idea In order to ensure women’s that women play a indispensable role in participation in Villager Committees, managing village-level civil affairs and Hunan Province, in “Election Means to create a sound social atmosphere for for Villager Committee of Hunan rural women to participate in elections Province” approved by the People’s and politics. Congress of Hunan Province, explicitly regulated “there is at least one woman (3) To Conduct In-depth member in a Villager Committee”, and formulated a series of concrete measures Investigation for achieving the above objective. For Through investigation and interviews, example, large-scale training for village women’s federations have managed to leaders and female members was paint a clearer picture as regards the conducted. In the fifth election of the actual situation of local female leaders Villager Committee of Hunan Province, in Villager Committees and the there were 49,903 female committee experiences and thoughts of rural members in the 47,471 Villager women in general. They have also Committees across the province, women identified a large number of well- taking up 29.3% of the total number educated and capable women who are and on average 1.05 female members in willing to work hard for the benefit of each village. the people. Prior to the election, Women’s Federation of Shaanxi Province (4) To Carry out Education organised related party government and Training leaders, leaders of women’s federations and rural women in the province to The Women’s Federation in Shaanxi study in the aforesaid regions, Province initiated training courses in accumulating experiences for promoting order to educate women in Hanzhong, women’s participation in the election of Ankang, Xianyang, and Weinan. More Villager Committee. than 2,000 women have undergone such training. The main content of the training courses includes information (2) To Conduct Campaign on the significance and advantage of Promotion women’s participation in elections, the Shannxi Women’s Federation printed analysis on the possibilities and 15,000 sets of promotional pictures and feasibility of women’s participation, the

32 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China basic qualifications required for participation in politics. The proportion participation, and the preparation for of elected women has been higher election itself. compared to the last two elections. According to statistics, women’s Some problems, however, have emerged federations in Shaanxi Province have during these elections and should be altogether launched 1,425 training given due consideration to allow for courses of different varieties, preparing corrective measures to be taken. more than 38,000 women for their engagement in civil affairs, at the grass (1) Insufficient Understanding roots and in the villages. The election of Villager Committees is integral element of the rights of rural (5) To Focus on Key Points communities and it is also one of the and To Give Consideration to issues that receive the greatest attention General Developments from farmers. Therefore, the issues surrounding elections should be Since 2004, the Shaanxi Women’s understood in a comprehensive manner, Federation and the Shaanxi Women’s thus the interests of different groups Research Society have carried on the need to taken into consideration. “Demonstration Project for Raising the Nonetheless, both rural leaders at the Proportion of the Elected Rural Women grass roots level and farmers sometimes in the Election of Villager Committee” lack democratic consciousness. The in Heyang. They have carried out problem is mainly evident in two investigation at the grass roots level, aspects; first, farmers as well as their compiled training textbooks, printed leaders are unfamiliar with democratic promotional pictures, and arranged principles at the grass roots, which may promotion programmes. They have also co-drafted “Means for Expiration lead to incidents that impinge on the Election” together with related democratic rights of farmers. Second, a departments for the purpose of considerable number of farmers feel facilitating the election of women. that it is irrelevant whether or not Women’s federations at 10 municipalities women are part of the Villager have also set up demonstrative units at Committee. Only insufficient efforts different levels, such as county, have been made to address this problem. township, and villages, forming a As some farmers think that women if network of experimental units, thus elected are unable to take on the playing a driving role. required responsibilities and burdens, they chose not to support women in the elections. VI. Issues Requiring Attention and Solutions. (2) Misunderstandings The 6th village-level election of Shaanxi The “Organic Law of the Villager Province has made a number of Committees of the People’s Republic of achievements in facilitating women’s China” and the “Law of the People’s

33 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China

Republic of China on the Protection of committees of the Party and governments Rights and Interests of Women” both at all levels and should not be seen as stipulate explicitly that “an appropriate completed in a certain period. Prior to portion of women is required in Villager the election, there should be Committees”. Nevertheless, as to the organisations and institutions interpretation of the word “appropriate”, responsible for the task in question, some regions and departments believe including corresponding policies and that it is merely a concept in the whole documents as well as concrete measures. range of one region, and it is already Meanwhile, demonstrative units should “appropriate” to have several female be set up at all levels, advancing the task leaders in certain region. However, legal level upon level and layer by layer. workers think that it can only be Women’s federations at all levels should considered “appropriate” if it is ensured actively carry out promotion and that at least one woman is part of each training prior to elections, so as to Villager Committee; if this is not the improve women’s self-confidence, and case, the legal regulations are just empty to create an atmosphere that is talk. The discrepancy between the favourable to women’s participation in interpretations of some departments politics. With the help of specific and leaders affects the progress of this measures, the proportion of women work. participating in elections and politics may be raised continuously. (3) Long-term Neglect Based on the training of rural women, (5) Sustainable Measures we can see that there are many women For the purpose of ensuring the who are enthusiastic about and capable implementation of the regulation that of participating in politics. However, “an appropriate portion of women is the problem is that training has only required in the Villager Committee” as started recently and women for a long stipulated by the “Organic Law of the time had no platform to study, Villager Committees of the People’s communicate and practice. There have Republic of China”, the committees of been only few training programs for the Party and governments in the region rural leaders in general and women have where elections of Villager Committee hardly been taken into consideration. are held should make great efforts to In the previous elections, women’s popularise the thought and concept of participation in elections and politics gender equality and the irreplaceable was given little consideration. role of women in managing village-level civil affairs. (4) Great Challenges (1) Guide villagers’ conferences and villager groups to include qualified Women’s participation in elections and female villagers when villagers vote politics is a task that requires long-term for Villager Committee; and perseverant efforts. It is also a task (2) Instruct villagers to nominate that demands continuous efforts by qualified female villagers when

34 Rural Women’s Participation in Politics in Village-level Elections in China

villagers directly nominate (6) Necessary Tasks candidates to the Villager As far as the newly-elected female Committee, and at the same time, members of the Villager Committee are encourage rural women to break concerned, we should help them to get through the restrictions of feudal familiar with their new posts as well as ideology and worldly prejudices to provide guidance at least in the initial have the courage to bear heavy stages. It is important to continuously responsibility and to challenge strengthen the training for these elected competition; female members in rural areas, to help to (3) Guide villagers’ electoral committees improve their competence and to cement to actively give presentations the results of the election. Governments, concerning the achievements of departments of civil affairs and women’s female candidates by introducing federations at all levels should try in candidates, and to care nothing for different ways to train these newly-elected any prejudice and unfair treatment. female Villager Committee members, (4) Organise, educate and guide the and to carry out training courses on majority of villagers, especially methods and techniques with regard to female villagers, to exercise their the management of village affairs and due democratic rights in voting, decision-making so as to allow female for the purpose of selecting the leaders to quickly adapt to the competent female candidates that requirements of rural affairs. The second are willing to serve the majority task is to help those female leaders that and are supported by most villagers sincerely serve villagers during their term into the Villager Committee. in office to be re-elected.

References 1. Constitution of the People’s Republic of China 2. Organic Law of the Villager Committees of the People’s Republic of China 3. Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women 4. Platform for Action of the Fourth World Conference on Women 5. Compendium for Chinese Women’s Development 6. Li Huiying, Social Gender and Public Policy, Modern China Press, 2002 7. Jin Yihong, Decline of Paternity 8. Tian Xiaohong, Study on Rural Women’s Participation in Government and Political Affairs 9. Liu Xiaohong, Tanggu Pattern: Channeling Social Gender Consciousness into the Mainstream of Villagers’ Self-government, Collection of Women’s Studies, 2005

35

MAIN TOPICS

Status of and Trends in Southeast Asia

Braema Mathiaparanam

Women in South East Asian countries Given this scenario it is not surprising function primarily at two levels – the that the majority of women are still too reproductive and the productive level. pre-occupied with the daily running of They give birth, they nurture, they their lives at home and at the workplace manage child-care and in some instances (whether it be rural or urban) to be elder-care and also work in the field, directly involved in politics. In addition, factories or offices. The tension of prevailing cultural norms still state that managing both their productive roles as politics is the domain of men who make salaried workers and their reproductive decisions. And finally, as economic roles as nurturers and care-givers is not development still poses the main a new trend or phenomenon. Since the challenge for many Southeast Asian 1960s, feminist issues of child-care countries, entering politics, rightly or support, flexible work patterns, and wrongly, is often seen as a luxury. work-life balance have been political This discussion is divided into four and can make or break a leadership. parts; the first part discusses the In Southeast Asia such provisions to possibility of developing women as support women’s reproductive roles as leaders; the second part will highlight they manage their productive ones, remain historical and traditional norms that a challenge. Women in Southeast Asia still still influence participation trends; the have limited access to education and the third part discusses efforts made to have majority of the population is rurally more women as decision-makers and located. Poverty is severe. Access to proper the limitations to that process. Lastly, I sanitation and clean water remain also make a few recommendations on challenges at the local level for people in how we can improve the situation. certain parts of Southeast Asia such as Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam. Development of Women Nevertheless, compared to 40 years ago there is progress for women as access to A review of the Human Development education and health care has increased in Index (HDI) shows that most of ASEAN spite of the lack of resources. countries are ranked ‘Medium’ as

