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c GRAZI-BAROTHA HYDROPOWER PROJECT REPORT ON SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL 1.1
1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT 1.1
1.3 PREVIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 1.2
1.4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW PANEL 1.2
1.5 SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 1.3
1.6 APPENDICES 1.4
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 2 ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE INDUS RIVER FLOOD PLAIN
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.1
2.2 APPROACH 2.1
2.3 MORPHOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE RIVERAIN AREA 2.2
2.4 PLANT COMMUNITIES IN VARIOUS HABITATS 2.3 2.4.1 General 2.3 2.4.2 Braided Alluvial Channel 2.3 2.4.3 Attock Gorge 2.5 2.4.4 Alluvial Basin 2.6
2.5 WILDLIFE USE OF HABITATS 2.6 2.5.1 Open Water 2.6 2.5.2 Temporary Belas 2.6 2.5.3 Permanent Belas 2.7 2.5.4 Ind-ds Gorge 2.8
2.6 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF THE PROJECT 2.8 2.6.1 Effects on Natural Vegetation 2.8 2.6.2 Effects on Wildlife 2.10
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2.7 CONCLUSION 2.11
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 3 WASTEWATER DISPOSAL AND WATER QUALITY
3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.1 3.1.1 Background 3.1 3.1.2 Scope 3.1
3.2 WASTEWATER FLOWS 3.2 3.2.1 Existing Situation 3.2 3.2.2 Future Situation 3.3
3.3 WASTEWATER QUALITY 3.5 3.3.1 Sampling and Testing 3.5 3.3.2 Comments on the Results 3.6
3.4 RIVER WATER ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY BY MASS BALANCE (DILUTION) METHOD 3.6
3.5 CONCLUSIONS 3.8
REFERENCES
TABLES
CHAPTER 4 PUBLIC AND ANIMAL HEALTH
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.1
4.2 APPROACH TO STUDY 4.1 4.2.1 General 4.1 4.2.2 Literature Search Vector-borne Diseases in Pakistan 4.2 4.2.3 Interviews with Pakistani Health Workers 4.2 4.2.4 Field Survey 4.2
4.3 GENERAL HEALTH CONDITION IN PAKISTAN 4.3
4.4 HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROJECT 4.3 4.4.1 Malaria 4.3 4.4.2 Other Vector-borne Diseases 4.7 4.4.3 Blackfly (Simuliuma 4.10
4.5 TYPICAL BREEDING SITES OF ANOPHELES AND SIMULIUM IN THE INDUS RIVER AND ASSOCIATED NULLAHS 4.10
(ii) Page
4.6 CONCLUSIONS 4.11 4.6.1 General 4.11 4.6.2 Project Zones of Health Influence 4.11 4.6.3 Changes in Aquatic Environment 4.12 4.6.4 Malaria 4.12 4.6.5 Leishmaniasis 4.12 4.6.6 Bilharzia 4.12 4.6.7 Guinea Worm 4.13
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 5 ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND AESTHETICAL ASPECTS
5.1 RESUME OF THE PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES 5.1
5.2 FURTHER STUDIES 5.1 5.2.1 Archaeological Studies of Borrow Areas 5.1 5.2.2 Aesthetic Aspects of the Attock Gorge 5.2
5.3 FINDINGS OF STUDY 5.2 5.3.1 Archaeological Studies of Borrow Areas 5.2 5.3.2 Aesthetic Aspects of the Attack Gorge 5.3
5.4 CONCLUSIONS 5.4
REFERENCES
DRAWINGS
APPENDIX A LIST OF PREPARERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
APPENDIX B LIST OF CONTACTS
APPENDIX C OTHER LITERATIJRE STUDIED
APPENDIX D SPECIES OF FLORA ENCOUNTERED
(iii) APPENDIX E SPECIES OF FAUNA ENCOUNTERED
APPENDIX F DESCRIPTION OF ANOPHELES AND SIMULIUM BREEDING SITES INVESTIGATED
(iv) REPORT ON SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMIENTAL STUDIES
LIST OF TABLES
No. Title Page
3.1 Population Statistics 3.10
3.2 Population, Wastewater Production, Dilution Requirements and River Water Quality 3.11
3.3 River Water Quality 3.12
3.4 Groundwater Quality 3.13
3.5 Wastewater/Sewage Quality 3.14
(v) REPORT ON SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
LIST OF DRAWINGS
No. Title
1.1 General Layout of Project Components 2.1 Discharge Rating Curve at Ghazi (L 9) (Average of 1986-1989)
2.2 Climatic Diagram for Tarbela and Attock
3.1 Assumed Wastewater Ingress Points
3.2 Required Dilution Flow
3.3 Dissolved oxygen in Indus (Year 2057)
4.1 Project Area showing Breeding Sites Investigated
4.2 Barrage Pond Fluctuation
4.3 Headpond Fluctuation
4.4 Mosquito Increase Rate (MIR) VS Slide Positive Rate (SPR) 4.5 Rainfall VS Mosquito Increase Rate (MIR)
4.6 Indus River Water Temperature VS Mosquito Increase Rate (MIR) 4.7 Air Temperature VS Mosquito Increase Rate (MIR)
5.1 Location of Borrow Areas
(vi) CHAPTER 1
i
5 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
This Report supplements the Environmental Assessment Report (EAR) that was prepared as part of the feasibility studies for the Project and constituted Volume 7 of the Feasibility Report (Ref. 1.1). The draft EAR was reviewed by an Environmental Review Panel in May 1991. The recommendations of the Panel formed the basis for sfupplementary studies that are presented in this Report. The Project was called the Ghazi-Gariala Hydropower Project until late in 1991, when the name was changed by WAPDA at the request of the people of Barotha. The Project is described in the EAR and, in greater detail, in various other volumes of the Feasibility Rep-ort. For convenience, a brief description of the Project is provided here.
1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
The Project will be located in the eastern part of Pakistan's North West Frontier Province and the northern part of the Punjab Province. It consists of three main components: a barrage, a power channel and a power complex (Drawing 1.1).
The barrage will be located on the Indus river about 7 km downstream of Tarbela dam, just upstream of the village of Ghazi. It will create a pond with a maximum surface area of 1140 ha at a surface elevation of 340.0 m. During the low-flow season (October to April), when the average daily release from Tarbela is less than the power channel capacity, the barrage pond will provide diurnal re-regulation to ensure a constant flow in the power channel. During this period, the pond level will fluctuate daily by up to 5 m. Water from the barrage pond will be delivered to the power channel through a head regulator.
The power channel will have a capacity of 1,600 cumecs (56,500 cusecs) as against the 2,000 cumecs proposed in the Feasibility Report. The capacity has been reduced as a prudent measure in view of the limited experience of channels of this capacity. The power channel will be a concrete-lined, trapezoidal structure approximately 94 m across at the water surface and 9 m deep. It will flow at a velocity of 2.33 m/s and a gradient of 1:9,600 to a forebay which forms the start of the power complex, near Barotha. The power complex will include two headponds, to allow peaking operation while maintaining channel flows uniform, a spillway, an intake structure, 5 penstocks, a powerhouse with 5x290 MW turbine-generators, and a tailrace channel to discharge the water back into the Indus.
1.1 During the high-flow season, when the average daily flow released by Tarbela is greater than the 1,600 cumecs capacity of the power channel, the barrage will release excess flows through undersluices near the left bank and, during high floods, an adjacent set of spillway gates. When Tarbela delivers less water than the capacity of the channel, the barrage will release only compensation water, much of which is expected to result initially from seepage under the barrage.
1.3 PREVIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
The environmental assessment of the Project began during the pre-feasibility studies by WAPDA and was continued by the Consultants during the feasibility studies. It is expected that environmental assessments will continue, in one form or another, throughout the life of the Project.
Efforts during the pre-feasibility stage focused on the identification of alternatives. During the layout phase of the feasibility studies, attention was focused on the siting and preliminary design of the main components, the locations of the channel crossings, public safety, and the avoidance of impacts on villages, shrines and graveyards. During this stage an excellent working relationship was established between the planning engineers and the environmental staff that resulted in early attention to potential problems. Scoping meetings were held with provincial and district officials, In the subsequent phase of the feasibility study, scoping sessions were held at the Union Council level. Various aspects related to land, water and biological resources, and the socioeconomic conditions of the Project area were studied. These aspects, along with resettlement and other mitigation measures, were discussed in the Draft EAR.
1.4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW PANEL
The Panel's review found "general acceptability of (a) the approach used in the environmental and social impact analysis of the structural elements of the proposed Project, including siting and design approach for barrage, power channel and power complex; (b) recommended mitigation plan for resettlement and compensation; (c) proposed mitigation plan for archaeological, historical and religious sites."
The Panel recommended revisions to the draft environmental assessment to :
- strengthen the presentation and analysis of alternatives, environmental impacts, mitigation activities and monitoring plan; and
1.2 include the arrangement for implementing the recommended social mitigation plan and for facilitating economic development in the Project area.
The Panel also recommended supplementary studies to develop K operational criteria for discharge of compensation water and for the management of the created impoundments.
The Draft EAR has been revised to incorporate the suggestions made by the Panel and supplementary studies have been carried out.
1.5 SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES The supplementary studies were carried out in the period from October 1991 to January 1992 and comprised the following :
9- Ecology of the Indus River Flood Plain. More data has been collected on the flora and fauna of islands, bars, and pools in the braided reach of the Indus between Tarbela dam and the Kabul river.
- River Water Quality. Resampling of the river and analysis for BOD5 and coliform bacteria, combined with recalculation of future sewage discharges and in-stream dilution factors have been carried out to refine the calculation of compensation water requirements.
- Public Health. A study has been carried out of the effect of changes in river flows, and the creation of the barrage pond and headponds, on mosquito habitats and the incidence of malaria. The possibility of an increase in the incidence of guinea worm has also been studied.
Animal Health. The effects of alteration of surface water conditions on the distribution and transmission of fasciola parasites in buffalo, sheep and goats have been studied.
- - Indus River Gorge. Possible effects of the Project on the resources of the stretch of the Indus river immediately downstream of its confluence with the Kabul river have been investigated.
- Archaeological Surveys. Proposed borrow areas have been examined by an archaeological team to ensure that no valuable sites will be destroyed or artifacts lost.
The results of these additional studies are presented in the following Chapters.
1.3 1.6 APPENDICES
The following Appendices are provided with this Report
Appendix A : List of Preparers and Contributors
This Appendix lists the names of those people involved with the preparation of this Report.
Appendix B : List of Contacts
This Appendix lists the names of people contacted during the supplementary studies.
Appendix C : Other Literature Studied
This Appendix lists the documents consulted in the preparation of the Report, in addition to those listed as references in the individual Chapters.
Appendix D : Species of Flora Encountered This Appendix lists the species of flora recorded during a field visit to the Indus flood plain.
Appendix E : Species of Fauna Encountered
This Appendix lists the species of fauna recorded during a field visit to the Indus flood plain.
Appendix F : Description of Anopheles and Simulium Breeding Sites Investigated
This Appendix describes the Anopheles and Simulium breeding sites investigated during a field survey in the Project area.
REFERENCES
1.1 Pakistan Hydro Consultants; Ghazi-Gariala Hydropower Project, Feasibility Report, August 1991.
1.4 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 2
ECOLOGICA1 L ASPECTS OF THE INDUS RIVER FLOOD PLAIN
2.31 INTRODUCTION
The reach of the Indus river between the Project barrage and the tailrace discharge will undergo reduction of flow in the amount passed through the power channel (up to 1,600 cumecs). Reliable prediction of the ecological effects of such flow changes required an understanding of the hydrologic and geomorphic processes of the extremely complex braided channel system and the less complex gorge below the river's confluence with the Kabul. The ecology of the flood plain, in particular that of the islands that are flooded annually, occasionally, or seldom, depends both on the flow regime and on the land-use practices of the owners. To the extent possible within a limited time frame, the supplementary study aimed at evaluating both of these factors.
