Annual Research & Review in Biology

26(2): 1-9, 2018; Article no.ARRB.39280 ISSN: 2347-565X, NLM ID: 101632869

Deterioration and Microbiological Evaluation of Information Bearing in a Nigerian University

F. Ayoade1* and S. D. Amona1

1Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Redeemer’s University, PMB 230, Ede, Osun State, Nigeria.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Author FA designed the study, performed laboratory and statistical analyses, wrote the protocol and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Author SA managed the sample collection and laboratory analyses of the study. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/ARRB/2018/39280 Editor(s): (1) George Perry, Dean and Professor of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, USA. Reviewers: (1) Yassellis J. R. Ruiz, Universidad de Carabobo, Venezuela. (2) Modupe Elizabeth Ojewumi, Covenant University, Nigeria. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/24455

Received 1st December 2017 th Original Research Article Accepted 7 February 2018 Published 4th May 2018

ABSTRACT

Using a completely randomized block design and Redeemer’s University as a case study, air samples at the University library, clinic and registry were evaluated for microorganisms that are capable of causing paper deterioration and the physical environments were assessed for ability to predispose paper to bio-deterioration. Using the sterile swab stick, microbial samples were collected from randomly selected and documents exhibiting signs of deterioration such as brown discolouration (foxing) and, specific codes were assigned for tracking purposes. Air monitoring was done by using the open plate method. Distinct microbial isolates were sub-cultured on agar and subsequently identified using cultural, cell morphological and biochemical tests. Results showed that printed materials were stored at sub-optimal environment required for prevention of paper deterioration at all locations. Moreover, similar microorganisms found dominating the air in sampled locations were found on the foxing spots on deteriorating printed materials. The bacterial organisms recovered from the samples were Lactobacillus casei and Staphylococcus aureus while the fungal organisms were Aspergillus niger, A flavus, Penicillium sp., Rhizopus sp. and Alternaria sp. Furthermore, Aspergillus flavus was the highest occurring fungal organism isolated, followed by

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*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

Ayoade and Amona; ARRB, 26(2): 1-9, 2018; Article no.ARRB.39280

Alternaria sp., Rhizopus and Penicillium sp in descending order of occurrence. The highest colony count 1.7×10-5 cfu/cm2 for bacteria was found in books sampled from the library, while the lowest bacterial colony counts (0.2×10-5) were found in printed materials sampled from the clinic and the registry. The higher human activity such as improper handling and discharge of aerosol by library users perhaps accounts for the highest occurrence of bio-deterioration organisms found at this location. These results underscore the importance of moderating human activities to limit bio- deterioration of printed materials. Other methods of protecting against bio-deterioration of printed materials such as providing suitable ambience in terms of optimum temperature, lighting and relative humidity for storage of printed items are recommended.

Keywords: Paper deterioration; foxing; Penicillium sp.

1. INTRODUCTION Among several biotic and abiotic conditions that can hasten paper deterioration, microorganisms Paper, as a carrier for written information was are perhaps its main promoters [5]. Fungi are the presented in Europe in the twelfth century [1] most significant microbial agents of while the earliest archaeological fragments of biodeterioration of industrial paper stored in paper derive from the 2nd century BCE in China archives. The great genetic plasticity of these [2]. In spite of the global trend of storing organisms allows them to adapt to diverse information electronically, large amounts of vital environments, using virtually any class of information are still archived on paper as printed materials as substrate. Fungi produce a wide materials in the form of books, periodicals, collection of enzymes, including cellulase, journals, newspapers, patients’ medical records, amylase, and protease, which are accountable staff and students’ files, and similar documents. for their gross biodeterioration activity. The Most of these printed materials are however principally cellulosic nature (contains cellulose) of prone to deterioration and are kept at the risk of paper makes it vulnerable to attack by losing valued information. The overall behavior of microorganisms since cellulose is regarded as paper (chemical and mechanical properties, substrate and a viable energy source by these stability, degradation and so on) is strongly microorganisms. dependent upon the nature, origin, and characteristics of the components as well as their Biodeterioration of paper may begin even before interactions [2]. The structure of paper and its the paper is formed, pulpwood timber being properties depends upon the manufacturing attacked by a variety of basidiomycetes, which processes, which greatly differ, impacting on weaken the fibres. may be attacked by both durability and susceptibility of such printed basidiomycetes and a range of micro fungi, materials to agents of deterioration. The most leading to both decay and staining. The paper- predominant content of paper is cellulose, and to making process itself provides a wet, warm, and a lesser extent and hemicelluloses and nutritious environment that is conducive to the other minor components [3]. formation of bacterial slimes, which cause clogging of papermakers’ felts and irregularities Deterioration of printed materials occurs in the and weakness in the finished product. form of undesirable change in the original state Restrictions on the discharge of wastewater of the materials due to interaction between the (known as white water) from paper mills and the object and the factors of destruction. The consequent recycling of water can also tend to undesirable effects of deterioration may manifest increase the risk of microbial contamination [6]. in the form of wear and tear, shrinkage, cracks, Microorganisms isolated from paper-pulps brittleness, discoloration, abrasion, dust and dirt include, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas species, accumulation and so on. Generally, factors Aspergillus species [7,8,9]. accountable for the deterioration of printed materials may be classified into two broad Finished paper, that is, the paper-sheet prepared categories; firstly, environmental factors such as by the refinement and processing of paper-pulp light, heat, humidity and moisture, dust and dirt, is also attacked by microorganisms. These including water. Secondly, biological factors such microorganisms, including various fungal as microorganisms, insects, rodents, and human (Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp.) and bacterial factors [4]. species (Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus sp.) have