37 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

regards progress with Singapore and percentage points and 21.8 percentage Brunei Darussalam as exceptions at the points in literacy with the exception of High end1. These indices and the the Philippines where men trail behind ranking of ASEAN countries highlight women by a 1.4 percentage point the progress made – namely, greater difference3. This is a sheer waste of accesses to education, increases in life human resources where the potential of expectancy and improved Maternal women’s productive work is concerned. Mortality Rates (MMR).2 It can also mean that women tend to But the HDI can only tell half the occupy the lower strata in workforce if story. To look at women’s or for that their educational and literacy levels matter men’s progress one needs to look remain low and uncompetitive. Women at the details through gender- also fall behind men in other fields such disaggregated data. For example, looking as access to healthcare and employment. at adult literacy figures alone indicates They also have lower wages and the level to which ASEAN countries are seemingly longer working hours. Few overlooking their women as a source of hold leadership positions in the human talents. The trend in literacy workforce (see Table 2). favours men – women trail behind men with a difference of between 2.9

Table 2: Selected Indicators for female economic, professional and political participation4

Seats in Female Female Labour Force Parliament Legislators, Professionals Participation Countries held by Senior and Rate (aged 15-64) Women Management Technical (%) (%) Workers (%) Male Female Brunei 84.2 49.4 - - - Darussalam Cambodia 82.3 76.2 10.9 14 33 Indonesia 86.3 53.2 8.0 - - Lao PDR 91.1 77.4 22.9 - - Malaysia 35.7 39.4 16.3 20 45 Myanmar 89.7 68.3 - - - Philippines 84.7 54.8 17.2 58 62

38 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

Singapore 82.7 56.3 16.0 26 43 Thailand 81.1 65.0 10.6 27 55 Vietnam 86.0 79.4 27.3 - -

In addition, women suffer from limited of women in decision-making, is also a access to land, credit and Information good indicator for the level of women Technology. Furthermore, women, who function as decision-makers in the especially rural women and poor urban public sector. The GEM reveals poor women, remain most vulnerable to showing of women in top positions abuse, violence, illnesses, and diseases. even in more developed ASEAN A useful indicator to gauge women’s member countries such as Singapore progress is to look at the Gender and Malaysia7 while there are more Development Indices within ASEAN. women in Parliament in some of the The data shows starker disparities in less developed countries. For example, the development of women across the in Laos PDR women representation in ASEAN countries. (See Table 3)5 Parliament is 22.9 percent while the Philippines, Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia have up to 19 percent women Table 3: Gender Related Development representatives in Parliament.8 Though Index6 (score of 1 is highest) recent statistics show more women representation in Parliament, the figures Ranking of are still below the threshold of 30 Country GDI Countries percent. This figure is cited as the threshold needed for any impact to be 51 Malaysia 0.795 made at policy level and results from 58 Thailand 0.781 recommendations made as part of the 66 Philippines 0.761 Beijing Platform of Action in 1995 that ASEAN countries adopted. 80 Vietnam 0.708 It is crucial for women to hold 81 Indonesia 0.704 executive positions and to be in top 97 Cambodia 0.578 management positions so that they can - Myanmar 0.555 influence change and be part of the process of making decisions for the 100 Laos 0.545 people. A recent survey by business -- Singapore -- consultant Grant Thornton showed the -- Brunei -- percentage of women holding top positions in East Asian and Southeast Asian countries. Top positions refer to women being in senior management or The Gender Empowerment 9 Measurement, which measures the level the top.

39 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

Table 4: Percentage of women holding forcing women to become wives was top positions in East Asian and finally prohibited. King Rama IV Southeast Asian countries also bestowed upon his wife the role of Regent to set her up as a role PHILIPPINES 50 % model for other women. His son, King Rama V1, continued with the thailand 39 % tradition. After World War Two Hong Kong 35 % Thailand took on a more China 32 % international approach which also influenced the decision to enhance Taiwan 29 % equality between men and women Malaysia 23 % by law.10 Singapore 2i % • In Vietnam, Confucian ethics was entrenched through the feudal Japan 7 % system that placed, for example, having a son for lineage as all- important. Even the peasant uprising Therefore, gaps between men and of the 18th and 19th century, the women still exist even if the gap is being French occupation into the 20th narrowed in some areas. And two forces century and later the Indochinese – globalisation and migration of labour Communist Party were all patriarchal – may still derail the efforts within set-ups. The Communist Party ASEAN to make further improvements ensured that women were included towards closing the gender gap. in the workforce by creating opportunities for them to work in Reasons for this Gap: The industries but neglected to persuade Past men to play a greater role in the home. The 1946 Constitution of the South East Asian history reveals deep- Democratic Republic of Vietnam seated patriarchal attitudes. Here are finally established the principle of some examples. equality.11 • Thailand during the Ayudha era in • Singapore and Malaysia with a 1361 passed a law on husbands and common history of being colonised wives stating that men are allowed to also considered polygamy as a practice polygamy and wives are to legitimate way of life. It was during be categorised into various classes. the early 1950s that women’s groups This practice continued into the lobbied for the removal of polygamy Rattanakosin era for another two and greater constitutional rights. In centuries. In 1804 – Laws of the Singapore, many women voted for Three Seals – upheld the practice of the current ruling party, the People’s polygamy with new status for women Action Party, as a result of the in marriage – major wife, minor revision to amend the law to make wife, slave wife. It was not till the polygamy illegal.12 era of King Rama IV in 1900s that

40 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

Political Systems Marcos of the Philippines, Cambodia’s Pol Pot regime and the one-party In the past three to four decades many dictatorship of the Communist Party, countries in Southeast Asia – Thailand, President Suharto in Indonesia, Malaysia’s the Philippines, Cambodia, Indonesia, Mahatir Mohammad, and Singapore’s Lee Singapore, Malaysia, Laos PDR, Vietnam Kuan Yew. Under such systems the space and East Timor – were all involved in for civil society, access to information, independence struggles and democracy political freedom are all limited. movements. Thailand moved from Interestingly, there is also a direct military dictatorship to a functioning co-relation between the process of democracy – at least until the recent set- democratisation and the level of backs. This region has also seen its fair representation of women in public share of dictatorships and autocratic office.13 leaders. Examples include President

Table 5: Political representation of women in Southeast Asian countries according to levels of democratisation

Level of female representation Level of democracy of Southeast Asian countries in legislature (latest election) No elected legislature Burma (Myanmar) NA Brunei NA Communist one-party regimes Vietnam 27.3 Laos 25.2 Illiberal democracies – restrictions on opposition Cambodia 9.8 Singapore 21.214 Malaysia 9.1 Liberal democracies – liberal political freedoms Thailand (up to Sept. 2006) 10.6 East Timor (Timor Leste) 25.3 Indonesia 11.3 Philippines 15.7 Source: ‘Women in National Parliaments” (2006).15

41 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

Because of the demands resulting from access to political participation; access the “Beijing Platform for Action” where to positions in management, judiciary, countries agreed to target a 30 percent and the diplomatic corps; recognition representation of women in Parliament for both formal and informal work; for threshold impact, many countries in access to health, education; development Southeast Asia have made an effort. In for women through National Vietnam, female members of the Programmes and legislation to protect National Assembly make up 27.9 abused women.16 Women’s Rights issues percent and they represent 23.8 percent also featured both in the “Hanoi Plan of provincial People Committee of Action” (1998) and the “Vientiane members, 22.94 percent at district level Action Plan” (2004). In 2004, all 10 and 20.10 percent at commune level. In countries signed the “Declaration on Laos, women representation is 25.2 the Elimination of Violence Against percent while the Philippines, Indonesia, Women in ASEAN Region” and the Singapore and Malaysia have female “Declaration Against Trafficking of representatives of up to 19 percent. Women and Children” was also adopted. What must also be noted is that COMMIT (Coordinated Mekong women’s representation in political life Ministerial Initiative), a multi- is most often seen as centred on just stakeholder network to combat political office. It is equally important trafficking became an Action Plan for to look at the representation of women Greater Mekong sub-region countries. at the grassroots level. In Vietnam, for There is also an “ASEAN Regional example, there are very few women at Programme on Women and Skills the local government level and, in fact, Training”, formed in 2000. Other there are only 8 percent women at the Action Plans – on HIV and Aids, on local community council level. In the Transnational Crime, on Rural Philippines, for example, the grassroots Development and Poverty Eradication movement of women is very strong. – all pursue approaches that will improve the conditions for men and Initiatives at ASEAN level women within ASEAN. Today the ASEAN Committees of The first meeting tasked with looking Women (ACW) comprising Ministers into women’s issues was held in Jakarta or government representatives, act as in 1981. Each country agreed to set up focal points in each country while the a Clearing House to document, analyse, ASEAN Confederation of Women’s and disseminate data and to appoint a Organisations (ACWO), brings together national agency as a focal point on civil society actors in the ASEAN matters related to women. region.17 There are also multi-lateral Then in 1988, ASEAN countries agreements and bilateral agreements went one step further and signed the between ASEAN and other agencies to “Declaration on the Advancement of improve the status of women in ASEAN. Women in the ASEAN region” covering ASEAN countries also adopted the areas such as the right to vote (except “Beijing Platform of Action” and most for Brunei which was a monarchy);