This Chapter deals with the present distribution pattern of flora and fauna within different reaches of the Indus river between Tarbela dam and the confluence with the Haro river, and to predict possible effects of reduced river flows on the present ecosystem.
2.2 APPROACH
The ecological study relied primarily on field observation and sampling by a team of three environmental ecologists: a zoologist, a botanist, and a soil/water scientist. The team spent two days visiting the islands and gravel bars in the braided reach between Tarbela dam and the Kabul river, and one day in the reach between the mouth of the Kabul and that of the Haro. They made visual observations, took photographs and collected plant specimens from the various habitat types.
Before proceeding for the field study, the aerial photographs of scale 1:10,000, taken in December 1990 and January 1991, were studied with a stereoscope to identify various morphological zones and isolate landscape ecological units (LSEUs) on the basis of vegetation distribution and successional stages of the belas (islands).
During the field visit, the vegetation distribution and habitat condition of various landscape ecological units, so identified, was established by traversing the river reach by boat and stopping at the representative belas of different LSEUs or where a change in vegetation was observed.
The species dominance criterion was used to study the vegetation. The successional stages in different LSEUs were observed. The field study also included the identification of fauna under different habitat conditions.
2.1 2.3 MORPHOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE RIVERAIN AREA
The river reach from Tarbela dam to the confluence with the Haro river is distinctly divided into three geomorphological zones (Drawing 1.1). These are as follows :
- Braided alluvial channel (Tarbela dam to Attock Khurd).
- Attock gorge (Attock Khurd to Darwazai).
- Alluvial basin (Darwazai to Haro river).
The Indus river downstream of Tarbela dam flows about 48 km in a wide braided alluvial channel before joining the Kabul river and entering the Attock gorge. Thereafter it continues in a narrow confined channel between terraces and hills ranging in height from 30 m to 150 m. The general course of the river in the braided reach is in an east-west direction, while beyond Attock gorge it flows in an almost north-south direction.
In the vicinity of Attock, the rocks in the gorge on both sides of the river consist of metamorphosed slates and limestone of Precambrian age. The rocks are steeply dipping and strike across the river. Major faults parallel to the strike occur both upstream and downstream of the gorge. Below the gorge is an alluvial basin, underlain by upper Siwalik sandstone and gravels of the lower Pleistocene to upper Pleistocene era, which continues to the confluence with the Haro river.
The braided reach of the river is characterised by a variety of morphological features which are not identified in the other two zones. These are related to the meandering activity of the river. In this reach the river tends to rework the river valley each year through the process of river bed scouring and sediment deposition during the annual high and low-flow cycles. Over time, the process resulted in the development of a series of islands of varied ages. The youngest member in this series is the sand or gravel bars that are being deposited at water level on the inside of each meander loop. Benches which lie slightly higher but still low enough to be inundated at high water periods are called flood plains. The terraces which lie above the flood plain form permanent belas with thick vegetation cover.
Consequently, the braided river channel provides a series of habitats depicting a picture of the sere which began long ago at the river's edge when the uppermost terrace was but a gravel bar, each higher and older level representing an advance in vegetation development. The consequence is that there is a series of single landscape ecological units (LSEUs) in this reach.
2.2 The LSEUs identified, on the basis of inundation, plant cover and major influencing factor on vegetation (eg grazing), in this zone are as follows
Permanent Belas
- Above flood level and ungrazed.
- - Above flood level and grazed.
- Inundated occasionally and ungrazed.
- Inundated occasionally and grazed.
- Frequently inundated and ungrazed (under process of stabilisation).
Temporary Belas
- With vegetation cover.
- Without vegetation cover (gravel and sand bars).
As there is no variation in the morphology of Attock gorge and the alluvial basin, each is considered to be a single landscape ecological unit.
2.4 PLANT COMMUNITIES IN VARIOUS HABITATS
2.4.1 General
The natural vegetation as observed in different types of belas is described below. The complete list of species which were recorded from different river reaches is given in Appendix D.
2.4.2 Braided Alluvial Channel
Permanent Belas
General. These belas have developed as a result of continuous river deposits. Among these belas, some are so high that they are inundated only during exceptional floods, while the others are still low enough to be inundated during every flood season. While each bench was in the flood plain, a thick mantle of silt was commonly accumulated. However, the grading of the deposits varies between the different layers.
Most of the surface soils are sandy loam or silty loam in texture, with moderate water-holding capacity. Small patches of loamy soils also occur locally.
2.3 Above Flood Level and Ungrazed. In some of these belas, a climax ecosystem has developed, while in others which are near to the river banks, the invasion of species is continuing. The vegetation consists of a mixture of trees, shrubs and grasses which show distinct strata. Among the trees, Dalberqia sisso is dominating and forms the canopy of woodland. The other trees are Acacia nilotica and A. modesta. Some individuals of Ailanthus glandulosa, and Cassia alesus are recorded on the belas in the barrage pond area.
Zizyphus nummularia is the dominant shrub. These belas are rich in grasses which make a dense ground cover. Probably Saccharum qrifithii was the pioneer grass in the early successional stage of habitat development. It is now being replaced by other grasses like Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum munia and Saccharum spontaneum.
These belas are not grazed for various reasons (eg they are not proprietary and the adjacent river banks are occupied by WAPDA colonies; the river bank are steep, or the belas are encircled by deep creeks). Occasional cutting of Dalbergia trees was, however, noted in some belas.
Above Flood Level and Grazed. The belas which are accessible by the cattle, being located near the river banks and surrounded by shallow creeks, are extensively grazed. On these belas the regeneration of species is normally limited. Dalbercia sisso trees have established prior to the start of grazing. The grasses, Cynodon dactylon and Cenchrus ciliaris contribute to grazing. The unpalatable grass Cymbopogan jawarencusa is dominating in some places.
Inundated Occasionally and Ungrazed. These belas are remote from the villages and so are beyond the reach of cattle. These have good vegetation cover of a wide range of plants. The dominant species is Dalbergia sisso which forms a thick canopy.
The understory is formed by shrubs including Zizyphus nummularia, Rumex hastatus, Rhamnus cachemirica, Lautana camera and Calotropis procera.
The grass cover is limited by both the shading effect of the dense canopy and competition among species. The dominant species is Imperata cylindrica. In open places, Euphorbia pilulifera and Solanum sorathansis are doninating. Saccharum munia is forming small thickets on sandy loam soils, while Saccharum grifithii is restricted to the outer margins of these belas.
2.4 Inundated Occasionally and Grazed. These belas are near the villages and large enough to support large numbers of cattle due to their favourable relief, providing them easy access and movement, a good cover of grasses, and good shelter. These belas are therefore subject to continuous grazing.
Dalbergia sisso trees are scattered on these belas. The dominant shrub is Zizyphus nummularia which protects certain grasses from grazing and thus enables them to attain the seed dispersal stage.
The grazing also encourages the horizontal development of grasses resulting in a thick cover. The various grasses include : Cynodon dactylon, Poa supina, Cenchrus ciliaris, Desmostachya bipinnata, Indigofera linifolia, Imperata cylindrica and others, as given in Appendix D.
Some belas are increasing in area due to silt deposition. Saccharum cgrifithii is the pioneer coloniser on these deposits.
Limited agriculture for maize, millets and sorghum is practiced in some belas. Eucalyptus camaldulensis has been planted on some belas.
Frequently Inundated and Ungrazed. These belas are still in the process of stabilisation. The soils are mainly sandy bars with scattered gravel. Floristic composition is poor but the cover is quite thick. Saccharum grifithii is the dominant grass of these belas. Small bushy appearance of Dalberqia sisso tree has been observed. Typha angustata predominates in stagnant water while Arundo donax is forming small patches in slowly flowing water.
Temporary Belas
Belas with Vegetation Cover. These belas are transitional. Some may convert into permanent belas if they receive repeated deposition of sediments while others may disappear through erosion. Saccharum grifithii is the only species which can colonise on the gravel substratum of these belas. Polygonum barbatum colonises in places where the substratum is sandy loam and rich in nutrients.
Belas without Vegetation Cover. These are gravel or sand bars formed recently and have no vegetation cover. These are small in size and liable to be washed away by flood flows in the river.
2.4.3 Attock Gorge
Most of the vegetation on the river banks in the Attock gorge zone is above the peak discharge levels. The vegetation distribution is mainly influenced by the precipitation. At the confluences of the nullahs with the river, the vegetation has
2.5 reached down to river water and hence fulfills its water requirements from river or torrent water.
The dominant trees on the left bank are Acacia nilotica and Acacia modesta. Dalbergia sissio and Zizyphus juiuba are scattered in this zone.
Zizyphus nummularia, Z. oxyphylla, Lautana camera, Aeura lavanica, Rhamnus cachemirica, Prosopis glandulosa and Rumax hastatus are the main shrubs of this zone. The grass cover is not uniform due to the rocky habitat and is mainly of Alpuda mutica and Eleusine sp.
The right bank is under cultivation, some being irrigated and the rest rainfed. It is not rich in natural vegetation. Eucalyptus sp and some fruit trees have been planted by the farmers.
Some fern and liverwort species, such as Marchantia, Polytrichum, and Adeantum, have been observed on most rocks and may be helpful- in soil formation as a result of weathering.
2.4.4 Alluvial Basin The left bank of this zone is grassland dominated by Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine sp, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cvmbopogan iawarencusa, Juncellus pygmaeus and Poa supina. There are few trees, mostly Tamarix aphylla and Acacia nilotica. The right bank is under irrigated agriculture. Near the banks, Prospis qlandulosa is dominating, with Cynodon dactylon and Launea nudicaulis underneath.
2.5 WILDLIFE USE OF HABITATS
2.5.1 Open Water
Few of the wildlife species observed are obligate open water species. Herons, terns and kingfishers require open water for feeding on small fish, and ducks use it for feeding on plant life and resting. Swallows were seen taking emerging insects over still water surfaces. Many bird species, of course, use shallow pools for drinking and bathing. A list of birds and mammals observed in the Project area is given in Appendix E of this Report.
2.5.2 Temporary Belas
Without Vegetation
Two types of habitat are identified on the unvegetated temporary belas: gravel (including cobbles) and sand or silt. Gravel bars form important resting places for many waterbirds, including both
2.6 fisheaters, such as kingfishers and herons, and waders such as sandpipers and plovers. The White Wagtail, a common winter resident throughout the area, is the only songbird found frequently on these bars. Backwater areas where sand and fine silt has collected evidently support enough benthic or subsurface invertebrates to attract waders. These areas may dry up later in the winter.
Densities of waterfowl and other water-related birds were not large at the time of the field studies. The lack of suitable habitat and the variability of the water regime make it unlikely that this stretch of the flood plain is more than a temporary resting place for waterbirds on their way to the coastal wetlands where they winter by the thousands.
With Vegetation
The temporary belas that support some pioneering vegetation probably are less important eco-logically than those without vegetation, for they are in the early stages of succession, when plant cover is sparse. Wagtails and some larks are found among these plants.
2.5.3 Permanent Belas Bird use of the permanent belas is more dependent on the successional stage of the plant cover than on the frequency of flooding, since even ground-inhabiting birds are able to escape floods by moving into trees or by flying to other islands.