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been reported to attack cellulose, causing brown growth of fungi and accumulations of dust and (foxing), black, or yellow discoloration and dirt will attract insect [15]. spotting. Other constituents of the paper such as lignin, also serves as substrate for certain Another biotic factor that is critical to paper microorganisms [10,11]. Moreover, the physical deterioration is human handling [16]. Casual and chemical processing of paper increases the attitude of library or registry users and staff proportion of amorphous sites along the cellulose towards books and paper materials as physical polymer as opposed to the crystalline sites which objects may help to exacerbate or minimize are more prevalent in native (unprocessed) damage to stored paper. Improper storage, faulty cellulose. The amorphous sites are more repairmen, rough handling, deliberate abuse, susceptible to biodeterioration [12] because folding the fore- edges of pages as a mark of these have higher bioreceptivity and hence more reading, marking by ball pen, mutilation, prone to deterioration. Also, even though the vandalism are all examples of deterioration of removal of lignin in processes books by human beings. contributes to the increase of the quality of paper, it amplifies its bioreceptivity, since lignin Apart from the outlined deterioration causes and increases the resistance of cellulose to effects, handling mould contaminated paper microorganisms [12]. objects can pose a serious health risk, because many of these microorganisms can be Paper as an organic substrate provides a good pathogenic and / or toxigenic [17,18]. Even when medium for the growth of certain fungi and the fungi are already dead, the fungal structures bacteria, especially cellulolytic strains. The can still contain active allergenic and toxic infection and colonisation of paper by fungal compounds to humans [13]. spores and propagates takes place mainly through air-dispersion, although direct inoculation Paper preservation is the proper handling of of both fungi and bacteria by human handling or works on paper. Works on paper generally refers by insects and mites, as vectors can occur. Fungi to flat (including bound) paper materials, and microbial development start when there is documents, manuscripts, drawings, paints, water available in paper, though the amount of poster and maps. Taking care when handling any water needed for spore germination and collection of items is one of the more effective, mycelium growth varies according to the fungal cost efficient and easily achieved preservation and bacterial species involved [13]. Microbial measures. degradation of paper causes different kinds of damage according to the species of organism In spite of the fact that most tertiary institutions in responsible for the attack. Damage can occur Nigeria are inculcating the paperless culture of because of mechanical stress or enzymatic archiving important documents electronically, a action; moulds can produce a wide range of large collection of important documents are enzymes, proteinases, gelatinase, and cellulase archived on paper. Moreover, a large proportion which are able to destroy the component material of library collection exists in hardcopies on paper. of library and archival collections. Some Consequently, there is need to study filamentous fungi frequently associated with biodeterioration of paper for a couple of reasons. paper damage can dissolve cellulose fibres by Firstly, libraries are fountain system through means of the action of cellulolytic enzymes. which the wisdom of great thinkers of the past Moreover, fungi produce pigment or organic and the present anchor [19] and these should not acids that discolour paper and cause damage to be left exposed to the danger of paper materials of cultural and historical importance deterioration. The importance of any library in the made from paper [14]. building of its collection is to enable it to achieve its objectives which are mainly to conserve and Abiotic factors including adverse environmental preserve recorded information to organize and to condition such as extreme of dampness or wide disseminate such information without any fluctuations in relative humidity associated with discrimination. Academic health, intellectual large variations in day and night temperatures, vitality and success of any institution depend light and atmospheric pollutants often predispose largely upon the state of health and excellence of paper to biotic forms of deterioration caused by its library. A library also has paper materials in insect attack, fungal and bacterial growth. Abiotic the form of manuscripts, books, periodicals, and biotic forms of deterioration are paintings, drawing, charts, maps etc. the basic interconnected because humid conditions favour materials and constituents of the physical entity