42 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia have ratified the “Convention on the • Feminisation of migration – By the Elimination of All Forms of beginning of the 21st century more Discrimination Against Women” than two million women were (CEDAW) and the “Convention on the estimated to be working in the Rights of the Child” (CRC). Some region, accounting for one third of countries in ASEAN have even gone a the entire migrant population19. step further to become signatories of Most female migrants are engaged in the Optional Protocol on CEDAW. reproductive occupations such as domestic work and sex services, Challenges working in private households and informal commercial sectors. Some There is progress to get more women are openly abused while others work into decision-making roles but emerging in exploitative situations with little trends pose their own challenges that access to protection. Migration for detract attention or in some instanced work means that a whole group of can even derail efforts to get more women are unable to become women to take greater public ownership. involved in the politics of their own I highlight a few here. countries as leaders until they • Religion and Women’s Position – return. Southeast Asian countries have all ratified CEDAW which is an International Bill of Rights for Singapore – A Case Study women. How religious laws function It is true that today more women in to ensure that women’s rights are not Singapore are better educated. More violated is one of the pressing women have tertiary education (56.6 challenges facing countries. In percent20) as compared to men. More Southeast Asia, however, religion girls are finishing secondary school speaks with many voices and there education than boys. Women have are liberal trends too in how religion entered male-dominated fields such as can offer more support for women accountancy and engineering and even in political life. surpassing them on some courses. • Rise in HIV infections among More women are also part of the women. Statistics (2005) show that labour force – 56 percent (the State’s almost 1.4 million people in the report to the CEDAW committee). Southeast Asian nations of Thailand, Many more have risen to hold top Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos are positions as heads of organisations or HIV positive. Of this group 474,000 departments. An example would be to are women and these numbers are look at the top levels. Out of a total of growing18. Access to medication and 36 ambassadors, only four were women, knowledge are limited. Gender- equalling 11 percent.21 The percentage sensitive policies have all contributed dropped to 10 percent for female high to the rise of infections and at state commissioners.22 However, more men level have limited efforts to stop the hold managerial positions as compared spread of the disease. to women by a ratio of 3:1 (Labour

43 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

Force Survey data cited in government’s the workforce and the ‘glass ceiling’ report to CEDAW). By a ratio of 3:1 which women find difficult to break more women are in the lower strata through to reach top positions. The working as clerks, when compared to reasons for this trend are also very men. While wages may be competitive, similar – women put the brakes on their the monthly earnings of women own career to meet the demands at represent 86 cents to every dollar earned home or because they cannot overcome by a man. or fight off deeply-rooted patriarchy at This picture of women in the home or at the workplace. Women still workforce is no different from women occupy the traditional roles within the around the world – the ‘sticky floor’ workforce as the table below shows. that keeps women at the lower levels of

Table 6: Economically active person aged 15 & over by Gender and Occupation (2001 & 2005) 2001 2005* Occupation Male Female Female % Male Female Female % Senior Officials & 208,100 67,400 24.5 156,644 59,709 27.5 Manager Professionals 143,700 98,000 40.5 119,911 84,687 41.2 Associate Professionals 185,800 154,100 45.3 159,971 157,705 49.6 & Technicians Clerical 60,900 214,000 77.8 55,810 176,691 76 workers Service & 124,300 106,300 46 130,307 109,098 45.6 Sales Worker Agriculture & Fishery ------972 235 19.4 Workers Production Craftsmen 117,300 9,900 7.8 101,853 8,749 7.9 & Related workers

44 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

Plant & Machine 159,700 59,900 27.3 132,791 40,791 23.5 Operators & Assemblers Cleaners, 49.5 Laborers & 74,300 186,300 71.5 48,833 47,826 Related Workers Workers Not Classified by 74,600 2,100 2.7 52,597 2,115 3.9 Occupation

Source: Labour Force Survey 2001 & General Household Survey 2005.

However, in a modern day Singaporean ensure that the state provides enough household the woman’s job is crucial as and well-staffed child-care or day care her income is needed for financial facilities for the elderly. survival. In addition, the government’s There are also rising numbers of constant messages of self-reliance ensure single women who leave Singapore to that the population is trying its best to work in places such as China, Dubai, maintain their families. Both women the United States and the UK. This and men in Singapore are conscious trend brings with it the rise in singlehood that their lifestyles have to balance both among women and men. The career and parenthood or, at times, have young know that in this new economy to be part of a three-tier generational led by information technology and life family set-up that includes parents and/ sciences the emphasis is on nurturing or parents-in-law. The average entrepreneurs, techno-preneurs and Singaporean woman and her husband creative thinkers. They are faced with do feel the pressure of building a nest the pressure to remain nimble in order egg for themselves and their children. to stay ahead in the game and to avoid Due to the need to sustain a dual- the prospects of redundancy that they income family many homes employ a have seen happening to colleagues, foreign domestic worker (FDW) – one friends and family members. in seven households in Singapore Given this background and analysing employs a FDW. There are 170,000 the political climate of Singapore it is FDWs in Singapore who help women not surprising that many well-educated to remain in the workforce and who women remain apolitical and are not help families increase their nest egg really encouraged to take up leadership through this dual-income strategy. As a positions in the arena of politics or to result, there is no great pressure to strive for it. Women remain pre-

45 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

occupied with keeping the family going number of the female migrant labour and are more concerned with tracking force comes from this region.25 They their careers than to embark on a take up jobs as domestic workers, political career. healthcare workers, front-line service staff and as sex workers within ASEAN Recommendations - The or in other countries. The 2007 “ASEAN Declaration on the Protection and Challenges Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Monitoring Mechanism(s) Workers” is a way forward to protect the rights of the workers even if to date The report card discussed earlier in this implementation plans remain vague. paper shows that there is still much There is an also an increase in the work that needs to be done. The last volume of tourists travelling in the two decades have been very good in region, primarily due to low-cost budget enhancing women’s development as this travel. More women within Southeast has been the main focus globally, Asia will become vulnerable to becoming regionally and nationally. Such part of the sex industry due to poverty development programmes have also or to ignorance. They also risk become well structured – with universal contracting the HIV virus. goals and common indicators at the United Nations level. The new goalpost identified in the “Millennium Globalisation Development Goals” (MDG) will soon Economic competition through overtake the emphasis of the “Beijing globalisation has created opportunities Platform for Action” which was as well as problems for micro-enterprises dedicated solely to the development of and small and medium enterprises women. These changing goalposts, (SME). Shrinking markets for certain over-lapping monitoring and reporting products means unemployment. The mechanisms, and multiple indicators shutting down of micro-enterprises all point to the need for ASEAN to means in particular more rural women harmonise the Monitoring Mechanism will be without an income or without on the “Declaration for the Advancement additional incomes. The ASEAN of Women” with other international integration of economies on certain instruments for effective comparisons products is crucial to stave off to ascertain progress in people competition and to keep women and development.23 men employed. The impact of globalisation has also increased the Migration/Trafficking movement of people looking for jobs – from rural to urban set-ups or across Women are leaving homes and families borders. Women continue to run the to work in other countries and have bigger risk of being easily trafficked 24 become offshore bread-winners. into markets where they are exploited Southeast Asia is a main player with – doing much more for less wages. regard to this phenomenon as a huge

46 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

Women in Leadership been adhered to would have by now Positions given rise to a number of female leaders in South East Asia. We also have to be The current under-representation of wary of the institutionalisation of women in leadership positions is religion that can limit the role of women unlikely to change until women stop in the public domain. thinking that these posts either need to This is a long road ahead in Southeast be given to them or if they do not get Asia. Our best example is the Philippines them it is because they are undeserving. where grassroots activism today has The world needs leaders with a vision, produced many women leaders who are integrity and commitment to improve also shaping policies both at government the lives of people. There is currently a level and at the grassroots level. The pool of capable women that is hardly other country is Thailand. Nevertheless, tapped in for leadership roles. We need the politics of surviving in politics and to seize our own opportunities. We need still being focused on doing what is to persuade countries to set up needed is always a challenge. Other temporary special measures under countries can learn from these two CEDAW to approve mechanisms to examples and that the urgency to change help women get into politics. is NOW as all these approaches take Approaches to mainstream gender must time to become effective. include gender-sensitisation courses for all civil service officers and the commitment to appraise policies from a gendered-perspective. In Southeast Asia, the well-known names are , Gloria Arroyo, Aung San Suu Kyi, Megawati Sukarnoputri, and Wan Azizah. However, the question remains whether these female leaders have simply presided or have actually acted as leaders and role models.

The role of Institutions It is important that all institutions which work towards democratisation. Even as we encourage women to enter politics to take the representation route has to be a temporary special measure in itself. Rwanda is a good example of how this has happened. Today it has the highest number of women in political leadership. MDGs and the Beijing Platform for Action if they had really

47 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

Endnotes 1 The HDI indices of Singapore is 0.916 (where 1 is the highest score) and Lao PDR the lowest ranked ASEAN country has a score of 0.553; United Nations Development Programme Publication; “The State of Human Development”; Human Development Report; pp 263-280; 2006 2 The ASEAN Secretariat; “Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration”; Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN; pp 11; 2007 3 ASEAN Secretariat; Third Regional Report; pp 21-23; 2007. 4 Ibid; pp 29, 2007 5 All data related to HDI, GDI and GEM need to be treated with caution in comparative analyses across countries because of variables and consistency, especially as gender-disaggregated data is hard to come by. Most indices are also self-limiting in that factors such as unemployment rates between men and women or the daily hours of housework performed by men and women are usually not included in the computation. 6 Source: United Nations Development Programme; Human Development Report 2006; pp 363-370; 2006 7 Ibid; 367 8 ASEAN Secretariat; Third Regional Report; pp29; 2007 9 Alistair McIndoe: “In the Philippines Women Bosses Rule”; The Straits Times; Singapore; 0ct 15th 2007. 10 Vitit Muntaborn, Wimolsiri Jamnarbvej, Tanawadee Boonlue; “Status of Women: Thailand”; UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific: Bangkok; 1990 11 UNESCO Report; “Status of women: Vietnam:; pp 11; 1989 12 Audrey Chin & Constance Singam: Singaproe Women Re-Presetned; pp 135- 137; Landmark Books; 2004 13 Susan Blackburn: “Democratization and the Political Representation of Women in Southeast Asia”. Paper presented at the ISEAS’ Forum on Gender Issues in Southeast Asia; 2006. Prof Blackburn discuses Weylan’s work in this area of relating leadership styles to slowing down the process of women getting a foothold in politics. 14 Includes the Nominated Member of Parliament scheme where members are selected for a fixed term by other elected MPs. 15 Quoting from Susan Blackburn’s paper 16 Asean Secretariat; A Regional Report; 1996. 17 On November 20th, 1981, ACWO was formally established, comprising the National Council of Women’s Organisations in each ASEAN member country. 18 http://www.avert.org/aidssoutheastasia.htm 19 Keiko Yamanka & Nicola Piper; “Feminized Migration in East and Southeast Asia: Policies, Actions and Empowerment”; United Nations Research Institute for Social Development; 2006