Vegetation management practices, such as grazing or fuelwood cutting, influence the diversity of the plant community and thus its ability to support wildlife. Far fewer birds were seen on the belas during the ecological study than in the mainland areas where plant diversity is fostered (eg Tarbela colony) or where agriculture supports an artificial ecosystem. Such areas support substantial populations of a few common species, such as House Crow, Common Mynah, Red-vented Bulbul, and Collared Dove. They also host many less common local or migrant species of bee- eaters, woodpeckers, parakeets, warblers and thrushes. Of these, only the chiffchaff was seen on a bela, although doubtless others use the belas from time to time.
Some of the permanent belas above the flood level are also inhabited by wild boar and rodents. Although no specimen was observed during the field trip, the burrow holes of rodents and foot prints of wild boar confirmed their existence on some belas.
2.7 2.5.4 Indus Gorge
The wildlife situation along the Indus gorge differs from that of the braided floodplain in that there is almost no habitat for birds or mammals below the high water line. Water birds occur near the water line are either highly mobile species, such as the Grey Heron and several species of Swallows, or visitors from habitat away from the river, such as Bulbuls and some other land birds. Cliffs in reaches near Ghiri Island provide protected nesting sites for Rock Doves, but these birds feed in open areas away from the river.
The same may be said of mammals and reptiles. Some, of which the jackal is the most numerous predator, use the Indus for drinking when the nullahs cease to flow, but live and forage well above flood level.
Downstream of the Indus Gorge (alluvial basin), habitat conditions are more like those on the Chhachh plain. Some 15 ducks (teal) were observed at the river's edge near -the Haro. Black Kite, Long-legged Buzzards, and Raven bear testimony to the presence of carrion and small prey. Songbirds such as the Indian Robin, Rufus-backed Shrike and Common Babbler occur in the vegetation of the nullahs and in agricultural fields.
2.6 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF THE PROJECT
2.6.1 Effects on Natural Vegetation
The reduction of the flow in the Indus river during the low-flow season may affect the present ecosystem only in the braided alluvial channel zone. The other zones will not be affected by the proposed diversion. Even the effects in the braided alluvial channel zone will be small due to the following reasons :
In spite of diversion of up to 1,600 cumecs into the power channel, there will not be a substantial decrease in water levels in the braided alluvial channel zone during the high-flow season (Drawing 2.1). This is because the expanse of the river bed in this zone is in the range of 3 to 5 km and the diversion is a fraction of peak flows. Therefore most of the presently inundated temporary and permanent belas will continue to be inundated with slight decrease in water depth. The permanent belas which are rarely flooded are 1 to 3 n above the existing normal flood level. The slight decrease in water level will not affect the vegetative growth.
During the low-flow season, the vegetation on low-lying belas will thrive on subsurface water retained by the soils from the previous flood season. Moreover, there will be a regular downstream flow of about 30 cumecs contributed from the seepage, leakage and compensation
2.8 releases from the barrage, outflow from the groundwater regime of river banks and discharges from tributaries (Badri Khwar river). This will help maintain the level of subsurface water under the belas.
Tests in the boreholes in the river bed have indicated that the permeability of the substrata is low (generally in the range of 10-4 to 10-3 cm/sec). Therefore, depletion of the soil moisture through downward percolation or lateral flow will be slow. Thus the water requirements of vegetation will be satisfied over a longer period, particularly during winter when the evaporation rate is low.
The climate factors, that include rainfall, humidity, wind, temperature and radiation, are very important in the life process of plants and their spatial distribution. Of these, rainfall and temperature are considered the dominant factors. The seasonal distribution of rainfall rather than annual mean rainfall is a critical factor determining the nature and condition of vegetation. To evaluate the effects on the natural vegetation, a climatic diagram (Drawing 2.2) was developed by taking mean monthly temperature and rainfall values for the last 30 years (Ref. 2.1). The diagram shows that the Project area remains under sub-humid to humid conditions during the winter, spring and monsoon seasons due to receiving effective precipitation. Therefore, it is foreseen that the reduction in flow during the low-flow season will not affect the vegetation significantly. This is supported by the condition of vegetation growth and rainfed agriculture on elevated belas (or the mainland) where the plant life is mostly dependent on the rainfall. In these areas, the contribution of the river flow during the low-flow period is minimal due to their height above the river water level.
Taking the above circumstances into account, the possible effects of reduced river flows may be as follows
- Reduction in Plant Succession. Plant succession is a very slow but continuous process. At present the formation of new bars is continuous due to meandering of the river during floods but is offset by the erosion of other bars recently formed. When these bars attain sufficient height and favourable conditions for plant growth, they are colonised by pioneer species. The reduction in flow during the high-flow season may slow down slightly the formation of these bars, which in turn may slow down the plant succession process. This, in due course of time, may result in a change in the pattern of plant succession. However, in about 20 years time the output of sediment from Tarbela is expected to increase
2.9 substantially as the result of the sediment delta in the reservoir reaching the dam. Much of the annual sediment load will then be released during May and June when the reservoir is low but the river flows are increasing due to snowmelt. Under these conditions there will be large quantities of clay and silt available for deposition on low belas or downstream of high belas, leading to a general increase in the areas available for colonisation.
Increase in Erosion. Surface erosion is rarely significant in areas where the soil surface is protected against the direct impact of the erosion through a litter layer or root network maintained by some sort of vegetation. In spite of the fact that several permanent belas are being utilised as grazing land by 1,000 to 2,000 cattle, the vegetative regeneration has maintained the grazing potential of the belas. The regeneration process on these belas is mainly supported by the effective precipitation, as they are above flood levels. Thus it can be concluded that the improved accessibility for cattle to other elevated belas, due to a reduction in flows during the low-flow period, will not affect the vegetative growth and thus the soil erosion. However, any overgrazing of low-lying belas may result in erosion of the soils by subsequent floods and should be avoided.
Introduction of Arable Cropping. It has been observed that the local population has already extended its agricultural activities on to some of the permanent belas lying close to the river banks. With reduced flows in the winter, this activity may increase due to the improvement in accessibility of other belas. This will be a beneficial effect of the Project.
2.6.2 Effects on Wildlife
Within the barrage pond area, the essential effect on wildlife will be the replacement of all terrestrial habitat with open water habitat. Some fish-eating birds may find this an improvement, despite the reduction in shallow edge areas. The absence of rooted aquatic vegetation, common to all fluctuating water bodies, will render the new shallow areas poor habitat.
Elsewhere in the braided section, the effects on waterbirds are expected to be minor. Pools will remain through much of the year, especially during the autumn, when most migrant birds pass through the area.
As noted earlier, there would not be significant effects of the Project on natural vegetation. Therefore it is expected that there will be no significant change in wildlife habitat.
2.10 2.7 CONCLUSIONS
The effect of the Project on flora and fauna of the riverain area, with the exception of first 7 Km reach, will be minimal. The ecosystem of the upstream 7 km reach of the river will change due to impoundment at the barrage pond. However, this will not have any socioeconomic effect on the local population, because the belas in the reach are non-proprietary. On the other hand, the loss in riverain ecosystem in the barrage pond is expected to be balanced by the development of aquatic ecosystem in this reach and increase in riverain ecosystem downstream of the barrage due to reduction in flood peaks.
Downstream of the barrage, the effect, if any, will be limited to the braided channel zone of the Indus river. The most probable effect may be a change in plant succession. This will be through reduction in flows, a change in the erosion and deposition process, and a change in the land-use pattern of belas. However, this is a long-term process and takes decades to reach an equilibrium. Even presently, the ecosystem in the braided channel zone is in a transitional stage due to the changes in the river flows resulting from the construction of Tarbela dam. Extensive grazing over belas may, however, accelerate the deterioration of the ecosystem.
The ecosystem of the braided channel zone will need to be monitored to assess the change in plant succession. The grazing trend should also be monitored and mitigatory actions taken if deterioration of the ecosystem is observed.
REFERENCES
2.1 Walter, H.; Vegetation of the Earth in Relation to Climate and the Ecophysiological Conditions, Heidelberg Science Library, Vol. 15 Sringer Verlag, Heidelberg, 1973.
2.11 CHAPTER 3
A CHAPTER 3
WASTEWATER DISPOSAL AND WATER QUALITY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.1.1 Background
The diversion of water from the Indus river into the power channel will decrease the flow in the river reach below the barrage as far as the tailrace from the power complex. However, the Kabul river joins the Indus just above Attock gorge, 41 km below the barrage. The Kabul is a large river, with an annual average flow about 36% of that of the Indus, so water quality considerations apply to the reach between the barrage and the Kabul confluence.
In the initial reach of the river downstream of the barrage, there are ton villages close to the left bank of the river and two on the right bank. Eight other villages/townships are located further downstream on the left bank. All these villages are listed in Table 3.1 together with their population data.
Most of these villages have no drainsae system and their wastewater soaks into the ground and reaches the river indirectly after percolating through the ground.
With the reduced discharges in the river, sewerage/wastewate~- flows from these villages could adversely effect the watt- quality during the low-flow season. The aim of the present studies is to determine the amount of water that should be released from the barrage for the purpose of diluting the wastewater to make it acceptablp for - il use.
3.1.2 Scope
This Chapter presents the results of water quality investigations and studies carried out in accordance with the requirements given in Annexure C of the Report of the Environmental Review Panel.
A survey of the sewerage facilities of the settlements on both river banks was made on November 17 end 18, 1991. Samples of river water, groundwater and waste or/sewage were also collected for laboratory testing.
3.1 3.2 WASTEWATER FLOWS
3.2.1 Existing Situation
General
The villages on the left and right banks which are close to the Indus river were inspected to assess the present water supply and wastewater disposal facilities, and to evaluate the socioeconomic conditions for the prediction of future trends. The conditions in each village are described below.
In addition, there is a flow of wastewater/sewage from the left bank WAPDA colonies at Tarbela upstream of the barrage. Because the flows_iin_ne river in this reach will not be changed by the Project, water quality is not expected to be affected. However,, tests have shown that the present treatment works serving the!
-colonies are not operating properly. These will have to be rehabilitated by WAPDA.
Ghazi
Ghazi is spread on both sides of the main road leading to Tarbela. Most of it is on the northern side of the road, between the road and the river, and it has developed right up to the river bank.
The houses are generally of semi-urban type. The streets are semi-paved and are drained by two distinct valley drains, one of which is lined. These carry sullage as weLl as stormwater. The wastewater flow from each street drain is collected in the lined drain which discharges to the left river channel. The flow was about 3 1/s (0.003 cumecs) at about 2 pm on November 17, 1991.
The township is served by an intermittent piped water supply for about on- hour, twice a day from a tubewell drilled by the Public Health Engineering Department. For the remaining time of the day, the inhabitants use water from dug wells installed in the mosques. Occasionally, women use river water for washing clothes and utensils.
Most of the houses have a soakage pit installed inside or outside. Thus septic sullage soaks directly into the pervious gravel bed with a risk of contaminating the groundwater.
Khalo
Khalo is adjacent to Ghazi, being separated by a large nullah which flows only during rains. The source of water supply is the same tubewell which supplies Ghazi and the supply is also only for one hour, twice a day. This source is supplemented by two small local overhead tanks filled from wells constructed by well-to-do people.
3 . 2 Some wastewater is carried by street drains into the river, the flow being generated only during the time that water is supplied. The balance of the wastewater and sewage soaks into the ground through soak pits and contaminates the groundwater.
Isa, Jallo, Jammun, Qazipur and Hasanpur
These are rural communities generally having no household toilet facilities. People go to the fields for defecation. Domestic wastewater, comprising mostly domestic and animal wastes, generally flows into unpaved streets where it soaks into the ground. There is little or no direct flow into the river water.
Aldo, Mian Dheri, Jabbi and Sheikh Chuhr
These are also rural communities but are located slightly away from the river. Therefore there is no wastewater contribution to the river.