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of these library materials are mostly organic in from the Redeemers University clinic files, library nature, which are susceptible to natural decay books and result files in registrar’s office, all and deterioration. In books, apart from paper the these points were given their own specific code other material used are board, cloth, leather, for easy identification. Also air monitoring was thread, ink etc. all these materials serve as done by using the open plate method. Sterile nutrition to some living organisms. The library swab sticks were used for sampling books with materials, therefore, need protection from factors evidence of foxing and other evidences of of deterioration. Secondly, important documents biodeterioration. containing vital information of staff and students stored on paper at the registry departments and 2.3 Analysis of Samples health centres at these institutions must be protected from the risk of paper deterioration and The sterile swabs were later used to prepare the potential risk of loss of information. serial dilutions and the mixture were later inoculated into the nutrient agar and potato Using Redeemer’s University, Ede, Nigeria as a dextrose agar using the spread plate method in case study, the present work is focused on the order to enumerate the types and numbers of isolation, identification and characterization of bacterial and fungal deterioration organisms microorganisms involved in paper deterioration at respectively. The inoculated nutrient agar and the University library, health centre, and registry. potato dextrose agar were incubated at 37°C for Storage conditions and the manner of human 24 hrs on nutrient agar and at 27°C for 72 hrs interactions with the paper materials were also respectively. The total number of colonies were evaluated at selected locations within the subsequently counted and recorded. Distinct University. This is with a view to making informed bacterial isolates were sub-cultured on nutrient recommendations on protecting information agar and subsequently identified using cultural, stored on paper at the University from paper cell morphological and biochemical tests [20] deterioration. (Cowan and Steel, 2003). On the other hand, fungal isolates were sub-cultured on potato 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS dextrose agar and microscopically identified using morphological characteristics such as 2.1 Study Site colony appearance, nature of colony (which includes the fuzzy and cottony, used in This is a descriptive analytical study. Five (5) differentiating mould from yeast), colony colour samples in duplicates were randomly taken from (surface and bottom colours, under slide each sampling location making a total of ten pigmentation),colony increase, existence of samples per site. Samples were obtained from spores, type and shape of spores, existence of the following sites, namely, Redeemer’s septa, hypha mass and structure including other University clinic, library and registry. Altogether, vital phenotypic characteristics used in the thirty samples were collected and the patterns of identification of fungi [21]. human interaction with printed materials were observed at the sample sites. Samples of the 2.4 Data Analysis organisms suspected for the observed deterioration of books and other important Values are averages obtained when samples documents were taken from these sites. were taken in duplicates. Mean and standard Microbial samples for the study were collected deviation were analyzed by ANOVA and from; books in the library, old result files in Duncan’s multiple range tests. Significance was registry office and medical files at the University’s accepted at p ≤ 0.05 using SPSS software clinic. Moreover, air monitoring was done in the version 16. clinic, library and registry, in order to establish a relationship (if any) between the organisms found 3. RESULTS in the air and the causal organisms for the observed deterioration. Physical evaluation of the sample sites revealed that lighting was generally inappropriate in all the 2.2 Sample Collection sites sampled in this study (Table 1), as many windows were not covered by drapes, shades, Using the sterile swab stick, microbial samples blinds, or shutters that completely block the sun. were collected from randomly different points The library displayed the highest illumination with