48 Status of Women in Singapore and Trends in Southeast Asia

20 AWARE Shadow Report to CEDAW Committee; Article 11; 2007 21 Singapore Government Directory Interactive updated on 17th May 2006 22 Singapore Government Directory Interactive updated on 30th March 2006 23 Sender countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia have been negotiating for better wages for their female citizens who work abroad as domestic workers but seem reticent in recognizing wage issues for workers on home ground. 24 The female migrant labour figures are cited as half of the world’s migrant population of 185-192 million. Shirlena Huang; “Women’s Labour Migration in Southeast Asia: Foreign Domestic Workers and Worklife Balance in Singapore”; Panorama, Issue no 2/2006; pp 67; 2006. 25 It is estimated that 11.5 million people from South East Asian countries are working outside the homes (early 2000 figures) as cited in Graeme Hugo, “International Migration in South East Asia since World War 11” in Aris Ananta & Evi Nurvidya Arifin eds; International Migration in South East Asia; pp 47; 2004.

49

MAIN TOPICS

Gender and Islam in Indonesia (Challenges and Solution)1

Zaitunah Subhan2

Misinterpretations of the can be used as a weapon to initiate these tyrannical practices. Quran There are many misinterpretations Islam comes to free mankind from all of the holy text (Quran) that have forms of oppression (al-dzulumat) and resulted in the occurrence and increase despotism (al-thuqhyan). Islam was of injustices experienced by women. faced with the reality of injustices in For example, women are often perceived society and struggled to overcome these as second-class citizens3 or mere injustices as they opposed the actual accessories to men, and even the source mission of the religion. In society, of misfortune. Some belief that it is injustices are sometimes carefully justified and appropriate to strike a hidden or masked, and often by religion women and to curse her (if she does not itself. Religion is often manipulated by obey her husband); that a women is not (some of) its adherents to perpetuate permitted to be involved in activities the suppression of one group over outside the home; that she cannot another. As a result, religion can give choose for herself but must have another the impression that it is somewhat hair- choose for her; and other interpretations raising and frightening. Yet, it actual that discriminate against women and fact, did Islam not emerge to present which do not comply at all with the God’s blessings (rahmat) in the live of sunnah (tradition) of Prophet mankind on earth? And did The Prophet Muhammad, which, in actual fact, truly not come to refine human morals? values women4. One form on injustice that must be Numerous violations related to criticised and quickly eliminated is the occurred due inequality between man and women, to misinterpretation of Islamic which quite often leads to abuse, rape, teachings, for example, the incomplete marginalisation, stigmatisation, and reading of religious texts or use of Tafsir violence by men towards women. In (The Holy Qur’an explanation) that is this case, women often become victims influenced by patriarchal culture. One or are victimised. Worse still, religion example is the Al-quran verses about

51 Gender and Islam in Indonesia (Challenges and Solution)

nusyuz. Many people read only the term tradition giving status and domicile to ‘beat’ but did not consider further the men. A man could take as many wives context of the verses. However, as he wanted, which can lead to women according to Imam Syafii, while beating being more susceptible to violence. This a nusyuz wife is allowed, the priority is surah was descended by Allah to correct on restraining from doing so. The such bad habits. In there it was said that problem is that, in society, verses of the polygamy is restricted to 2, 3 or 4 wives Qur’an concerning the nusyuz have under very strict conditions, and this become a justification for a husband’s was strengthened in Q.S AN-NISA/ arbitrary attitude towards his wife. By 4:129, that men can not give fair looking at the context of the verse treatment to all of his wives, even if he nusyuz, we may draw a different tries very hard to do so. That is why conclusion. In the period of the Prophet Islam embraces monogamous marriage. of SAW, a leader of Anshar, Sa’ad bin Polygamy, which the Prophet of SAW Rabi slapped his wife, Habibah binti practiced, had as its aim to help and Zaid because she was assumed to be protect orphans whose father died in disobedient. Habibah did not accept battle. Of the Prophet’s nine wives, only this treatment and came to the Prophet one was still a , the others were of SAW, who suggested that Habibah widows and mostly infirm. reciprocate. This caused much protest Some Arab people still believe that among the men of Madinah. In this inheritance can be passed on only to context, the verses concerning nusyuz men, who are independent, and that contain a sanction as in QS. An- woman may be considered endowed Nisa/4:34. The Holy Qur’an wishes to goods. Inheritance can also not be prevent the hitting of wives and passed on to their boys who aren’t baligh gradually abolish it. (not independent because they are too Other forms of misinterpretation of young and incapable of responsibility Islamic views are related to polygamy, according to Islamic views), even though inheritance rights5, and women’s rights this tradition developed before the to be witnesses and leaders. Polygamy is coming of Islam. QS AN-NISA/ 4:11 one of the Islamic views that is most explains how inheritance is divided misunderstood. Even though it is still between men and women properly, debated, in reality many Moslem men which is by a composition of 2:1. own more than one wife. This is not at Moslem scholars said the division was all due to a sense of justice, rather a fair because women will accept dowry physical desire which tends to result in and are under no obligation to earn women’s misery, even though some money in the family, and are not women do find comfort in polygamy. harmed. But if both men and women There are some Moslem scholars who have the same function as parents (as refuse to interpret Q.S AN-NISA/ 4:3 fathers/mothers), they will get 1/6 each. so as to justify polygamy. According to A man cannot receive an inheritance if them, polygamy is nothing more than he has many sisters, in which case all of an extension of a pre Arab Islamic the inheritance goes to them.

52 Gender and Islam in Indonesia (Challenges and Solution)

During the initial era of Islam, man to have four wives at the same time. women discovered and enjoyed a new- And although it is a thousand times over found freedom that, up until then, had no sin according to the Moslem law and never been attained by women from doctrine, I shall forever call it a sin… other civilisations on Earth. Women Everything for the man and nothing for were given free range to be active, be the woman is our law and custom. Do you involved in trading, to carry out hijrah, understand now the deep aversion I have pursue knowledge and teach it to other, for marriage? I would do the humblest testify in court, fight in the battlefields, work, thankfully and joyfully, if by it I and to be the narrator of Hadis. could be independent.” (Geertz 1976: There are at least three groups with 41-42). Kartini argued that if she had a different views on the issues of gender daughter, she would be able to exercise in Indonesia. her own free will and would not be 1. The first group cannot accept the forced into marriage against her will. importance of gender issues. Instead, Kartini had close links to the Dutch but they argue that this issue originates she was not enamoured by Western from Western ideas which they culture. She was well aware how reject. colonialists were exploiting Java and 2. The second group accepts the making workers miserable (a theme of importance of gender issues because the Dutch novel Max Havelaar, which there is nothing about this issue that she read). She combined in her thinking is against religious values. Equality women’s liberation, class liberation and and parity of right and obligation national liberation. between man and women are taught Kartini came to learn about Pandita in every religion. As it corresponds Ramabai, the Indian female reformer, with religious values the issue could and admired her as an Asian role model. be explored in Islam courses. Like Ramabai she started a school for 3. The third group accepts this issue, girls, which by 1904 had 120 students. yet hastens. They are met with Her death in childbirth at the age of 25 resentment over some sensitive put an untimely end to her activism. points that are seen as unacceptable Her popular letters were published in for the majority of Moslems in Holland “Through Darkness into Indonesia. They are often seen as Light”, went through four Dutch having become too liberal. editions and were translated into Indonesian in 1923. A Kartini Woman Movement in Foundation established a number of schools for girls and she became a Indonesia national heroine and cult figure. She is RA. Kartini (1879-1904) was remembered by celebrations on her Indonesian’s first woman activist birthday, 21 April in what is known as campaigning for female emancipation. Kartini’s Day, a national day (the other She criticised polygamy and the Islamic national day related to women being view of marriage. “The Moslem allows a Mother’s Day).