Galla
Galla is located on the right bank of the Indus, opposite Ghazi, accessible from Topi town. The normal source of domestic water is a well located inside the village mosque. In addition, water for domestic use is fetched by women from the river, usually during the summer as it is then cooler than the well supply. People use the fields for defecation and the wastewater/sewage flow to the river is insignificant.
Pontia
Pontia is also located on the right bank and is an agricultural community located about 1 km from a dry river creek. Water is supplied from wells located in the village. Fields are used for defecation and there is no wastewater/sewage contribution to the river.
3.2.2 Future Situation Demography
The population census figures for the years 1961, 1972 and 1981 available for the villages are shown in Table 3.1, which also shows the percentage annual increase between each census.
The percentage increases show that, in the villages from Ghazi to Hasanpur, which were directly influenced by the demand for labour during the construction of Tarbela dam, the annual increase between 1961 & 1972 varied from 3.82% to 5.82%. The
3.3 peak years of construction activity were 1970-1974 and the high rate of increase was due to the ingress of labour to these villages. The 1981 census shows that the increase for the period 1972-81 varied from -0.25% to 6.53%. The highest increase was for Isa which is a very small village and thus is not significant when considering overall trends. The 1981 census has shown an overall increase in the annual rate. The average annual increase in these villages was 2.83% between 1961 and 1972, and 3.56% between 1972 and 1981 respectively. The national growth rate at present is about 3% per year.
The projected population up to the year 2057, using this relatively high lonq-term rate, is shown in Table 3.2. The total population in the year 2057 in these villages is projected at about 280,000 persons. It is doubtful if this population could be sustained in the area. The alternative would be for excess population to migrate to the main urban centres, as is already happening.
Wastewater Flows
Based on the population projections given above, the wastewater flows have also been estimated in Table 3.2 for each selected year, allowing for the consumption rate varying with the size of village or town from 10 to 30 gallons per capita per day (gpcd), equivalent to 45 to 135 1/day, based on experience in similar communities in Pakistan. Of this consumption, 80% is assumed to return as wastewater to the river. Again, this is considered to be conservative, particularly in the short term as it will take quite a few years before most of these villages are provided with proper water supply and sewerage systems.
The use of water for cooking, washing and other domestic purposes is not spread evenly over the 24 hours of the day. The main uses are concentrated into about 16 hours a day. Therefore a peaking factor of 1.5 has been assumed when calculating the flow from each village.
On this basis, the peak total contribution of wastewater to river Indus water from the villages is expected.to increase from 0.061 cumecs in 1997, when the Project is expected to be commissioned, to 0.515 cumecs in 2057.
Wastewater Ingress Points
Drawing 3.1 indicates the assumed ingress points of wastewater into the river. The quantities of flows for each location are given in Table 3.2. At present, wastewater flows into the river are only significant for Ghazi. Therefore, the flows indicated in Table 3.2 are a conservative estimate of the wastewater flows that could be contributed to the river.
3.4 Possibility of Other Development in the Area
Left Bank. Apart from Ghazi and Khalo, the other villages on the river bank are agricultural. To achieve the increase in population presented in Table 3.2 over the life of the Project, most of the population will have to depend on some form of industry because the agricultural resources are already relatively well-developed. An industrial estate is under consideration between the power channel and the railway opposite Hasanpur. An estimated industrial waste discharge to the river of 0.10 cumecs gradually developing up to the year 2057 is assumed for the purpose of this study. Other industry can be expected to develop, but be located away from the river. It is also assumed that this effluent would be treated to a standard of 80 mg/l BOD5 before discharge to tne Indus, in accordance with EPA requirements.
Right Bank. The two villages on the right bank, Galla and Pontia, are away from the main commercial centre Topi, which is now growing both commercially and industrially.
A technical institute is beinq built up in Topi which will have a properly designed infrastructure including sewage treatment facilities.
Galla is expected to benefit from the increased traffic crossing the barrage but this growth will be limited by the lack of economic base to depend upon. The present contribution of wastewater/sewage flows is insignificant.
Pontia is located about 1 km from the low-water channel of the river. Wastewater soaks into the ground and therefore there is not likely to be any contribution of wastewater/sewage from this village.
3.3 WASTEWATERQUALITY
3.3.1 Sampling and Testing Water sampling was carried out in November 1991. The pH values and temperatures were measured in the field, and pH was also tested in the laboratory. Wastewater/sewage samples were taken in sterilised bottles. All the samples were transported by road in ice boxes and were delivered to and tested in the Institute of Public Health Engineering at the University of Lahore within 24 hours. In view of questionhble results on bacterial counts, additional samples were taken :rom the same locations in January 1992 and retested.
The results for river water, groundwater and wastewater/sewage are shown in Tables 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 respectively.
3.5 3.3.2 Comments on the Results
River Water Quality (Table 3.3)
The dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of 7.9 to 8.4 mg/l is close to the saturation limit of 9.7 at an average temperature of 170 C (Ref. 3.1). A BOD5 of 3 to 4 mg/l accounts for the slight deficit. The DO level is much above the minimum required limit of 4 mg/l, even at the point of addition of sewage at Ghazi (Sample R-9) where the DO is 8.3 mg/l.
Other parameters were also within the acceptable stream quality standards. This quality was at an average river discharge of about 1700 cumecs.
Groundwater Quality (Table 3.4)
The results of the tests of samples of groundwater from Khalo, Qazipur and Ghazi have been compared with the WHO (1984) desirable limits for drinking water. The water is slightly harder but is still within the recommended limit of 500 mg/l. Nitrates are in the range of 15 to 40 mg/l and thus are within the WHO guideline value of 45 mg/l. Slight coliform contamination is present, probably because of contamination from wastewater soaking into the permeable ground from soakage pits of latrines in the house, wastewater pools in unpaved streets, etc. If the, water were chlorinated, it would be reasonably fit for drinking.
Wastewater/Sewage Quality (Table 3.5)
The results of tests on wastewater/sewage samples taken at Ghazi, Khalo and also at WAPDA colony, where sewage collection and treatment facilities now exist but where the sewerage treatment works are not at present operational, show that the BOD5 lies in the range of 315 to 435 mg/l.
3.4 RIVER WATER ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY.BY MASS BALANCE (DILUTION) METHOD
The terms of reference for this study have suggested the use of the Streeter-Phelp water quality model. In principle, the model is based on the balance between the effect of BOD5 available in the wastewater on the dissolved oxygen of the river/receiving stream and the re-aeration of the river water.
The equations used in this modelling technique (Ref. 3.1) take into account the time required for oxidation of biodegradable contents of wastewater. The Indus is a fast-flowing river. Assuming a residual flow in the low-flow season of 28 cumecs, the average velocity in a channel with an hydraulic mean radius of
3.6 0.6 m and a bed slope of 1:700 will be about 1 m/s. Thus, water released at the barrage will take only about 12 hours to reach the confluence with the Kabul river, where the average flow during the low-flow season is in the range 300 to 400 cumecs.
In practice, therefore, there will be insufficient time for the BOD to affect significantly the dissolved oxygen content in the reach between the barrage and the Kabul river. Furthermore the re-aeration in this reach will offset the effect of the BOD.
The dilution by the receiving stream is therefore the over.d1rdirlj- process for studying the assimilative capacity of the river for estimating the compensation water requirements from the barrage.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires that urban/industrial wastewater should be treated before it is discharged to a stream so that the BOD5 does not exceed 80 mg/l (Ref. 3.2). Thereafter, dilution by the stream by a factor of 10 is required (Ref. 3.3). On this basis, the dilution water requirements in the years up to 2057 have been evaluated and are shown in Table 3.2. The water required in the year 2057 for dilution is only 6 cumecs.
The progressive increases of required compensation water with distance downstream of the barrage and with time over the life of the Project are shown on Drawing 3.2. After the wastewater is mixed with the river water, the resulting minimum dissolved oxygen in the year 2057 has been determined as 7.27 mq/l (Table 3.2) . The variation in the dissolved oxygen content of the river water with distance downstream of the barrage in the year 2057 are shown on Drawing 3.3. These results show that the river water quality will be satisfactory for aquatic life and non-consumptive use.
However, the possibility that untreated domestic wastewater may reach the river has also been considered. Based on an untreated wastewater strength of BOD5 = 435, and assuming that all the flows from all these villages reach the river untreated, the dilution water requirement in the year 2057 has been evaluated at about 25 cumecs. If it is also assumed that the industrial wastewater also reaches the river untreated, the dilution water requirement in 2057 becomes 28 cumecs. The above analyses have been based on very conservative assumptions regarding the population served, the wastewater production and the proportion of untreated wastewater reaching the river.
Preliminary estimates indicate that, in the initial years, significant flow could seep under the barrage. This is supported by observations below Sulemanki barrage on the Sutlej river, Balloki barrage on the Ravi river, and Trimmu barrage on the Chenab river. Even when the barrage gates are fully closed, these rivers have flows.
3.7 About 1.5 cumecs of groundwater outflow is expected to enter the Indus between Qazipur and the mouth of the Kabul river.
The monitoring programme, described in Volume 7 of the Feasibility Report (Ref. 3.4), will determine the additional compensation water required to maintain acceptable standards in the river. Project energy calculations have been based on an assumed compensation release of 28 cumecs (including seepage flows) over the entire life of the Project, in order that there be no obstruction to the release of more water, should it be required. It appears, however, that the margin of error built into the calculations is such that water quality can be maintained, over most of the Project life, without supplemental releases. If the monitoring shows the need for compensation releases in excess of 28 cumecs, the necessary releases will be made. This is not expected to have any significant impact on the Project economics, particularly as any such requirement will be in the latter part of the Project life.
The wastewater release into the river will be concentrated over a few hours every day, and it will be beneficial to release the compensation water in a similar pattern. Thus, the peak release could be significantly greater than the daily average.
3.5 CONCLUSIONS Conservative assumptions have been made regarding both the growth of the population in the villages along the banks of the Indus river and the development of water supplies and sewerage facilities. Based on these, the peak total wastewater discharged to the river is estimated to rise from 0.086 cumecs in 1997 to 0.615 cumecs in 2057. The compensation release required to dilute the treated wastewater by a factor of 10, rises from about I cumec in 1997 to about 6 cumecs in 2057. Therefore the allowance for compensation water releases of 28 cumecs in the calculations of energy output will be more than adequate for the entire Project life.
The dissolved oxygen content of the river water will not fall significantly before the confluence with the Kabul river, largely because the travel time from the barrage to the confluence is only about 12 hours.
Following the commissioning of the Project, the water quality in the river downstream will be one of the aspects to be monitored regularly, with compensation releases being adjusted as required.
3.8 REFERENCES
3.1 Peavy, Howard S. et al; Environmental Engineering, Article 3.9, Chapter 3, McGraw Hill International Edition (1986).
3.2 Environmental and Urban Affairs Division, Ministry of Housing and Works, Government of Pakistan; Environmental Quality Control Emission Standards, Circular No. 2 (19) 184-E-II, August 20, 1986.