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an average of 15 lux, followed by the clinic and the highest colony count of 10cfu/m3 was the registry with average illumination of 10 and 5 obtained from the Registry (Table 3). lux respectively (Table 1). In addition, fluorescent lamps being one of the most damaging sources The identities of the organisms found in air of light because of the high amounts of UV samples were well correlated with those sampled energy they emit were in use. Temperature was from books and documents with evidence of generally higher than 25ºC at all the sample paper deterioration (Tables 2-5). The total colony sites, although average relative humidity found to count for bacteria recorded in books with foxing be between a minimum of 30% and a maximum spot in the three locations ranged from of 50% was considered adequate (Table 1). 0.2×10-5cfu/cm2 to 1.8×10-2 (Table 4). The lowest More human interaction with printed materials colony count of 0.2×10-8cfu/cm2 for bacteria was was observed in the library when compared with obtained from the Registry while the highest the other sites (Table 1). colony count of 1.8×10-2 cfu/cm2 was obtained from the Library (Table 4). For fungal count, the Microbiological evaluation of books and lowest colony count of 0.2×10-5cfu/cm2 for fungi documents from the 3 major sample sites was obtained from both the Library and revealed that two (2) bacterial and five (5) fungal Clinic while the highest colony counts of organisms consistently occurred in air samples at 0.5×10-2cfu/cm2 was obtained from the Registry all of the three sites sampled for microbes (Table 5). capable of causing paper deterioration. As shown in Table 2, two bacterial organisms, The bacterial isolates were identified as namely Lactobacillus casei and Staphylococcus Lactobacillus casei and Staphylococcus aureus aureus, were isolated from air samples from the on the basis of morphological and biochemical University library, clinic and registry, although at characteristics as shown in Table 6 while in different levels of abundance. The highest colony 3 Table 7, the fungal isolates that were consistently count of 5cfu/m was found at the University isolated from the three sample sites were library while the University Clinic and Registry 3 3 Rhizopus sp., Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus exhibited 3cfu/m and 2cfu/m respectively niger, Penicillium sp., Alternaria sp. Aspergillus (Table 2). flavus was the most encountered fungi from all

On the other hand, fungal organisms were printed materials sampled in the three locations consistently isolated from air samples from the evaluated. sampled sites. For example, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp., Rhizopus sp. 4. DISCUSSION were isolated from the registry while Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp., Results from the present study underscored the Rhizopus sp. were isolated from air samples at importance of air quality in protecting printed the University Clinic. In the library, Aspergillus materials against deterioration as Tables 2-5 flavus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp., revealed that the same organisms found to be Rhizopus sp. were regularly isolated (Table 3). predominant in air samples in the evaluated For fungal count, the lowest colony count of 12 locations were also found on the deteriorating cfu/m3 was obtained from Library and Clinic while printed materials (evidenced by foxing spots)

Table 1. Results of physical examination of sampling sites

Location Average Average Average Human activity Human interaction lightinga temperaturec humidityb at location with documents Library 15 Lux 23ºC 45% High High inadequate Adequate High Clinic 10 Lux 22ºC 45% Low Average inadequate Adequate High Registry 5 Lux 27ºC 40% Low Low inadequate inadequate High a Lighting was considered adequate when windows are covered by drapes, shades, blinds, or shutters that completely block the sun and Fluorescent lamps being one of the most damaging sources of light because of the high amounts of UV energy they emit are not in use. b Temperature was considered adequate if not higher than 25ºC c A stable relative humidity between a minimum of 30% and a maximum of 50% was considered adequate

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Table 2. Frequency of occurrence air-sampled bacterial organisms (distinct isolates) from sample sites, namely, Redeemer’s University library, registry and clinic

Organisms Bacterial count (cfu/m3) Library Clinic Registry Total Lactobacillusa casei 3 2 1 6 Staphylococcus aureusb 2 1 1 4 Total 5 3 2 10 a and b were also detected on foxing spots found on deteriorating paper (see Table 4)

Table 3. Frequency of occurrence of air-sampled fungal organisms (distinct isolates) from sample sites, namely, Redeemer’s University library, registry and clinic

Organisms Bacterial count (cfu/m3) Library Clinic Registry Aspergillus flavusa 3 5 2 Penicillium sppb 1 1 2 Aspergillus niger 2 1 2 Rhizopus spp 2 2 1 Alternaria spp 2 3 3 Total 10 12 10 a and b were also detected on foxing spots found on deteriorating paper (see Table 5)

Table 4. Frequency of occurrence of bacterial organisms sampled from deteriorating documents/ books, evidenced by foxing from sample sites, namely, Redeemer’s University library, registry and clinic