53 Gender and Islam in Indonesia (Challenges and Solution)

Gender issues started to develop in All government organisations and the 1980’s in academic circles. The issue NGOs in Indonesia have to implement was discussed during discussion panels. the Presidential Instruction of Indonesia In the 1990’s, it became a religious Number 9/2000 on mainstreaming issue. These issues were further gender to implement gender equity and developed in accordance with the arrival equality. The implementation of gender of translations of works on gender equity and equality is also supported by which can be categorized as feminist various laws and government issues. These books were controversial regulations. at that time. Gender issues are widely However, even if legislation provides known by people from a variety of social for equal rights and responsibilities, strata, especially since the 1999 mentalities and cultural practices still presidential instruction of Indonesia constitute obstacles which make change no. 9/2000 known as PUG to be a slow and gradual process. We (mainstreaming gender) which provides have to declare our strong commitment means for the implementation of gender and political will to achieve concrete equity and equality in the family, society equality, to eradicate existing and country. The Indonesian discriminations to women, to enhance government established an institution the participation of women and to in 1978 (known as KPP RI, the Ministry achieve their full integration in national of Women Empowerment of the development and society as essential Republic of Indonesia) to improve the elements for the development and status and position of women. establishment of true democracy.

Endnotes 1 Forum on Gender Issues in East an Southeast Asia: Trends and Challenges for the 21st Century, Xian, Shanxi, China 19-20 October 2007 2 Expert Staff on Religious Affairs, Ministry of Women Empowerment, Indonesia, Lecture for Islamic Studies at UIN Jakarta 3 This assumption is based on the interpretation of Quran surah An-Nisa 1 – “God said that it is he who created you from a single soul and created there from his mate, and from them twain spread many men and women”. No verse in the holy text states that women are not distinguished. Only in the hadits [oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad, Ed] is it understood that women were created from the ribs of man and are thus only the second creation. It must be understood by the metaphor that before and after the word istaushu, that means women and men must live side by side. 4 Muhammad said 3 times, “your mother”, after he is asked by one of his followers who amongst his relatives comes first and before all others. Muhammad also said that surely women are sisters to men. 5 Nisa: 32, “Men shall have a share of that which they have earned, and women a share of that which they have earned […]”

54 Gender and Islam in Indonesia (Challenges and Solution)

References Abdul Halim Muhammad Abu Syuqqah (1990), Tahrir al Mar’ahfi Asr Ar Risalah, Darul Fikri, Kuwait. Ahmad A (1992), Women and Gender in Islam; Historical Roots of A Modern Debate, Yale University Press, New Haven and London. Al Asqalany, Ibnu Hajar (1959), Fathul Bary fi Syarhil Bukhari, al baby al Halaby wa Auladuh, Cairo Mesir. Al Bukhari, Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin ismail bin Ibrahim bin al Mughirah bin Bardizbah (t.t) Shahih al Bukhari, asy Sya’ab, Cairo Mesir. As Sayyid Rashid Ridha (1973), Tafsir al Mannar, Al hai’ah al Mishriyyah lil Kitab, Cairo Mesir. Azami, Muhammad Mushthafa (1992), Studies in Hadits Methodology and Literature (terj.) Pustaka Hidayah, Jakarta Indonesia. Azzam, M. (1996), Gender and the politics of religion in the Middle East, in Yamami Ed.O, and Islam: Legal in Literary Perspectives, New York University Press, New York. Dawud, al Sijistani Sulaiman bin al Asy’ath Abu (1952), Sunan Abi Dawud, Mushthafa al Baby al Halaby, Cairo Mesir. Fatima Mernisi (1991), Women and Islam: a Historical and Theological Enquiry, USA: Oxford. Haideh Moghissi (1999), Feminism and Islamic Fundamentalism: the Limits of Post-modern Analysis, New York. Husain bin Muhammad (1961), al Mufradat fi Gharib al Qur’an, Musthafa al Baby al Halaby, Cairo Mesir. Maulawi Sher Ali (1997), The Holy Qur’an, translated by (1997), Published under the auspices of Hadhrat Mirza Tahir Ahmad, Fourth Successor of the Promised Messiah and Supreme Head of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam, Islam International, Islamabad UK. Mernisi, Fatima (1995), Arab Women’s Right and the Muslim State in the Twenty First Century. Reflections on Islam as Religion and State, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York. Muhammad al Bahy, (1988), Al Islam wa Ittijah al Mar ah, Dar I’tisham, Cairo Mesir. Murtadha Muthahhari (1981), The Rights of , Wofis, Teheran Iran. Muslim, Imam (t.t.) Shahih Muslim, Isa al Baby al Halaby, Cairo Mesir.

55 Nasaruddin Umar, (1999), Argumen Kesetaraan Gender Perspektif al Qur’an, Paramadina, Jakarta.Indonesia. Umaimah Abu Bakar & Syirin Syukri, (2002), al Mar’ah wa al Jender, Darul Fikri, Samaskus Syiria. Zaitunah Subhan (1999), Tafsir Kebencian Studi Bias Gender dalam Tafsir al Qur’an, LkiS, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Zaitunah Subhan (2001) Pemahaman Gender dalam Islam, al Kahfi, Jakarta Indonesia.

56 MAIN TOPICS

Civil Society Movement on Sexuality in Thailand: A Challenge to State Institutions1

Varaporn Chamsanit2

Sexuality has been an issue of social around the issue of sexuality and sexual activism in Thailand for the past two rights, to be discussed in this paper, decades, but until recently such activism pose a challenge to the status quo of was often confined to matters directly formal political institutions. In this affecting the private life of homosexual paper, I discuss the emergence of people, such as safe sex education and sexuality as a rallying point for the civil HIV/AIDS prevention for gay men and society movement in Thailand. The building supportive communities for paper starts with a discussion of the lesbian women. For the most part, these meaning of sexuality, followed by a look issues are non-political in the sense that back to an earlier stage in which the they do not directly challenge the status issue of sexuality came to public quo of formal political institutions. attention. Next is a discussion of more During the past few years, however, recent campaigns to promote acceptance sexuality has come to the fore in the of sexual diversity and sexual rights and civil society movement in Thailand. how the issue of sexuality becomes Unlike campaigns and activism of politicised. earlier times, current debates about sexuality are often expressed in the language of rights claims. This happens Defining Sexuality when pressure groups start to confront The word ‘sexuality’ tends to create formal political institutions with issues different perceptions and reactions related to sexuality and sexual rights. among different people. To many, the This is to the effect that the issue of word has the same connotation as sexuality, commonly regarded as a ‘homosexuality’, meaning that the issue personal issue that does not deserve of sexuality relates only to people who public deliberation, has now been have same-sex relationships. In many brought to the formal political arena. cases, sexuality is narrowly considered Arguably, these political campaigns as purely related to physical sexual acts

57 Civil Society Movement on Sexuality in Thailand: A Challenge to State Institutions

(Pan 2005: 61). However, a survey of and other forms of sexuality. Despite academic literature on sexuality in Asia these discursive attempts to come up shows that the meaning of sexuality in with inclusive definitions, however, research studies has expanded to include matters related to people of sexual sexual intimacy and relationships, minority, namely homosexual and gender practices, reproductive policies, transgender/transsexual people, seem to prostitution, marital organisation, be the most salient issue in the civil family life, sexual identities, and more society movement around sexuality in (Loos, unpublished manuscript: 6). The Thailand these days, and this salient spread of HIV/AIDS has brought the issue is the focus of this paper. discussion of sexuality into the public sphere, as in discussions about public Bringing sexuality to the health policies and policies on sex education (see for example, Chalidaporn public 2004 and Zhang 2005). Sexuality has as The Thai military coup of 19 September also become part of discussions on sex 2006 resulted in the abolition of the work, sexual exploitation, migration country’s constitution. By mid 2007, a and human trafficking (see for example, process of drafting a new constitution The Southeast Asian Consortium on was underway. The Constitution Gender, Sexuality and Health 2006 and Drafting Assembly, the body responsible Misra & Chandiramani, eds 2006). for this task, was under the obligation My observation of academic and to solicit comments on the draft social movements on sexuality in constitution from different social Thailand in the past year has seen a sectors. Among various groups and number of attempts by scholars and organisations giving their input to the social activists to pin down the Thai Drafting Assembly was a network of translation of the English word twelve organisations working on issues ‘sexuality’ and its definition. The affecting people of sexual minority. tendency is to come up with an inclusive Following a series of meetings and definition that is not limited to the discussions, the network proposed to physical sexual relationship but includes the Drafting Assembly that a clause be psychological and social components of inserted in the new constitution that one’s sexual life, including emotion, would guarantee protection against intimacy, fantasy, identity, choice of discrimination for people of sexual livelihood, means by which one’s minority. This proposal will be discussed sexuality can be expressed and recognised in more detail below. For now, given in society, and issues related to that Thailand has had no laws that reproduction and sexual health. Another either forbid or recognise homosexuality tendency is to define sexuality in such a and transgenderism / transsexualism,3 it way that it relates not only to is interesting to see how the civil society homosexuality but reflects the actual movement on sexuality has evolved to diversity and fluidity of human sexual its current stage of engaging the national experiences, including heterosexuality legislative body and calling for the