3.3 Peavy, Howard S. et al; Environmental Engineering, Article 3.1, Chapter 3, McGraw Hill International Edition (1986).
3.4 Pakistan Hydro Consultants; Ghazi-Gariala Hydropower Project, Feasibility Report, August 1991.
3.9 TABLE 3.1
POPULATIONSTATISTICS
ANNUAL ANNUAL POPULATIONPOPULATION INCREASE INCREASEPOPULATION INCREASE INCREASE NAME OF VILLAGE % ° % % 1961 1972 1961-72 1981 1972-81
Ghazi 1484 2307 55.45 4.09 3450 49.50 4.57
Khalo 2190 - - 2692 22.73 2.32
Isa 138 257 86.23 5.82 454 76.65 6.53
Jallo 225 366 62.67 4.52 435 18.85 1.94
Bhai 425 642 51.00 3.82 678 5.60 0.61
Jammun 256 393 53.51 3.97 515 31.04 3.05
OaziPur 973 1474 51.50 3.85 1660 12.67 1.33
Hasanpur 603 944 56.50 4.16 923 -2.22 -0.25
Jabbi 693 888 28.13 2.28 1177 32.54 3.18
Sheikh Chuhr 344 406 18.00 1.52 502 23.64 2.39
Nakarchain 543 710 30.75 2.47 800 12.67 1.33
|Mian Dheri 1738 1751 0.74 0.07 1850 5.65 0.61
Sirka 1049 1317 25.54 2.09 1679 27.48 2.73
Garhi Matni 621 846 36.23 2.85 1092 29.07 2.88
Manser 1882 2967 57.65 4.22 6654 124.26 9.39
Mullah Mansur 1964 2311 17.67 1.49 2514 8.78 0.94
AverageAnnual 17579 _ Increase 12938 19769 2.83 27075 3.56
* %age increaseon populationfrom 1961to 1972minus that of Khalo.
3.10 TABLE 3.2
POPULATION,WASTEWATER PRODUCTION, DILUTION REQUIREMvENTSAND RIVER WATER QUALITY
PRMI3CTEDPOPULATION'S * 'RCAPITA WATER (GPD) PEAK NO,ASTEFLOWA (Core .. DILLTION FLON%l DO Cmgf)). DISTA.S4C
YOALRO 198!1 1991 1997 2017 2037 2057 1997 2017 2037 20371 19897 2017 2037 207j 1997 2017 2037 2057 1997 2017 21037 2057 '.
QIWG1~P,wri 'I 68 4258S 5OS4 82 0 583 29051 20 23 30 32 2.300111 2.231 2.5' 0' 2.l 0.3)i .7 .9.98 7.96 7.93 5 OGhar 3-51) 4h ,75773 9999 82,59 32617 20 20 39 30 37 2.13 2 36 (.22 2. 3 K2-4 0.66 6 - 98 97 7,92 >05 * 2692 3628 -3292 7802 14392 2545I 2 2' 30 30 2.305 .0 2 C C2'7 C33048 0l..9 2.3'4 392 1.00 >98 96 2.88 71.79 l.s I*o 454 610 '29 316 2377 4~~~ ~~~~19 ~~~~~10 200 ~ ~ ~~292X233 2.30) I 0. 0031 0• 05 0 .9 2.35 395 i.72 7.97 7.95 '.89 7.78 3.,6 11~~~~1k~~~435 565 096 1261 2277 4113 10, I 2 20 0C C",300)I. 0.0 32 0 289.0 1.77 2.97 71.05 7.2 78 4.9 Bhai 678 911 3 88 !965 5549 64)9 10 0 1 i0 20 2 0 >3)01) 2201I 2.2r.4 23 01.20 !37.2 ;.85 7.87 2.95 2.87 2.'5.3 J-- si~51 792 820 1493 2996 4869 10 0 29 2( <2r. C.2X0) *2...<3-j 23 I.2 2.3 .0O 1.91 7.S7 7.95 2.93 2,.70 t.0 Qui Pur 1660 2231 26934 4611 8689 :564 20 20 20 30 .0 0.330. 2332 r'2.24 .44 1.17 2.2) 7.7 .94 2.85 2.72 6.7 H-p~~, 923 1240 1481 2975 48-32, 8726 10 23 20 290 .20 0.003 2.03 231 0.5 .4 123 .3 2.7 2.94 7.94 77 . l.d-try ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0.9250 05.3 C.075 0.130 2.0 0.~o .9 7 1.98 5.32 7.94 7,88 7.75 7.59 8.4 1*bbi 1177 1582 1 889 '3411 t6161 1if28 10C 20 280 30.2 I.301 2~.004 C.308 C..021 0 .51 1.02 2.06 3.53 7.93 -.87 7.74 7,.57 8.6 WMe-Dberi 195 2496 2969 5362 96184 27490 20 20 20 30 2.3(4 0.007 2~.012 (033-K 0.55 1.08 2.1 8 3,88 7.83 7.86 7.5 ,53 12.6 INai.ar~~~~a6t800 0(75 1284 21 9 4; 68 7563 1 0 230 20 20 6,30) C.003 C.005 0.010C 0.36 L.11 2.23 3 .96 7.83 7.86 77 7.2 ) Sh.ekhClh,h 592 r 75 806 z455 2628 4746 10 to 20 29 2..XI) C0.301 C..903 2.036 2 .56 1.12 2.26 4.02 7.83 21.86 7, 72 7.51 11.4 Li6' 25 2694 4996 8789 157 9 2C 20 39 2.33 C,036 C.01 1 0.030 0.00 .8 2.38 4.32 71.92 7.85 7.73 248 . G.,hi Moui) 092 i 468 i '52 5105 5716 10324 I C 23) 29 39 -2.0) j. 0342C.307 0.020 0.61 1.22 2.45 4.51 7.2 7.84 7.60 -7.45 3-2.8 H Maov 9654 8042 09')78 1928 34831 6290-9 30. 300 3 ~3 2.29 039 03r .: .) 1 3.11 5.0 7.0 .0 762 2.32 38.0 ~ Mul0it M-.rr 2514 3379 4034 7286 13160 23,768 20 23 39 39 0.3D05 0.009 O.C25 0.045 0.88 1.68 3.36 6. I5 7.89 7.79 7.59 7.27 28.1
TTL 3,02343 43644 48531 87653 153,10 285928 0.086 0.168 0.338 0.615 :TOTAL RELEASE: 6 14,
N'OTES: ... A,tarningLha 6.148 oa,e 166d. 0 artl-3omae f-ot Ar b-rrgeth-gaho a. Projeolife. LaoS -npea8.irr if.- of 1.5 ore) 801 ~ar:*04041river. Rftaow. growth.io'eo.r 3% -Woae.worr .ndidrrari* --um t,be - traoSiBODS = 80 meg;hoforr dirarrbrg to t1wriver cIrr. -TIre popdti00of! 991 ie olAeiondf-n Pekat-Na1oti.. ~are flji-n -R.I. of -wae oouemption 1*0*5i11acdm kbfollaieg -hd.;a i) PopWtllic~1-2O10=l0pd ii)Popularie2000iv I()32-0=23p0 3 01i)PnPirieuor> I 0,0w Ogjp*A TABLE 3.3
RIVER WATER QUALITY
SR SAMPLE TEMP. f TURBIDITY DO BODS TDS SS COLIFORM E.COLi NO. NO. LOCATION C pH NTU mg/l mgil mg/I mg/A MPN/ MPN/
___ _Om . __O_m_100 ml ioo0ml
1 R-1 Right Bank River 15.8 8.10 12.0 8.2 3.0 65 _ _ x Indus, U/S Galla
2 R-2 Tarbela Power 16.2 x x x x x 6 x x Station Tailrace
3 R-3 Left Bank River 16.7 8.12 12.0 8.1 2.5 104 10 22!: 30 Inrdus, D/S Oazipur
4 R-4 Left Bank River 16.5 8.11 13.0 8.1 3.0 85 11 95 25 Indus, U/S Qazipur
5 R-5 Left Bank River 7.98 14.0 7.9 2.5 78 19 15O> 70 Indus, MIS Qazipur
6 R-6 Left Bank River 17.0 8.42 13.0 8.4 4.0 55 17 88 17 Indus, D/S Khalo
7 R-7 Left Bank River 17-2 7.96 11.0 8.0 4.0 65 17 110 19 Indus, U/S Khalo
8 R-8 Left Bank River 16.7 7.94 12.0 8.1 3.0 63 14 130 19 Indus, U/S Ghazi
9 R-9 Left Bank River 16.7 7.91 14.5 8.3 3.0 83 14 80 12
Indus, D/S Ghazi Normal River 4 Quality Standards (Fishable and Swimable Quality)
WHO' (1984) 6.5- 5 _ 1000 Nil Nil _ Guideline Value - 8.5 for drinking water
World Health Organization U/S Upstream DIS Downstream MIS Midstream
3. 12 TABLE 3.4
GROUNDWATER QUALITY
TOTAL SR. SAMPLE TEMP. TURBIDITY TDS SS HARDNESSCOLIFORM E.COLI NITRATES NO. NO. LOCATION C. pH NTU (CaCO3) MPNI MPNI mg/I mg/l mg/I 100/mI 100/mi mg/I
1 W-1 HouseWell 18.5 7.96 0.5 318 6.0 160 9.0 4.0 28.5 Khalo
2 W-2 Mosque 15 7.82 0.2 382 3.0 188 5.0 2.0 15.0 Qazi Pur
3 W-3 Mosque 15.5 8.29 0.5 463 2.0 204 4.0 2.0 31.5 Khalo
4 W-4 Zamindara 15.5 7.48 0.5 380 5.0 288 3.0 2.0 35.5 MosqueGhazi
5 W-5 Dolan Khan 15.5 7.44 0.2 328 4.0 284 3.0 2.0 40.0 MosqueGhazi
WHO (1984) Guideline 6.5 - 5 1000 500 Nil Nil 45 Values for 8.5 Drinking Water.
3 . 13 TABLE 3.5
WASTEWATER/SEWAGEQUALITY
TOTAL FAECAL SR. SAMPLE TEMP. BOD5 TDS SS COLIFORM COLIFORM NO. NO. LOCATION C. pH mg/I mJ/l mg/l MPN/100ml MPN/100ml
5 4 1. S-1 Wastewater 7.2? 217 66 90 x 10 46 x 10 from Khalo Village 5 4 2. S-2 Wastewater 22.2 7.37 435 256 86 90 x 10 16x 10 from Ghazi 3 3 3. S-3 Sewage 18.9 8.31 316 159 9 70x 10 23x10 WAPDAColony (Filtered) 7 4 4. S-4 Sewage 18.6 7.16 ,.400 162 39 16x10 35x10 WAPDAColony (Untreated)
Pakistan Environmental 40 6-9 80 5000 400 ProtectionAgency EmissionStandards for Municipal Liquid Effluentsafter 1990 (Ten times minimum dilution is required in receivingwater)
______1 1 1 1 1 . __3
3 , 14 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 4
PUBLIC AND ANIMAL HEALTH
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The Nasser Lake dam in Egypt, the Volta Lake dam in Ghana and the Mangla dam in Pakistan provide examples of the problems associated with impoundment of large bodies of water under tropical conditions. The backwaters of the first two lakes provide ideal breeding grounds for the vector snails that transmit bilharzia. Construction of the Mangla dam in Pakistan is said to have led to increased transmission of malaria (Ref. 4.1).
The Environmental Review Panel, in their review of the draft Environmental Report of the Project, expressed concern that health problems could arise when the Project is operational due to
the reduced flows in the Indus river during the low-flow season, which could result in an increase in the incidence of malaria as a result of larvae breeding in the pools along the river, and
the bodies of water formed by the construction of the barrage and the headponds at the power complex, which could also result in an increase in vector-borne diseases.
This Chapter presents the results of a study of the possible effects of the Project on vector-borne diseases. It is also intended to assist planners in avoiding the creation of health problems in the Project area that could result from the construction and operation of the Project.
4.2 APPROACH TO STUDY
4.2.1 General
The study has been based on a four-step programme, as follows
-, a comprehensive literature search;
- interviews with health workers in Pakistan;
- a field survey of vector breeding sites in and adjacent to the Indus river, and
- an analysis of health risks associated with the Project and methods by which they could be monitored and mitigated.
