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US POLICY TOWARDS SOUTH AFRICA, C. 1960 U.S. POLICY TOWARDS SOUTH AFRICA, c. 1960- c. 1990 FROM POLITICAL REALISM TO MORAL ENGAGEMENT LUTFULLAH MANGI Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Ph.D School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London) July 1994 b ib l Lo n d o n u m ProQuest Number: 10672875 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10672875 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Abstract This is a study of United States' policy towards South Africa between 1976 and 1986, the important period in the history of their relationship. It sets out to explain that there had never been a basic shift in successive U.S. policies towards the Republic. The driving force behind the Ford, Carter and Reagan doctrines towards Southern Africa, with focus on South Africa, had been to secure the U.S. national interests economic and military/strategic. These policies, however, were based on belief of negotiated settlement to achieve majority rule in the region, and were critical of the apartheid system in South Africa. Throughout the period under discussion, South Africa has never remained important in U.S. policy planning, except the period of the mid 1980s, when it attracted the attention of high-level policy-makers, including the President and the Congress. It was during this time that the Republic appeared as a major political issue of U.S. domestic constituencies and on foreign policy agenda. It was partly because of the well publicized crisis in South Africa, and partly because of the Reagan administration's attitude towards the anti-apartheid groups. The combination of these factors had led the defeat of the Reagan administration's policy of constructive engagement and the implementation of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 in which Congress, under public pressure, deviced its policy towards South Africa. 2 CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES.......................................... 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................7 INTRODUCTION..... ...................................... 8 Conceptual Framework......................... 9 Methodology................................... 15 Scope.......................... ............... 17 Organization and Setting of the Thesis..... 18 Notes and References......................... 22 CHAPTER I. U.S.FOREIGN POLICY-MAKING: THE ROLE OF PRESIDENT AND BUREAUCRACY Introduction.................................. 24 1.1 Role of the President........................ 24 1.2 Role of the Bureaucracy...................... 31 1.3 U.S. Degree of Interest in Africa........... 42 1.4 Bureaucratic Structures and Dynamics....... 55 1.5 U.S.-Africa Policy-Making Apparatus.........59 Conclusion........... ......... ............... 65 Notes and References......................... 67 CHAPTER II. ROLE OF CONGRESS AND PUBLIC OPINION IN FOREIGN POLICY-MAKING Introduction.................................. 73 2.1 Role of the Congress......................... 74 2.2 Role of Congress in Africa Policy-Making.... 83 2.3 Role of Public Opinion............... ....... 90 2.4 Role of Pressure Groups in Africa Policy- Making .........................................99 Conclusion.................................... 103 Notes and References......................... 104 CHAPTER III, STRATEGIC MINERALS AS A FACTOR IN U.S.-SOUTH AFRICA POLICY Introduction.................................. 110 3.1 The Economics and Politics of Strategic Minerals. ................................ Ill 3.2 U.S. Minerals Policy: An Overview...........128 3.3 Strategic Minerals and South Africa Policy ........................... ......... 145 Conclusion.................................... 151 Notes and References......................... 152 CHAPTER IV. U.S.-SOUTH AFRICA NUCLEAR RELATIONS Introduction.................................. 156 4.1 Historical Background, 1950-1976........... 157 3 4.2 The Carter Administration and the South- African Bomb...................................169 4.3 U.S.-South Africa Nuclear Collaboration, 1981-1986...................................... 180 Conclusion..................................... 190 Notes and References.......................... 192 CHAPTER V. U.S.-SOUTH AFRICA DEFENCE AND INTELLIGENCE COOPERATION Introduction...................................199 5.1 Historical Development........................201 5.2 CIA-NIS Covert Operations: An Overview...... 207 5.3 Intelligence Cooperation During the Reagan Administration.................................220 Conclusion..................................... 231 Notes and References....................... 233 CHAPTER VI. U.S-HUMAN RIGHTS POLICY TOWARDS SOUTH AFRICA: ORIGINS AND IMPLEMENTATION Introduction......... 238 6.1 Origins of Human Rights.......................239 6.2 Definition of Human Rights................... 246 6.3 Place of Human Rights in U.S. Foreign Policy......................................... 250 6.4 U.S.-South Africa Human Rights Policy....... 263 Conclusion..................................... 275 Notes and References....... 277 CHAPTER VII. SANCTIONS ISSUE IN U.S.-SOUTH AFRICA RELATIONS Introduction............ 284 7.1 Definition of Sanction........................285 7.2 The Sanctions Movement Against South Africa: An Overview....................................288 7.3 Reagan Administration and the Sanctions Movement . ..................................297 Conclusion. ...................................317 Notes and References.......................... 318 CHAPTER VIII. CONCLUSION............ 324 Future Research............................... 337 Notes and References................... 339 APPENDIX A Assistant Secretaries of State for African Affairs................................. 340 4 APPENDIX B Africa Specialists and Policy-Makers, 1976-1994.............................................341 APPENDIX C Foreign Affairs Responsibilities of Standing and Select Committees in the House of Representatives and Senate.......................... 351 APPENDIX D Senate and House Sub-Committees on Africa......... 353 APPENDIX E Operating Mines of Strategic Minerals in South Africa as at January 1983.................... 355 APPENDIX F Operating Mines of Strategic Minerals in the United States as at January 1983.............. 356 APPENDIX G Uranium Enrichment Exports to South Africa for SAFARI-I Research Reactor.......................357 APPENDIX H Human Rights Treaties and Agreements to Which the U.S. is a Party........ 359 APPENDIX I Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986.......... 364 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................365 5 LIST OF TABLES 1.1 Administrative Divisions of the Department of State............................ 36 1.2 Important Executive Departments and Agencies in the Foreign Policy System............. ...... 38 3.1 Chromium: Major World Producers............... 115 3.2 Manganese: Major World Producers.............. 116 3.3 Platinum Group Metals: Major World Producers.......................................117 3.4 Vanadium: World Production From Ores, Concentrates and Slages: Major World Producers.119 3.5 Cobalt: Major World Producers................. 121 3.6 Annual Consumption of Strategic Minerals.....124 3.7 U.S. Import Reliance on Strategic Minerals..... 125 3.8 U.S. Import Reliance on the former Soviet Union........................................... 125 3.9 Strategic Minerals in the National Defence Stockpile.......................................132 3.10 U.S. Bureau of Mines Estimates of Probable Demand for Strategic Metals in the Year 2000...137 7.1 U.S. Negative Votes in the United Nations Calling for Sanctions against South Africa..299 6 Acknowledgement I would like to express my special thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Thomas Young for his guidence, encouragement and interest. I owe a lasting debt of gratitude to him. I want to thank the University of London for providing a travel grant for a trip to the United States. In Washington D.C. my special thanks go to my friend Dr. Aftab Qazi who welcomed me with open arms and provided shelter in his home for many weeks. I would like to thank the many individuals in the United States who agreed to be interviewed for this thesis. In London, I owe special thanks to Mr and Mrs Martin Moir who offered their help to go through my thesis and made valuable suggestions. In South Africa I have to thank Mr Ray Rose who usually mailed related material from Johannesburg. I am grateful to the University of Sindh for financial support throughout my stay in London. My friend A.K.Chachar deserves thanks for helping in every possible way from that end. 7 INTRODUCTION The thesis describe and evaluates the main developments in ralations between the United States and South Africa between the period 1976 and 1986. This is not an attempt to promote the policy of a particular administration in the White House, but has been done from an impartial point of view. It reviews the measures adopted by the successive administrations under discussion from condemnation of apartheid to maintaining of free access
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