58 Civil Society Movement on Sexuality in Thailand: A Challenge to State Institutions constitutional right to equality and ‘Lesla’ and other locally based groups, non-discrimination for people of but these groups tend to focus more on marginalised sexuality. building communities for women who In its early stage, sexuality-based have relationships with women rather social activism can be divided into two than calling for their rights (for strands. The first of these strands comparison between Anjaree and Lesla involves activism for lesbian women, or groups, see Sinnott 2004: chapter 6). ‘women who love women’ (ying rak ying The other early strand of sexuality- in Thai) as activists working on this based activism in Thailand also started issue prefer to be called. The first lesbian in the second half of the 1980s, activist group ever established in following the outbreak of HIV/AIDS in Thailand is called ‘Anjaree’. Much has the country in 1984. This strand of been written about the ‘Anjaree Group’ activism features gay men activists who in literature on homosexuality in worked to promote safe sex and the Thailand. The group arguably branched prevention of HIV/AIDS among gay out from the women’s movement in the men. Given that the first recorded case late 1980s and derives its politics from of HIV infection in Thailand was that and human rights. It started of a gay man, gay men came to be as a small group of lesbian activists regarded as a ‘high-risk’ group during coming together to discuss their lives, the early period of anti-HIV/AIDS sexuality and other social concerns. The campaigns. In 1986, the Sen-see-khao group began to open itself to public (literally ‘white line’) Group, a group of attention between the years 1990 and gay male dancers, was created to work 1993 by organising or joining in the on educational campaigns to promote organisation of conferences and safe sex and HIV/AIDS prevention. promoting public recognition of the This was followed by the establishment group in the press. Following its first of a parallel gay men activist group public appearance, ‘Anjaree’ expanded called ‘Fraternity for AIDS Cessation’ to include lesbian women from various (FACT) in the following year (Kanitta walks of life. ‘Anjaree’ plays the dual 2003). While campaigns and activities role of providing peer support for such as those organised by Sen-see-khao lesbian women and promoting social and FACT might help to mitigate social recognition and acceptance of discrimination against gay men in the homosexual people in society from the last instance, demanding for recognition rights-based perspective (Kritaya & of the rights of homosexual people did Kanokwan, unpublished manuscript, not seem to be part of the objectives of Sulaiporn 2002, Sinnott 2004). By far, these two groups. Both Sen-see-khao ‘Anjaree’ seems to be the only group of and FACT later became inactive as the lesbian women that most clearly deploys sense of urgency surrounding the HIV/ feminist politics and the human rights AIDS epidemic in the public has approach in its activism. In later years, declined and more organisations had other groups of lesbian women have been set up to work on the same issue. been set up, including a group called The change in the political climate

59 Civil Society Movement on Sexuality in Thailand: A Challenge to State Institutions

following the successful public uprising scholars writing on homosexuality in for democracy in 1992 and the Thailand have discussed the Rajabaht promulgation of the (now abolished) case (Jackson 1997, Morris 1997, 1997 Constitution – dubbed the Sinnott 2004, Kritaya & Kanokwan people’s constitution – has breathed unpublished manuscript). Caught in a new life into the civil society movement. rather unexpected public protest, In the area of sexuality-based activism, Rajabhat Institute soon decided to new groups and organisations have withdraw its ban on homosexual and since been established, such as ‘Bangkok transgender students. LGBT’ under Amnesty International Another much cited public dispute Thailand (now inactive); ‘Bangkok over the issue of sexual minority Rainbow’; ‘Rainbow Sky Association’; occurred in 1999 when Thailand’s ‘Sapaan: Alternative Media for Lesbian, Public Relations Department, allegedly Gay, Bisexual and Transgender’; ‘Gay in in reaction to public complaints about Politics’ (gay-kan-mueng); ‘Sexual frequent appearances of people of non- Diversity Fund’ and others. ‘Anjaree’, normative sexualities in television which was started well before the programs, issued an order that all democratic uprising and promulgation television stations be more restraint of the 1997 constitution, has continued about presenting characters who were to be active. ‘Lesla’ and other same-sex “sexually deviant” (Thaipost, 11 June social groups mentioned above were 1999). News of this order led to another also set up in the period after the 1992 protest by various organisations working uprising. on sexuality and human rights. The Towards the end of 1996 and early protesters argued that the Department’s 1997, a public incident occurred which order was unconstitutional, and that its marks a shift in the civil society issuance was an act of discrimination movement for people of non-normative and violation of the right to freedom of sexuality in Thailand. This is a case in expression and the right of people of which the Rajabhat Institute – a nation- sexual minority to work (Thaipost, 11 wide system of higher educational June 1999). institutes specialised in teachers training These two incidents demonstrate a – announced that it would not admit shift in the reality of and the discourse students with “deviant sexual on sexuality in Thailand. We see how behaviours”. A public poll which stated state institutions attempted to intervene that parents felt reluctant to place their in issues related to sexual identities and children under the care of homosexual sexual behaviours of its citizens although teachers was cited as the main reason there are no laws penalising homosexual (Siam Post, 22 January 1997). This and transgender behaviour. This announcement resulted in a public impulse on the part of the state to outcry from sexuality-based activist intervene suggests perhaps that there groups, led by ‘Anjaree’, and other has been greater participation, and human rights organisations (Matichon, therefore greater visibility, of people of 22 January 1997). Again, a number of sexual minority in the public sphere

60 Civil Society Movement on Sexuality in Thailand: A Challenge to State Institutions and state institutions in recent times. few exemptions, are subject to Both, the greater visibility of people of compulsory military conscription and, sexual minority and the state’s sanctions, if selected, have to serve in the military point to the fact that the issue of for a period of two years. The so-called sexuality has permeated to the public transgender or transsexual men, whose arena, particularly the bureaucracy and legal identity remains a male person, other state institutions. must also enlist even though they will The presence of human rights normally be discharged on the grounds groups, the use anti-discrimination of their non-normative sexual identity. language and the claim to constitutional But the story does not end there, for in rights during the public protests order to disqualify transgender men, discussed above indicate a change in the Ministry of Defence had, until which the discourse on sexuality has 2006, the practice of stating on official merged with the human rights discourse. records that these men suffered form “a The state’s efforts to intervene also permanent mental disorder”. This point to how state institutions failed to declaration of mental disorder was put keep up with this discursive change. down on the official paper called sor dor The public protests also testify how 43, which discharged transgender or issues related to sexuality may pose a transsexual men from military services. challenge to the status quo of state Yet, men are normally required to institutions. The next section elaborates present their sor dor 43 paper to their how this kind of challenge has become potential employer when applying for a intensified in the past few years. job. This becomes a source of discrimination as potential employers Politicising sexuality tend to be reluctant to recruit a person with a record of a permanent mental and challenging state disorder despite their other qualifications institutions (Post Today, 16 November 2006). Towards the end of 2005, gay rights In 2005, a network of organisations and human rights groups in Thailand working to protect the rights of people successfully campaigned for the of sexual minority, with the support of Ministry of Defence to stop the practice Thailand’s National Human Rights of labelling transgender / transsexual Commission, started to campaign for men as having a mental disorder. The the Ministry of Defence to end a change in the military records started to discriminatory practice against take effect in April 2006 (Daily News, transgender or transsexual men in the 31 March 2006). However, the Ministry process of military conscription. Said of Defence refuses to correct old official practice is a form of discrimination records issued to transgender men against men who have altered their enlisted and discharged prior to 2006. physical appearance and sexual identity This means that transgender men who to become transgender or transsexual were labelled mentally ill by the military persons. By law, all Thai male citizens before 2006 will have to live with this at the age of twenty-one years old, with

61 Civil Society Movement on Sexuality in Thailand: A Challenge to State Institutions

stigmatisation for the rest of their lives. (sexual diversity) as an equivalent to the To counter this problem, gay rights English term ‘sexual orientation’. The activists have filed a lawsuit in the book entitled Human Rights of Lesbians, Administrative Court against the Gays, Bisexuals, Transgender and Intersex Ministry of Defence, charging the People (Rainbow Sky Association of Ministry with discrimination against Thailand and National Human Rights transgender / transsexual people. This Commission 2007) provides a snapshot case is still pending in the Court of this discursive practice. The book (Matichon 30 November 2006). contains English-language excerpts The next sexuality-based campaign from the constitutions of several to be discussed relates to the drafting of countries that provide anti- Thailand’s latest constitution mentioned discrimination protection on the ground above. This constitution came into of sexual orientation. In all Thai force in August 2007, following a translations of these excerpts, the military coup that abolished the English term ‘sexual orientation’ is preceding constitution the year before. translated into kwam laklai thang phet During the constitution drafting or ‘sexual diversity’. Here I quote a process, members of the Sexual Diversity passage from this book which helps to Network – a network of twelve explain the politics of discourse and organisations working on issues related how the Network decided on the term to people of sexual minority – gathered sexual diversity: to discuss constitutional rights of … The term sexual diversity resembles sexually marginalised people. With the the term cultural diversity already support of the National Human Rights contained in the draft constitution. … Commission, the Network proposed to The term sexual diversity is a new term in the Constitution Drafting Assembly Thai society. It was first coined about that a clause on sexual diversity be two years ago [2005] by organisations added to the anti-discrimination article working on people who have same-sex (Article 30) of the new constitution. If relationships, men who love men, women this proposed addition were to be made, who love women, people who have bisexual the second clause of Article 30 of the relationships, transgender people, etc. new constitution would read: “Men, These organisations agree that if we are to women and people of diverse sexualities include people of all sexually marginalised shall have equal rights” (Rainbow Sky groups, we need to find the most neutral Association of Thailand and National term that is neither degrading nor giving Human Rights Commission 2007: emphasis to social hierarchies. We, the 125). Sexual Diversity Network, therefore It is interesting to note that the decided to use this term [sexual diversity]. Sexuality Diversity Network decided to (Rainbow Sky Association of Thailand use the Thai term ‘bukkhon phu mi and National Human Rights khwam laklai thang phet’ (roughly Commission 2007: 172, my translated as ‘people of diverse translation) sexualities’) or ‘khwam laklai thang phet’ Nevertheless, despite all the lobbying