Organisms Bacterial count (cfu/cm2) Library Clinic Registry Staphylococcus aureus* 0.6 x 10-5±0.03b 0.3 x 10-8±0.07c 0.2 x 10-5±0.01b Lactobacillus casei** 1.8 x 10-2±0.02a 1.5 x 10-2±0.01a 1.3 x 10-5±0.05b * and ** were also detected on foxing spots found on deteriorating paper (see Table 2). Values are averages obtained when samples were taken in duplicates. Mean and standard deviation were analyzed by ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple range test. Data with similar alphabets are not significantly different at p ≤ 0.05

Table 5. Frequency of occurrence of fungal organisms sampled from deteriorating documents/ books, evidenced by foxing from sample sites, namely, Redeemer’s University library, registry and clinic

Organisms Fungal count (cfu/cm2) Library Clinic Registry Penicillium spp* 0.2 x 10-5±0.01b 0.2 x 10-2±0.02a 0.4 x 10-2±0.03a Aspergillus flavus** 0.4 x 10-2±0.03a 0.3 x 10-2±0.05a 0.5 x 10-2±0.01a a and b were also detected on foxing spots found on deteriorating paper (see Table 3). Values are averages obtained when samples were taken in duplicates. Mean and standard deviation were analyzed by ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple range test. Data with similar alphabets are not significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 after microbiological examination. These sp, Bacillus sp, Clostridis sp etc. have been organisms include bacterial (Lactobacillus casei reportedly identified as culprits in biodeterioration and Staphylococcus aureus) and fungal of paper and printed materials [22,23,5]. organisms (Rhizopus sp., Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp., Alternaria sp., Furthermore, the discovery that environmental Aspergillus flavus). The present results are conditions at the study locations in the present consistent with previous studies where fungal study corresponded very well with the observed genera such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Mucor deterioration of the printed materials aligns well sp.. Aspergillus and Penicillium sp. and bacterial with literature, as previous reports have shown genera such as Lactobacillus sp, Pseudomonas that sub-optimal levels of light, heat and relative

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Table 6. Identification table for bacterial organisms, based on results from cultural and morphological characteristics including results from biochemical tests

Probable organism

Representative Isolates Cell morphology Gramstain fast Acid Spore formation Catalase Glucose Mannitol 1 Rod + _ _ _ Acid Acid no Lactobacillus casei no gas gas 2 Cocci + _ _ + + + Staphylococcus aureus

Table 7. Identification table for fungal organisms, based on results from cultural and morphological tests

Isolate Cultural / morphological characteristics Identified organism 1 Black spores with cream mycelia, margins entire, Aspergillus niger same on reverse plate, elevations umbonate. Growth rapid, branched hyphae, conidiophores globose, Conidia ornamentation exine spiny. 2 Greenish-white mycelia at margin around 2-3mm, Penicillium spp irregular radial form Hyphae septate, hyaline. Conidiophores simple, Phialides grouped in brush-like clusters (penicilli) at the ends of the conidiophores; conidia unicellular, round, hyaline, smooth walled, in chains. 3 Greenish-white surface, margins entire, same on Aspergillus flavus reverse plate, elevations umbonate. Growth moderate, branched hyphae, conidiophores sub-globose, Conidia ornamentation almost smooth. 4 White cottony mycelia, same on reverse plate. Rhizopus spp Macroscopically colonies are cottony, with grey top (due to sporulation) Microscopically has rhizoids hyphae have no septa sporangiophore is unbranched. 5 Dark greenish black surface with grey periphery, black Alternaria spp on reverse plate. Growth rapid, Hyphae septate, appear brown. Conidiophores are brown, septate, simple or branched. Conidiophores are geniculate. Conidia are large, appear brown, muriformwith elongated beak-like apical cell. humidity are critical to the preservation of library environment. The larger aerosols fall to the and archival collections [3,24]. surface of the books and the small ones can remain suspended because they could have The highest colony count was found in air at the been evaporated and thereby making them non- 3 library (5cfu/m ), followed by clinic files volatile. This form makes them a ready source of 2 2 (3cfu/cm ) and registry files (1cfu/cm ). The deterioration when these microbes settle on the increase in bacteria count in air for library may be book surface. In the Clinic and Registry, human as a result of human activities, such as talking, activities are reduced because students do not sneezing, and coughing etc. on the have access to the registry and the clinic records microbiological quality of air in the library room, thereby accounting for lower deterioration environment. According to [25], sneezing was of books and low colony count observed for the described to be the rip snorting mechanism of clinic and registry (Table 3). The highest fungal introducing numerous microbes into the colony count (12cfu/cm2, Tables 1 and 4) was