4.1 The results of each step of the programme are presented and discussed in the following sections.
4.2.2 Literature Search : Vector-borne Diseases in Pakistan
The assumption has been made that diseases which are rarely mentioned in research literature in a country are not of great importance in that country. A review has been carried out of the literature dealing with vector-borne diseases in Pakistan during the past decade, comprising dozens of articles each year. From this review, it became obvious that most of the pertinent research dealt with mosquitoes and malaria. Approximately 12 articles dealt with cutaneous leishmaniasis and visceral leishmaniasis and their sandfly vectors. One article dealt with filaria and its mosquito vectors, one with guinea worm, three with arboviruses and their mosquito vectors, three with liver flukes and four with blackflies. Reports cited are listed in the references or given in Appendix C, which also includes additional references.
4.2.3 Interviews with Pakistani Health Workers
Twelve health workers, selected from all levels of responsibility, were interviewed. These included Directors of Institutes, Parasitologists, District Health Officers, Medical Officers in charge of regional hospitals or Basic Health Units, and local Malaria Supervisors. A list of those interviewed is provided in Appendix B.
Much of the background information of this Report is based on interviews with Dr. Imtiaz Shah, Director, National Institute of Malaria Research and Training, and Dr. Ch. A. N. Mujahid, Director of Malaria Control, both of whom have had long and outstanding careers in the field of malariology.
The general consensus was that the Project area was relatively risk-free so far as vector-borne diseases are concerned.
4.2.4 Field Survey
A field survey in the Project area was carried out during October 1991. A total of 21 sites was visited, covering both banks of the Indus river between Tarbela dam and Barotha (Drawing 4.1 and Appendix F).
At each selected site, a water dipper with a long handle was used to collect samples by taking repeated dips of water with the sampler and examining the water for mosquito larvae or pupae.
4.2 Cobbles in fast water were examined to find Simulium larvae and pupae. An effort was made to sample a variety of habitats to determine the kinds of sites that support Anopheles and Simulium breeding and those that do not. Drawing 4.1 shows the approximate location of each of the sites investigated.
4.3 GENERAL HEALTH CONDITION IN PAKISTAN
The health of people in Pakistan is generally poor, although significant improvements have been made since 1960. Life expectancy at birth is 50 years; the crude death rate is 16 deaths per year per 1,000 population and the infant mortalit7 rate (IMR) is 120 deaths per 1,000 live births among children up to one year of age, as shown in the Table below (Ref. 4.2). These rates cause Pakistan to be ranked among the poorest nations of the world in terms of health conditions. The major causes of death are respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases. Malaria is a major health problem and periodically erupts in epidemic form, despite long-standing control efforts.
HEALTH INDICATORS FOR PAKISTAN AND NEARBY COUNTRIES FOR 1981 (GOP, 1988)
COUNTRY CRUDE DEATH LIFE EXPECTANCY INFANT (RATE PER 1000 (YEARS) MORTALITY POPULATION) RATE
Afghanistan 26 37 200 Bangladesh 18 48 130 India 11 58 100 Pakistan 16 50 120
The IMR is one of the most sensitive measures of general health care and sanitary conditions. Although the IMR decreased in the 1950's and early 1960's, it has held fairly steady since then, with estimates of between 120-140 (Ref. 4.2). The current IMR in Pakistan ranks among the world's highest and correlates most closely with the education of mothers and rural versus urban residence.
4.4 HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROJECT
4.4.1 Malaria Background
The two main vectors of malaria in the Project area are Anopheles culicifacies and Anopheles stephensi. An. culicifacies is, primarily, a rural vector that breeds in clean water and transmits both benign malaria, Plasmodium vivax (60-70%), and malignant malaria, Plasmqodium falcilaum (30-40%).
4.3 An. stephensi, the urban vector, breeds ubiquitously and transmits Plasmodium vivax. The incidence of P. vivax is usually low .
A third species of mosquito, Anopheles maculatum, is a minor vector of malaria in the North West Frontier Province (Mukhtar Shah, personal communication, 1991).
Monitoring and Mitigation
These activities are currently beinq carried out routinely throughout Pakistan, subject to some budgetary limitations. There are, reportedly, Malaria Supervisors assigned to every Union Council. Patients with fevers of unknown origin at Basic Health Units (BHU) are routinely treated for malaria with chloroquine. At the time of treatment, blood smears are taken and examined for malaria, either locally or at a central laboratory. Records of positive and negative slides are kept. These can be very useful for monitoring the disease and, especially, detecting unusual increases in incidence.
In addition to treatment with drugs, the dwellings of malaria- positive patients and adjacent dwellings are sprayed with a residual insecticide (malathion) as an epidemiological measure to reduce transmission. Plasmodium falciparum first developed resistance to chloroquine in Pakistan in 1981. Resistance is now widespread (Ref. 4.3). Resistance to Malathion in An. culicifacies was detected in India in 1977 (Ref. 4.4) and in An. stephensi in Pakistan (Ref. 4.5). These findings emphasise the importance of the continued funding for research on malaria and Anopheles resistance by the Pakistan National Institute of Malaria Research and Training.
community Participation
Both the World Health Organization (Ref. 4.6) and the Pakistan National Institute of Malaria Research and Training (Ref. 4.7) favour community participation using volunteer collaborators to assist in malaria control. Permanent reductions in transmission may be achieved by efficient local management of mosquito breeding, by providing screens for windows and doors and by using bednets, repellents and antimalarial drugs, etc. Instruction on malaria and how to prevent it at the grass roots level, by means of television, radio, pamphlets, posters and discussions with extension workers, can be helpful.
During the construction phase of the Project, large numbers of workers will be living in close proximity to the Project at sites near Ghazi and near Barotha. The recommendations given above apply particularly to these workers and Project management, because malaria is a debilitating disease that can greatly decrease staff productivity.
4.4 The methods described above are far less costly and are environmentally benign when compared to the use of insecticides which currently takes some 60% of the malaria control budget (Ref. 4.7).
Mosquito Control in Areas Associated with the Indus River
This Section evaluates the likelihood of malaria vector mosquitoes breeding in the Indus river as well as the barrage pond, channel and headponds.
Drawing 4.2 shows the average daily water level fluctuations expected each month in the barrage pond. During the low-flow season, these fluctuations will have a great impact on mosquito larval and pupal populations. Water levels will rise rapidly each evening as a result of peaking operation of Tarbela's turbines. This rise will flush any larvae or pupae from their protected microhabitats along the margins of the pond and wash them downstream. When the water level goes down, larvae and pupae will be stranded on land out of the water.
During the high-flow season, favourable conditions for mosquito breeding may occur in the barrage pond when Tarbela dam is discharging in excess of the 1,600 cumecs capacity of the power channel. Thus water will be continually passed through the barrage and the barrage pool will stay relatively full and at a constant level. This flood period coincides with the peak period for malaria mosquito breeding.
During the high-flow season, it is recommended that a fluctuation of about 40 cm be created in the barrage pool, once every week or 10 days. If the level is raised by about 40 cm above the normal full pool level, it will not exceed the freeboard of the barrage pond and there will be no loss of power. This 40 cm 'spike' can be of any duration (1 hour to several days). Water level fluctuation is a proven method of controlling mosquito breeding and is extensively used by the Tennessee Valley Authority (Ref. 4.8).
The swift current (2.33 m/s) will prevent anymosquito breeding in the power channel.
The fluctuations in the forebay and headpond water levels, resulting from the turbines operating to meet daily peak power demands, are estimated at between 2 m and 5 m (Drawing 4.3). This fluctuation will prevent mosquito breeding in the forebay and in the headponds. Even if the Project is not operated for peaking for a certain period, the water levels can be fluctuated as required to prevent mosquito breeding.
4.5 During the high-flow season each year, the releases from Tarbela will be much greater than the amount of water diverted into the power channel, and therefore conditions downstream of the barrage will be little changed from those at present.
During the low-flow season, soiae water will be released in the Indus river, downstream of the zarrage, at all times in order to supply the needs of the downstrpam villages and their cattle and to ensure acceptable water qua tty standards. Some of this water will seep under the barrage and some will come from groundwater outflow. In addition, there will be releases of compensation water from the barrage. These can be released as pulses, rather than at a steady rate, to take advantage of their flushing action.
At present, during the low-flow season, there are pools outside the main river channel, and embayments where .ne sand and silt have accumulated. These will continue to al ow mosquitoes to breed because they will not be affected by th limited flushing action of the pulsed releases of water from the barrage pond.
Non-Indus River Mosquito Control
There are four major breeding areas for malaria mosquitoes not necessarily associated with the Indus river. These are
- excessive or wasteful irrigation,
- waterlogged soils with freestanding water,
- village ponds and pools, and
- ditches containing village wastewater.
It should be noted that none of the water passing through the power channel and power complex will be used directly for irrigation in the Project area. The irrigation of the spoil banks by tubewells is not expected to create conditions suitable for mosquito breeding as these banks will be elevated and sloped. Thus production of mosquitoes due to irrigation is outside the scope of this Report.
Activities associated with the construction of the channel should avoid interfering with natural drainage patterns in such a way that would cause pools of water to accumulate. Similarly, any water accumulations either in the channel bed itself during construction or in the spoil banks resulting from this construction should be monitored for mosquito production. Both- excavations and fill areas should be graded so as to prevent the accumulation of water in pools during the rainy season.
4.6 After the Project is completed, monit&einq -",ild continue so that the formation of any pools or wather!uqqge-d--a-reasthat could form a habitat for mosquito breeding can be detected and appropriate remedial measures put in hand.
Responsibility for 7onitoring and Mitigation
The responsibility-f-e-r 1tonitoring and mitigating malaria and vector mosquito production in the Project area could best and most economically be carried out as part of a cooperative agreement between t-e 4zroject and the National Institute of Malaria Researhl' _and '2raining or the Directorate of-Malaria Contru~.
Climatic Variables and Malaria Transmission
The monthly malaria Slide Positive Rate (SPR), ie slides positive x 100/total population examined, is a useful index of disease transmission. The data used in this Report were extracted from an unpublished document (Ref. 4.1). The Mosquito Increase Rate (MIR) is also of interest. It is equivalent to the SPR data two months earlier. The difference between MIR and SPR takes into account the time required for the mosquitoes to develop from eggs, the infection of the mosquito itself, the extrinsic malaria cycle in the insect, the intrinsic malaria cycle in man and the time between onset of the disease and the seeking of medical assistance. Drawing 4.4 shows the difference between the SPR and the MIR. Drawing 4.5 shows a high correlation between MIR and rainfall. The amount of rainfall in a given period can, in this area, be considered a good predictor of the malaria incidence two -months later. Drawings 4.6 and 4.7 show that there is little correlation between Indus river water temperature or air temperature and the MIR.
4.4.2 Other Vector-borne Diseases
General
The other vector-borne diseases recorded in Pakistan include cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, commonly called oriental sore and kala azar, respectively. These occur in the Project area. Filariasis and guinea worm are also present in Pakistan but not in the Project area. Although bilharzia (schistosomiasis) does not presently occur in Pakistan it is included because of its importance in relation to dams built in the tropics. This Section describes these parasitic diseases and evaluates the likelihood that they might become established in the Project area.
4.7 Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (Leishmania troPica) and Visceral Leishmaniasis (Leishmania donovani).
Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is reported throughout Pakistan (Ref. 4.9). It occurs from as far north as Gilgit Agency and south to the extreme southern Balochistan. There were 640 human cases reported between 1977 and 1986. The disease results in lesions or scars that may be disfiguring but are not normally fatal. The sandfly vectors that have been incriminated (in other countries) are Phlebotomus papatasii and Phlebotomus serqenti. Thus far, CL has not been isolated from sandflies in Pakistan. Gerbils and other rodents may act as reservoirs of the disease.
Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) was first reported from Pakistan in the Northern Areas in 1960 (Ref. 4.10). It has been detected in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Northern Punjab and the NWFP. It is reported from Tarbela, Abbottabad, Gilgit and Rawalpindi and so is endemic in the Project area (Ref. 4.9). During the period 1960 to 1986, 101 human cases were detected. The disease may be fatal if untreated. Infection rates of 43% were reported from Baltistan in an immunological screening survey. The vector sandflies are Phlebotomus arqentines and Ph. salehi in India and Ph. chinensis in China, and other species elsewhere. The vector species has not been established for Pakistan. Some forms of VL appear to have no animal reservoir other than man and others have dogs as a major reservoir.
It is possible that there will be occasional cases in the Project area despite the best of efforts. Residual spraying on walls with an appropriate insecticide for mosquito control will help to control sandflies because they are weak fliers and do not move far before alighting. Destruction of rodents and rodent burrows might be desirable in case of an outbreak.
Filariasis (Bruqca bancrofti)
Only one recent article on filariasis in Pakistan was located. The paper deals with the importation of bancroftian filariasis into Pakistan (in the vicinity of Lahore) by immigrants from Bangladesh (Ref. 4.11). These parasites are transmitted to man by Culex mosquitoes. Culex guinauefasciatus mosquitoes infected with filaria were found near the immigrant camp.
These filaria occur almost entirely in coastal areas and islands where there is a fairly long hot season with high humidity. Although it is highly unlikely that they will become established in the Project area, improved disposal of wastewater is desirable as it will greatly reduce annoyance by these Culex mosquitoes and also reduce the possibility of transmission of filariasis and various arboviruses.
4.8 Bilharzia (Schistosomiasis)
Although bilharzia does not occur in Pakistan, it is included here because of the problems it has caused due to increases in transmission in some tropical countries where large dams have been built. The developmental stages are passed only in certain species of snails. These are not present in the Project area, apparently because the waters of the Indus river are too cold.
Water temperatures must exceed 200C for extended periods in order for them to do well. This is not the case with the Indus river which originates in northern mountainous glaciers. It appears that all other ecological conditions are favourable for these snails in the Project area.
Guinea Worm (Dracunculus medinensis)
The guinea worm has a very limited distribution in Pakistan. It occurs mainly in the areas near Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan and the Thar desert in southeastern Pakistan. Because the groundwater in these areas is saline and unpalatable, the inhabitants use surface water (from step wells or standing water piped from surface pools to houses). The infection occurs when surface water containing infected copepods (a minute crustacean) are swallowed. A filter can be used to remove the copepods and thus prevent infection (Ref. 4.12). The copepods are infected when they ingest the immature worms which leave their human host via a characteristic boil-like lesion, usually on the legs of humans. The adult worms cause the lesion to develop. The immature worms are expelled when the legs of the human host is immersed in water. It is highly unlikely to occur in the Project area as the water for drinking is obtained from groundwater or from the Indus river.
Arboviruses
A few viruses have been recorded from Pakistan, including West Nile Virus in Punjab (Ref. 4.13) and Japanese Encephalitis Virus (vector Culex tritaeniorhynchus) in the Karachi area (Ref. 4.14). Many arboviruses occur in nature but are not detected unless they cause a disease outbreak and viral surveys are undertaken.
Liver Flukes of Livestock (Fasciola igcantica and F. hep4tica)
Liver flukes are cosmopolitan parasites of livestock (sheep, goats, cattle) and are found from the tropics of Africa to northern countries such as Finland. Liver fluke infections in grazing animals (fascioliasis) is not likely to be affected by the Project because the habitats for parasitic transmission and the amphibious snails which transmit the parasite are found in low-lying marshes or waterlogged depressions (Ref. 4.15) such as
4.9 occur on the Chhachh plain, not in the river bed. At their infective stage, the liver flukes are present as cysts on vegetation on which the livestock feed. If borrow pits and spoil areas are not constructed according to the Project plan, some depressions may be created which could grow vegetation attractive to the grazing animals. These depressions could support snail vectors and transmission of the liver flukes. Such depressions must be filled or drained. This same requirement is true in the event of malaria mosquitoes breeding in these depressions. The precise extent of economic losses due to liver flukes in Pakistan is not known (Ref. 4.16).
4.4.3 Blackfly (Simuliumn)
Simulium (blackflies) spend their immature stages (eggs, larvae and pupae) in rapidly-running water. In many areas of the world they are extremely annoying to man and livestock because of the large numbers produced and their blood-sucking habits. Species which feed on livestock can kill them in a period of several days due to anaphylactic shock. The power channel will provide about 52 km of rapidly moving water (2.33 m/s), an ideal breeding site for Simulium. These flies are present in the Project area in some of the nullahs but not in the river itself, although there are good breeding sites. This is probably due to the rapid fluctuations in the river that are presently occurring. If Simulium becomes a serious pest, a sudden lowering of the water level during a sunny day will greatly reduce populations by desiccating the exposed larvae and pupae. The larvae would dry out in an hour or less in the sun, but the pupae may survive several hours or move out of the water.
4.5 TYPICAL BREEDING SITES OF ANOPHELES AND SIMULIUM IN THE INDUS RIVER AND ASSOCIATED NULLAHS.
The following generalisations apply to Anopheles and Simulium breeding in the environs of the Indus river :
- Rapid fluctuations of water level will minimise mosquito breeding.
- Clean sloping margins of pools and ponds without depressions will minimise mosquito breeding.
- A thick layer of cobbles and gravel on the river bed will promote drainage, inhibit plant growth and minimise mosquito breeding.
- Vegetation, especially grass in embayments or depressions, supports breeding.
- Erosion of soil that results in cut channels into the banks of low islands, or meadows withtdepressions that contain water can support mosquito larvae.
4.10 Mosquitoes will breed in almost any accumulations of water in depressions if they can find sheltered microhabitats.
Village ponds or pools are favourite breeding places for mosquitoes.
Simulium larvae and pupae require rapidly moving water.
4.6 CONCLUSIONS
4.6.1 General
Only factors relating disease with construction of the Project and its operation thereafter have been considered. There is considerable 'background transmission', especially of malaria, that is not Project-related.
After malaria, cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis are the most serious vector-borne health threats in the Project area. They are endemic to the area. Isolated cases are to be expected. Prompt measures such as residual spraying can minimise transmission and interrupt epidemics of the disease.
4.6.2 Project Zones of Health Influence
The two major zones of health influence of the Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project are :
- The primary health zone around the Project structures and the Indus river flood plain between Ghazi and Barotha, largely a rural agricultural area containing about 150,000 people.
- The secondary health zone which will receive health benefits from additional electrical power supplied through the national electricity distribution network. This secondary zone of influence is largely urban and contains several million people. Additional electricity means additional pumped supplies of drinking water, the improved operation of hospitals and other health-care facilities and improved amenities of life.
The primary zone will be small, essentially the flight range of malaria mosquitoes around the various water bodies in the Project area. The secondary zone will be much larger, covering cities such as Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Lahore, etc.
4.11 4.6.3 Changes in Aquatic Environment
The major changes in the aquatic environment in the proposed Project area, and thus opportunities for changes in the transmission of malaria and other water-associated diseases in the primary zone are :
- a fast-moving flow of water in the power channel;
- a reduction in the amount of water flowing through the original bed of the Indus river, particularly during the low-flow season, and
- the creation of a pond at the barrage and the headponds at the power complex, both being subject to rapid fluctuations in water levels.
4.6.4 Malaria
The production of large numbers of vector AnoPheles mosquitoes and subsequent increase in malaria transmission appear to be closely correlated with rainfall in the Project area.
Malaria mosquitoes presently breed in embayments and low meadows along the margins of the Indus riverbed created by the receding summer flood, and in waterlogged depressions in the Chhachh plain. The Project will reduce these, thus reducing the overall breeding of malaria mosquitoes.
An analysis of seasonal flows and water levels in the barrage and head ponds indicates that they will be poorly suited to mosquito breeding.
4.6.5 Leishmaniasis
There is a danger of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis around the new settlements of construction workers. These diseases are transmitted to man and rodents by sandflies. However, sandflies have not yet been reported in the Project area. The transmission can be controlled by spraying residual insecticides inside the dwellings, by destroying the rodent burrows where sandflies and their rodent hosts may dwell, and by other measures.
4.6.6 Bilharzia
At present, this disease is not found in Pakistan, nor are the aquatic snails which transmit bilharzia to man. Apparently the waters of the Indus river are too cold for the snails, but all other conditions are appropriate. Although the Project will not increase the water temperature enough to support bilharzia transmission, development of the river basin with thermal power plant using the river water for cooling, additional dams,
4.12 irrigation systems and drainage works could eventually do so. This factor should be considered in any comprehensive basin planning.
4.6.7 Guinea Worm
This water-associated parasite is not found in the Project area and would not invade the area after construction of the Project. Transmission requires the use of stagnant water for drinking, whereas tubewells and river water are used in the Project area.
REFERENCES
4.1 Tirmizi, F.; Intersectorial plan of water resources to ensure incorporation of health safeguards. Unpublished document 5 pp, 5 annexes, 1 map.
4.2 Sather, Z.; Infant and child mortality in Pakistan - Some trends and differentials. Biosoc. Sci. 17: 351-359. 1985.
4.3 Shah, Imtiaz; Chloroquine resistance to falciparum malaria in Vehari District, Punjab and Muhmand Agency Northwest Frontier Province. Ann. Rpt. National Institute of Malaria Research and Training: 1-23. 1989.
4.4 Rajagopal, R.; Malathion resistance in An. culicifacies in Gujarat. Ind. J. Med. Res. 66: 27-28. 1977.
4.5 Rathor, H. and Toqir; Malathion resistance in An. stephensi Liston in Lahore, Pakistan. Mosq. News 40: 526-531. 1980.
4.6 WHO; Vector control in primary health care. Tech. Ser. 755:pp. 61. 1987.
4.7 Rai, A.; Preliminary Report on the field study for the development of alternative malaria control methods feasible for use through community participation. Annual Report. National Institute of Malaria Research and Training: 53-62. 1990.
4.8 TVA; Malaria control on impounded water. USGPO. Washington, D.C. 1946.
4.9 Munir, M. et al.; A review of the status of leishmaniasis in Pakistan for 1960-1986. In: Leishmaniasis: the current status and new strategies for control. Proc. NATO Advanced Study Institute on Leishmaniasis. Plenum Press, ISBN 0-306-43146-7 pp. 47- 56, NATO ASI Series A, Life Sciences 63: 47-56. 1989.
4.13 4.10 Ahmad, N.; Fascioliasis in Pakistan. Pakistan Vet. J. 4:44. 1984.
4.11 Aslam Khan, M. and Pervez S.; Imported filariasis in Pakistan. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. and Hyg. 75(6): 869- 871. 1981.
4.12 Shah Imtiaz et al.; Monofilament nylon filters for preventing dracunculiasis: durability and copepood retention after long term field use in Pakistan. Trop. Med. and Parasit. 82(5): 40-45. 1988. 4.13 Reisen, W. et al.; West Nile Virus in Pakistan. II. Entomological observations in Changa Manga National Forest, Punjab Province. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. and Hyg. 76: 437-448. 1982.
4.14 Kamimura, K. et al.; A survey of mosquitoes in the Karachi area, Pakistan. J. Pakistan Med. Assoc. 36(7): * 182-188.