62 Civil Society Movement on Sexuality in Thailand: A Challenge to State Institutions efforts by the Sexual Diversity Network form of ad hoc coalitions in reaction to and debates among legislators, the overt discriminatory acts by state Constitution Drafting Assembly institutions, such as in the protests eventually turned down the Network’s against the Rajabhat Institute and the proposal that the clause “people of Public Relations Department discussed diverse sexualities” be added to the above. Unlike the activism of earlier constitution. This rejection was made years, which was more or less divided on the grounds that the term diverse between gay men and lesbian women, sexualities or sexual diversity was too this type of ad hoc coalitional activism obscure. Consequently, the 2007 tends to be more inclusive in terms of constitution of Thailand does not sexual identities; it mobilises sexually contain any reference to sexual diversity marginalised people from different sub- or sexually marginalised people. groups who work together towards an immediate goal. In the past few years, Conclusion we see more newcomers in the movement, namely transgender / The civil society movement on issues transsexual and inter-sex people. This related to sexuality has evolved over the is in line with an emphasis placed on past two decades in Thailand. There are the sexual diversity discourse, as in the several aspects to the issue of sexuality, public campaign led by the Sexual with relations between the concepts of Diversity Network during the drafting gender and sexuality, sexuality and class, of the 2007 constitution. The civil and the interaction between trans- society movement for sexually national and local discourses on marginalised people seems to have sexuality being some of the interesting found its strength in inclusive coalitional aspects which I hope to cover in other politics that flags as its goal the papers in the future. In this paper, I acceptance of sexual diversity in have focused on change in the movement society. for people of sexual minority, mainly Another marked shift in the homosexual and transgender / movement for people of sexual minority transsexual people. Over the years, is the coming together of the discourses social activism for sexually marginalised on sexuality and human rights, as people has changed its forms and exemplified in the involvement of focuses, from seemingly obnoxious or human rights groups in public protests less politicised issues, such as safe sex on sexuality-related issues, and the use education and building supportive of rights-oriented language such as in communities, to issues and approaches the charge of discrimination placed that challenge the authority of state against state institutions and the call for institutions. In its early years, social constitutional rights on the ground of activism on sexually marginalised sexual diversity. The focus of the people was divided along the line of movement has also shifted from merely sexual identities into activism for gay reacting to emergent incidents of men and that for lesbian women. Later discrimination by certain government on, we have seen more activism in the

63 Civil Society Movement on Sexuality in Thailand: A Challenge to State Institutions

agencies to identifying and campaigning more politicised. It has moved from against long-term discriminatory addressing issues related to the private practices faced by sexually marginalised life of homosexual people to combating people. The use of the human rights discrimination in the public sphere and approach can be attributed in large part demanding equality and rights on the to the international flows of the human grounds of the sexual attribute of the rights discourse. Also, the movement person. Sexuality and sexual rights have has become proactive as seen in its effort become a public issue, and public to call for constitutional protection for disputes on issues related to sexuality people of marginalised sexualities, are more likely to pose a challenge to although without success. state institutions these days. In conclusion, social activism for sexually marginalised people has become

Endnotes 1 This paper is revised from the author’s presentation entitled “Gender and Sexuality: State Policies and Civil Society Actions” presented at the Forum on Gender Issues in East and Southeast Asia, 19-20 October 2007, Xian, China. 2 A faculty staff member at the Office of Human Rights Studies and Social Development, Mahidol University, Thailand. 3 This is with an exception of two abolished laws. One is the short-lived rape law of 1898 which prescribed a maximum penalty of ten years imprisonment for the sodomy act. In the Penal Code of 1909, the penalty for this sexual act was reduced to the maximum of three years. However, this clause of the 1909 Penal Code was never enforced and was abolished in 1956 (Matana 1995).

References Chalidaporn Songsamphan. 2004. ‘Thankhati rueng phetwithi nai nayobai rueng rok-aid khong rat thai (Sexuality in AIDS policies of the Thai state)’, Ratthasatsan, 25:3, pp. 1-81. (in Thai) Jackson, Peter. 1997. ‘Thai Research on Male Homosexuality and Transgenderism and the Cultural Limits of Foucaultian Analysis’, Journal of the History of Sexuality, 8:11, pp. 52-85. Kritaya Archavanitkul & Kanokwan Tharawan. c.2000. Khabuankan ying-rak-ying nai prathetthai (The movement for women who love ). Unpublished manuscript. (in Thai)

64 Civil Society Movement on Sexuality in Thailand: A Challenge to State Institutions

Kanitta Potjana-a-ree. 2003. The Movements and Campaigns to Promote the Rights of Homosexual People in Contemporary Thailand. MA Thesis (Human Rights), Mahidol University. Loos, Tamara. 2007. Transnational, Colonial and National Histories of Sexualities in Asia. Unpublished paper. Mathana Chetamee. 1995. Withi-chiwit lae chiwit-khrob-khrua khong ying-rak- ying (Livelihood and family life of women who love women). MA Thesis (Anthropology), Thammasat University. (in Thai) Misra, Geetanjali and Radhika Chandiramani, eds. 2006. Sexuality, Gender and Rights: Exploring Theory and Practice in South and Southeast Asia. New Delhi: Sage Publications India. Morris, Rosalind. 1997. ‘Educating Desire: Thailand, Transnationalism, and Transgression’, Social Text, 52/53:15, pp. 53-79. Pan Suiming. 2005. Sexuality in China. Bangkok: the Southeast Asian Consortium on Gender, Sexuality and Health. Rainbow Sky Association of Thailand and National Human Rights Commission. 2007. Human Rights of Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, Transgender and Intersex People. Bangkok: Rainbow Sky Association of Thailand and National Human Rights Commission. (in Thai) Sinnott, Megan. 2004. Tom and Dees: Transgender Identity and Female Same-sex Relationships in Thailand. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. Sulaiporn Chonwilai. 2002. Narrating Selves: Negotiating Lesbian Identity. MA Thesis (Anthropology), Thammasat University. (in Thai) The Southeast Asian Consortium on Gender, Sexuality and Health. 2006. Living on the Edges: Cross-border Mobility and Sexual Exploitation in the Greater Southeast Asia Sub-region. Bangkok: the Southeast Asian Consortium on Gender, Sexuality and Health. Zhang Beichuan. 2004. Homosexuality and AIDS in Mainland China. In Researching Sexuality and Sexual Health in Southeast Asia and China (Second Edition). Bangkok: the Southeast Asian Consortium on Gender, Sexuality and Health.

65

DOCUMENTS

Joint Statement of the ASEAN High- Level Meeting on Good Practices in CEDAW Reporting and Follow-up Vientiane, 14-15 January 2008

1. We, the delegates of ten ASEAN implementation of these important Member Countries, namely Brunei documents has contributed to the Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, implementation of the ASEAN Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, vision 2020 and the purposes and Philippines, Singapore, Thailand principles of the ASEAN Charter. and Viet Nam, gathered at the 3. We recognized the steady progress ASEAN High-Level Meeting on achieved in ASEAN Member Good Practices in the Convention Countries in the enhancement of on the Elimination of All Forms of the role and contributions of Discrimination Against Women ASEAN women and in (CEDAW) Reporting and Follow- mainstreaming gender into policies, up on 14-15 January 2008 in plans, programmes and budgets. In Vientiane, Lao People’s Democratic this regard, we reiterated the Joint Republic. Statement and Commitment to 2. We reaffirmed the importance of Implement Gender Mainstreaming the CEDAW as a guiding framework within the Context of CEDAW, of the 1988 Declaration on the BPFA and MDGs adopted at the Advancement of Women in the ASEAN High-level Meeting on ASEAN Region, the 1995 Beijing Gender Mainstreaming held on Declaration and Platform for 15-16 November 2006 in Jakarta, Action (BPFA), the outcome of the Indonesia, and reaffirmed the Twenty Third Special Session of importance of the CEDAW as one the UN General Assembly in 2000, of the international instruments the Millennium Declaration and for gender mainstreaming together the Millennium Development with the BPFA and MDGs. Goals (MDGs) adopted in 2000, 4. We reiterated our commitment to the 2004 Bangkok Communiqué fulfilling the obligation of the adopted at the UNESCAP Regional States Parties to the CEDAW in Review of the BPFA and the 2004 implementing the Convention, ASEAN Declaration on the submitting periodic reports to the Elimination of Discrimination CEDAW Committee and following Against Women in ASEAN. The up on the Concluding Comments.