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found in the registry due to high humidity and the 2. Hilbert M, López P. The world’s absence of air-conditions system. High relative technological capacity to store. humidity above 65% will lead to fast growth of Communicate and Compute Information. fungi [3]. Moreover, The highest colony count for Science. 2011;332(6025):60-65. bacteria was found in sampled books from the 3. Zervos S, Alexopoulou I. Paper Library (Tables 4 and 5) could be attributed to conservation methods: A literature poor handling practice by library users when review. Cellulose. 2015;22(5):2859-2897. reading, for example, folding of books which can 4. De Filpo G, Palermo AM, Tolmino R, cause brittleness of the books. Also when these Formoso P, Nicoletta FP. Gellan gum books are borrowed from the library, water and hybrid hydrogels for the cleaning of paper dust find their way on the book surface that artworks contaminated with Aspergillus serves as good substrate for the growth of fungi. versicolor. Cellulose. 2016;23(5):3265- 3279. 5. CONCLUSION 5. Bankole OM. A review of biological deterioration of library materials and The following conclusions may be drawn from possible control strategies in the tropics. the present study; firstly, that climate control at Library Review. 2010;59(6):414-429. locations where vital information-containing 6. Montegut D, Indictor N, Koestler RJ. books and other printed materials are kept Fungal deterioration of cellulosic textiles: A should be maintained at temperatures and review. International biodeterioration. humidity levels that discourage the growth of 1991;28(1-4):209-226. paper deteriorating microorganisms. Moreover, 7. Saraswathi R, Saseetharan M. Effects of that printed materials should be shielded away temperature and pH on floc stability and from direct sunlight or other UV-light sources that biodegradation in paper and pulp mill may encourage paper degradation. This may be effluent. Journal of Engineering Research done by providing window blinds and filters be and Studies E-ISSN. 2010;976:7916. installed on fluorescent and halogen lamps and 8. Chuphal Y, Kumar V, Thakur IS. other light sources that emit UV rays. Air filters Biodegradation and decolorization of pulp should also be installed at libraries and similar and effluent by anaerobic and locations that bear vital information-containing aerobic microorganisms in a sequential printed materials in order to reduce the inoculum bioreactor. World Journal of Microbiology load of air-borne microbial spores and and Biotechnology. 2005;21(8-9):1439- propagates. Secondly, library users and patrons 1445. of similar facilities should be educated on the 9. Sahoo DK, Gupta R. Evaluation of potential for paper deterioration when books and ligninolytic microorganisms for efficient other vital documents are handled poorly. decolorization of a small pulp and paper mill effluent. Process Biochemistry. 2005; ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 40(5):1573-1578. 10. Baty JW, Maitland CL, Minter W, Hubbe The authors acknowledge Messrs Scott Fayemi MA, Jordan-Mowery SK. Deacidification for and Nick Oyejide for technical support in the the conservation and preservation of microbiology laboratory and Professor Isaac paper-based works: A review. Bio Komolafe for editorial support in the preparation Resources. 2010;5(3):1955-2023. of the manuscript. 11. Wyman CE, Decker SR, Himmel ME, Brady JW, Skopec CE, Viikari L. COMPETING INTERESTS Hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicellulose. Polysaccharides: Structural diversity and Authors have declared that no competing functional versatility. 2005;1:1023-1062. interests exist. 12. Allsopp D, Seal KJ, Gaylarde CC. Introduction to biodeterioration. Cambridge REFERENCES University Press; 2004. 13. Sterflinger K, Pinzari F. The revenge of 1. Kačík F, Kačíková D, Jablonský M, time: fungal deterioration of cultural Katuščák S. Cellulose degradation in heritage with particular reference to paper ageing. Polymer books, paper and parchment. Degradation and Stability. 2009;94(9): Environmental Microbiology. 2012;14(3): 1509-1514. 559-566.

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Peer-review history: The peer review history for this paper can be accessed here: http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/24455

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