67 Joint Statement of the ASEAN High-Level Meeting on Good Practices in CEDAW Reporting and Follow-up

5. We agreed to continue sharing continue to undertake national experiences and good practices in efforts as well as further deepen the implementation, monitoring and broaden ASEAN cooperation and reporting of the CEDAW. by continuing to exchange views 6. We agreed to further enhance the and experiences towards sustainable CEDAW implementation, capacity development for the monitoring and reporting through implementation, monitoring and the following: reporting of the CEDAW. a. Follow the reporting guidelines 8. We agreed to continue enhancing of the Committee on the cooperation and partnerships with Elimination of Discrimination all stakeholders, UN agencies and Against Women; other relevant non-government b. Assign a State agency to partners of ASEAN in the effort to undertake a lead in coordinating achieve gender equality and the process of the CEDAW women’s empowerment. In this implementation and preparing regard, we would appreciate periodic reports to the technical support with respect to Committee; developing strategies for c. Promote a collective whole- implementing the CEDAW and government approach in fulfilling reporting obligation. drafting the CEDAW periodic 9. We noted with satisfaction that all reports through the ASEAN Member Countries had establishment of inter-agency ratified the CEDAW. Therefore, we working groups; encouraged some ASEAN Member d. Strengthen the existing national Countries which still maintain CEDAW reporting and some reservations to consider monitoring mechanisms to removing the reservations to the ensure the effectiveness among Convention. the relevant government 10. We encouraged ASEAN Member agencies; Countries which have not ratified e. Establish a monitoring database the Optional Protocol to the and ensure easily available and CEDAW to study the Optional accessible sex-disaggregated data Protocol and its requirement. and information; 11. We agreed to hold the 2nd ASEAN f. Integrate issues raised in the High-Level Meeting on Good CEDAW Concluding Practices in the CEDAW Reporting Comments into national and and Follow-up in 2010. sectoral development plans as Adopted in Vientiane, Lao People’s and when relevant. Democratic Republic, on 15 January 7. We recognized that capacity- 2008. building is an important factor in the efforts to fulfil the obligation Source: http://www.aseansec.org/21309.htm under CEDAW. We agreed to

68 WEB LINKS

Web Links on Europe and Asia

Timely and up-to-date information is a necessity for policy-makers and researchers. In an increasingly information-dependent world, the Internet is an unsurpassed medium for rapid dissemination of news.The following is a compilation of websites that offer invaluable insights and timely information on Southeast Asian issues and Asia-Europe relations.

ASEAN Secretariat Asia News Network http://www.aseansec.org http://www.asianewsnet.net The homepage of the Association of Established with support from Konrad- Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Adenauer-Stiftung, the Asia News Network Secretariat, this site provides information (ANN) website offers news updates and on the latest ASEAN meetings as well as commentaries from 13 major dailies in archived documents. Southeast Asia who are members of ANN.

Asia Daily Asia Source http://wn.com/s/asiadaily/index.html http://www.asiasource.org Part of the World News Network, Asia A project of the US-based Asia Society, Daily offers news pertaining to Asia as well Asia Source provides information on as links to the various Asian news sites. various aspects of Asia, such as arts and culture, business and economics, policy and government and social issues. It also Asia-Inc offers access to information by experts and also links to pages that focus on http://www.asia-inc.com Asian lifestyle, education and statistics. Asia-Inc is a monthly regional business magazine targeted mainly at Asian executives, with emphasis on business news Asia-Europe Foundation in Singapore, Hong Kong and Malaysia. The website offers articles featured in its http://www.asef.org publication, which provide insights into The Asia-Europe Foundation was the Asian business community. established by the members of the Asia-

69 Web Links on Europe and Asia

Europe Meetings (ASEM) on 15 February online news portal, this site is updated 1997 with the objective of promoting daily with the top stories from the better mutual understanding between the region. It also has links to other media peoples of Asia and Europe through greater such as TIME magazine and The New intellectual, cultural and people-to-people York Times belonging to parent exchanges between the two regions. The company AOL Time Warner. website provides a listing of the activities and events of the Foundation as well as speeches delivered at ASEF events, media The East-West Center articles, press releases and book reviews with special interest in Asia and Europe. http://www.eastwestcenter.org The East-West Center is an education and research organisation that helps The Asia Society promote the establishment of a stable, peaceful and prosperous Asia Pacific http://www.asiasociety.org community. It is a source of The Asia Society is an American nonprofit, information and analysis about the non-partisan educational organisation Asia-Pacific Region, including the dedicated to fostering understanding of United States. Some 2,000 scholars, Asia and communication between government and business leaders, Americans and the peoples of the Asia educators, journalists and other and the Pacific. The website features professionals throughout the region details of the events organised by the work with Center staff annually to Society, the speeches delivered and a address issues of contemporary selection of the Society’s publications. significance.

BBC News Asia Pacific The European Union http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asiapacific/ Online default.stm http://www.europa.eu.int Part of the British Broadcasting The server of the European Union Corporation (BBC) Internet network, provides access to the homepages of the this site is updated daily with top stories EU institutions with news, press releases from the Asia-Pacific region. and on-line documentation of EU meetings in several European languages. CNN Interactive – World Regions – Asia Pacific http://edition.cnn.com/ASIA Part of the Cable News Network (CNN)

70 Web Links on Europe and Asia

Far Eastern Economic trends and developments in Southeast Asia and its wider geostrategic and Review economic environment. The ISEAS http://www.feer.com website provides details of its research programmes as well as a full catalogue The online version of the weekly of publications. magazine on Asia’s economic and business news. It contains some of the stories and features carried in the magazine. FEER also offers a free e-mail Organisation for news service which is a digest of the Economic Cooperation major features carried on their website. and Development (OECD) http://www.oecd.org German Council on The OECD has an exclusive membership Foreign Relations (DGAP) of 30 developed economies that share a commitment to democratic government http://www.dgap.org/english/ and the market economy. Since its summary.htm establishment three decades ago, OECD The main goals of the German Society has moved beyond a focus on its own for Foreign Affairs (DGAP) are: to members to embrace the entire global stimulate interest in international economy, with active relationships with questions, to promote worldwide some 70 other countries, NGOs and scholarly cooperation, and hence to civil societies. Its website contains an increase understanding between nations. on-line bookshop covering the policy The DGAP was founded in 1955 as an studies undertaken by the OECD as independent, non-partisan, non-profit well as details of the workshops. association. Its aims, organisation, and mode of financing are similar to those of the Council on Foreign Relations in European Union in the New York and the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) World in London. http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/ index.htm The website of the European Institute for Southeast Commission’s Directorate General Asian Studies (ISEAS) External Relations (DG Relex) provides information and documents relating to http://www.iseas.edu.sg the Union’s external affairs listed by Established in 1968, ISEAS is a regional country, region and policy area. research centre dedicated to the study of socio-political, security and economic

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Centre for European issues and to contribute to efforts towards confidence-building and Policy Studies (CEPS) preventive diplomacy in the region. The http://www.ceps.be/index3.php website is maintained by the ASEAN Secretariat and contains information on The Brussels-based Centre for European ARF activities, related documents and Policy Studies (CEPS) serves as a leading contact details. forum for debate on EU affairs. With a strong in-house research capacity and an extensive network of partner institutes throughout the world, the Asia Institute Europe (AIE) Centre runs a number of research http://www.asia-institute-europe.eu/ programmes on EU politics and policies including on the EU’s Foreign and Asia Institute Europe (AIE) is a Brussels- Security Policy. The website contains based independent intellectual resource information on its research activities, on Asia and a public platform for events, networks and publications. innovative research, knowledge partnerships and policy exchange. AIE analyses socio-economic and political developments and anticipates trends in ASEAN Regional Forum the EU-Asia context and their impact http://www.aseanregionalforum.org/ on Europe, Asia and globally. AIE boasts a comprehensive network of key experts Established in 1994, the ASEAN and policy-makers. The website contains Regional Forum (ARF) is an informal news from China, India and Asia, a list multilateral dialogue in the Asia Pacific of the institute’s publications as well as region. Its aim is to foster dialogue and information on its activities. consultation on political and security

72 ABSTRACTS

araporn Chamsanit’s paper examines official discourses on sexuality in Thailand as produced by state agencies, politicians and bureaucrats, and V presented through the media and other official channels including policies, laws and regulations. The dialectic relationship between the state and civil society movements for sexual rights is also discussed. The key concern of this article is to demonstrate how sexuality and sexual rights are a contested issue in contemporary Thailand, and how different state organs may take different approaches to these issues. The paper ends with a discussion of how, in recent years, sexuality has become an important rallying point for the movements towards gender equality in Thailand.

egina Hechanova argues that there are many changes in the traditional roles held by women and men in the Philippines. More women are entering male Rdominated fields and the boom in certain industries, such as call centres, has also contributed to increasing employment opportunities for women. In addition, women leave homes to work in other countries. Dual income career couples have become the norm. This paper examines how this shift in traditional roles has affected work-life balance issues for society while also examining government policies aimed at re-defining men’s and women’s roles in addressing the work-life balance for families.

iu Lige discusses the importance of political rights for women under reference to village-level elections in China. Due to historical, economic, and cultural L reasons women’s participation in political affairs remain at a lower level in China compared to most other developing countries. This is especially the case in rural areas where women form large parts of the population but show low levels of political participation. During the 6th village-level election in 2005, the Shaanxi Women’s Federation sought to promote rural women’s participation in elections and politics with a particular view to raising female representation in Villager Committees. This paper analyses the full course of the election while also discussing necessary policies and measures to further promote rural women’s participation in politics.

raema Mathiaparanam observes that while half of the workforce in Singapore comprises women, of whom more than half are graduates, there are no full- BMinisters and not enough women who rise to leadership positions. Her paper traces the development of women in Singapore and compares the progress made by women with some of Singapore’s ASEAN neighbours. The paper also reviews the role played by government and civil society actors to enhance the status of women in Singapore while examining reasons for the disproportionately smaller representation as decision-makers in both the private and public sectors.

73 aitunah Subhan begins her article with the observation that Gender and Islam in Indonesia have been discussed by many academics since the 1990s. ZHer article notes that the majority amongst the Indonesian community are convinced that religious beliefs on the roles of men and women are defined by Qur’an-Hadits. However, there are many challenges to this interpretation. The author argues that Islam regards men and women as complementary to each other yet patriarchal culture has, from time to time, influenced the understanding of Islam with regards to gender issues. One of the solutions may be to increase the understanding of leaders of religion, cultural studies, academics, communities and officials on gender within Islam.

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