4.15 Malik, M.; Incidence of fascioliasis amongst livestock in Sargodha Division (years 1974-1976). Pakistan Vet. J. 4(1): 31-32. 4.16 Chaudhry, N., et al.; A note on economic losses due to fascioliasis in cattle and sheep. Pakistan Vet. J. 4(1): 45-46. 1984.
4.14 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 5
ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND AESTHETICAL ASPECTS
5.1 RESUME OF THE PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES
Archaeological aspects of the Project structures and spoil areas were covered in the Environmental Assessment presented in Volume 7 of the Feasibility Report (Ref. 5.1). The Report identif ied the sites of archaeological and historical importance in the Project area in general and particularly within the power channel corridor. Of these, two sites near Musa Kudlathi will be disrupted by the power channel. The Feasibility Report proposed salvage of these sites. In addition, one site near Hasanpur lies in the area of the power channel spoil banks. The Report recommended the protection of this site.
5.2 FURTHER STUDIES
5.2.1 Archaeological Study of the Borrow Areas
The Feasibility Report did not cover the archaeological aspects of the borrow areas, because these areas had not been finalised at that time. The Environmental Review Panel had recommended that an archaeological survey of borrow areas should be carried out as part of the supplementary environmental studies.
During the tender design stage, major potential borrow areas have been identified and an archaeological survey of these areas has been carried out during January 1992. These areas are listed below and shown on Drawing 5.1.
Silt sources
Galla Ghazi
Sand Sources
- Ghazi - Qibla Bandi - Lawrencepur - Musa - Hattian - Golra - Dhok Tarbethi - Nurpur Karmalia
5.1 Aggregate/Riprap Sources
- Galla riprap - Sandy gravels of Haro river bed - Dhok Kunharan limestone - Bura limestone - Mirza limestone - Dher sandy gravels - Dakhner limestone
The survey was carried out by two archaeologist from the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan during January 1992.
5.2.2 Aesthetic Aspects of the Attock Gorge
The Environmental Review Panel had also recommended a study of the effects of the reduced flows in the Indus river on aesthetic and cultural aspects of the Attock gorge, particularly on the Attock bridge and the black shale of Ghiri Island. These aspects have been studied by a team of three environmentalists, which surveyed the area by boat in October 1991.
5.3 FINDINGS OF THE STUDIES
5.3.1 Archaeological Study of the Borrow Areas
The survey has indicated that all the sites except Galla riprap do not contain archaeological remains and the Department of Archaeology and Museums has no objection to the use of these sites as borrow areas.
The Galla riprap area is a hill starting from the Pehur pumping station to Galla village. on this hill, there are extensive remains of the Pehur Fort, as well as the plundered remains of monasteries and stupas.
The remains of the Pehur Fort are represented by high standing walls and bastions at the top of the hill near the Pehur pumping station. The fort belongs to Hindu Shahi period (8th-9th Century A.D.). Further eastward, near Galla village, the hill contains a courtyard of a monastery with standing walls-belonging to the 4th-5th Century A.D.
In view of these discoveries, it has been decided to abandon this site as a potential borrow area and an alternative riprap quarry has been identified on the left bank of the river.
Further archaeological surveys will be carried out for any new borrow areas proposed to be used.
5.2 5.3.2 Aesthetic Aspects of the Attock Gorge
At the Attock gorge, the features of interest are the black shales of Ghiri island and the three-span, two-deck road and railway bridge built at the end of the last century.
The diversion of part of the flows released from Tarbela dam into the power channel will reduce the flows in the Indus down to the outfall of the tailrace at the power complex. However, The flows in the gorge also include a significant contribution from the Kabul river. The effect of the reduced flow on river levels has been assessed from the discharge rating curve for Khairabad, near the Attock bridge.
Low-flow Season During the period from 1965 to 1982, the average daily flow at the Khairabad gauge in January was 812 cumecs and the minimum was 249 cumecs. At this average daily flow of 812 cumecs, the water level is at about El. 264.8 m. The average daily release from Tarbela during January was 464 cumecs. With all but the compensation flow of 28 cumecs diverted into the power channel, the level at Khairabad would reduce to El. 263.5 m, ie a reduction of about 1.3 m. This reduction in water level will not have a significant effect on the aesthetic appeal of the gorge and railway bridge.
When the installation of the additional four units at Tarbela is completed and Tarbela is operated in a peaking mode, the flows released from Tarbela could be close to zero for most of the day during January. Thus the addition of the Project would not change the minimum water levels expected in the Attock gorge.
High-flow season
During July, the average flow at Khairabad gauge for the years 1965 to 1982 was 8,780 cumecs, giving a water level at Khairabad gauge of El. 273.5 m. For a flood with a return period of 10 years, the water level would be about El. 281 m, which is more than 15 m above the January water level given above.
The effect of the Project will be to reduce flows during the high-flow season by 1,600 cumecs. The water level at Khairabad gauge for 7,180 cumecs would be E1.272.0 m. There would thus be a reduction of about 1.5 m, which will not affect the aesthetics of the Attock gorge.
5.3 5.4 CONCLUSIONS
The survey of potential borrow areas has shown that they do not contain archaeological remains except for the Galla site which has been abandoned. Any new areas proposed for obtaining construction materials would be surveyed for archaeological importance.
The existing variation of water levels in the Attock gorge is very large, varying from about El. 265 m during the period of minimum flows to over El. 280 m during high floods. Even during average July flows, the water levels are about 10 m higher than the minimum levels. Furthermore, the additional peaking capacity being installed at Tarbela will reduce the minimum levels even further.
The Project will reduce the contribution of the Indus river to the flows through the gorge, but that from the Kabul river will remain unchanged. The minimum levels in the gorge will remain the same as those expected from future peaking operations at Tarbela, and the annual range of variations is expected to be similar to the existing range.
Therefore, the Project is not expected to affect the aesthetic appeal of the gorge.
REFERENCES
5.1 Pakistan Hydro Consultants; Chazi-Gariala Hydropower Project, Feasibility Report, August 1991.
5.4 DRAWINGS z 1 ~~~~~~~~~SW A B I D i S T T:
ATTOCK GORGE ORDHE j
ZONE
N__oRl-- OND / IA CASM
BBARRAGER C-45) V 1 SJt.....,85'ATANI'AKHIN - HE , \ o ON AM ~(ONRCO N MAL/A ' ' -aRBE_a -AM
ZONE NCA 9 N L ' s f g .zX e----t T
iMaND09! > / t.NUPP.R X,^ / - - IIR' { MACECTo \ \ / A T T0O C. K D I S T T: - tt \ / BASIN~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ec . BRAE <~~~~~~AA-2' .N YKI Y OMANP,P ZR A t A N s weN R C O <)~~~~~~/~ ` - / jtORTHEOD/J By.' CAMP sovEI
| e kU~~~~~~~OTH HIEAD lOND- CMPCLII=; DHE p'R~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rT SCNCTOR TliK_'RIAN ANISAB~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~RVEAN CLOIA 'AJA BA A A" S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~hS A 0BSE h AS POE COMLE ' OwE / OIw_X a ;a,,-! :Dn -4 zt\ aHntnti g NOTL0~>ES:- , 'JATIAL MALGN AL LAYOUT OF r / 4~~~~ 'K ~ ~~~~~~~~~~;JDRATHNGiR 1.1 2 -P, . PROJECT COMPONENTS0 M SAIWALAI S.R _ DISCHARGE RATING CURVE AT GvHAZI(L9) Average of 1986-1989 332 331 330 329 E >> 325 327 - ______ > ~~~~326 __ z N ~~~~~325 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 Discharge (Thousand cumecs) CLIMATIC DIAGRAM FOR TARBELA AND ATTOCK .-. 200 L o E c 50 ...... 50 ------~ ~ ~ ~ S- -- - 0 IIII0 J F M A M J J A s 0 N D ; Months > Temperatureat Attock Rainfatlat Attock Temperatureat Tarbela Rainfallat Tarbela Z Wet Period 3 Dry Period [] G) WI a \ ~~~~~~~~~~~SW A B I D I S T T: -.- '-. ~LAHORg- i | > ~~~~~~TORDHER=a <2_ F; RaBaC /4'/ < ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~HUNDDO9 < -INDUS /RI 'BARRAGEJ ' -. C, i- ASS -SR UTN /AAHUN DHWFFr - - MArD , -- /L~PF~A R MALAo MALLA O MaPW DORI_ P > / - ACJ \ A T T O C K D I S T T- , GA'ThAcA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ALAH~1K '~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ on < 6D <5~GAIHMETAR f rE HASAN 9j H P 9 CIHE, -O CHANNEL| .,SAlCw4S" "B '_6ARA~DAWIN ~POWER 3. Ft ° v _ =- <.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/., ,~ I O KMn, --- ,- ~~ASSUMEDWASTEWATER JAa,A, HUHIINGRESS POINTS 2U -' BA GHAZI-BAROTHA HYDROPOWERPROJECT REQUIRED DILUTION FLOW 7 6 (n _ 4 Lii 0 40 Z 10 20 30 C) O C5~~~~~~~~~~ISTANCEBELOW BARRAGE (kmn) a a YEAR 1997 + 2017 O 2037 A 2057 GHAZI-BAROTHA HYDROPOWER. ROJECT DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN INDUS (IN 2057) 9 8.5 8 7.5 w 7_ .7 0 0 16.5 C) 6 5.5 ; ~ ~ ~ ~~ 5_____l_____ l l l_.__ l l Z 0 10 20 30 40 G) DISTANCE BELOW BARRAGE (kin) El 6.15 CUMECS RELEASE SWA B I DISTT: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... .. t O R ,IN Dus I./ I MA~TANI/ U R AG E ) {BA RE M NOO LPNX\TJ B4 LL R1PU,,R9.. ' ,' gMHA MADR4 1v/ ,.i -:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~G we,, | ( ~~ ~ ~ IPWE~COMPLEX). ~ ~ ~ Sflr~~ ~~n14 ______<1 i.'/ CCACECKHO HAJI SHAH aIC-OIS,CO C -,- I PO "ECOMPLEX),~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2 ONOR!I r~ A-/ T - DOJEcT TA ETEEDINGSITES TH7KHAMQ I A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Sb j S W RACTO 01U551 BCtp.p 6P^o5i- : , - - -' 0 0 1 , ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~*~S a H APTA,COL 'I~~~~~~~~~~~~R1yLI/4-1NOC D W PROJECTAREA.9 MPLEX BREDNGSTESC7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SOWN INVESTIGAE -. 7~~~~~~~~1 DRAWING4.1 K~ ~~~~7T VARIATION (M ) I.5 SPIKEDLEVEL PERIOD 0.5T J F M A M J J A S 0 N D MONTH BARRAGE POND FLUCTUATION (DAILY AVERAGE DURING EACH MONTH) DRAWING 4*2 l~~~~~~ 4.5- 3- VARIATION (M) 2.5 |l 1.5 T 1- 0.5T 0 J F M A M J J A S 0 N D MONTH HEADPOND FLUCTUATION (DAILY AVERAGE DURING EACH MONTH) DRAWING 4.3 4- MIR -, SPR 2.5T % POSITIVE 1;5, 0 J F M A M J J A S 0 N D I MONTH MOSQUITO INCREASE RATE (MIR) VS SLIDE POSITIVE RATE(SPR) DRAWING 4-4 El RAINFALL 1988 U RAINFALLAVG. * MIR 300 % MIR 2.5 2501 2 200 1.5 mm RAIN 1 50 1 00 50 1 !lgi 1 10| r; 0.5 0 00 J F M A M J J A S 0 N D MONTH RAINFALL VS MOSQUITOINCREASE RATE (MIR) DRAWING 4-5 I WATERTEMP. * MIR 20~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1 52 DEGREESC 10 05 J F M A M J J A S 0 N D MONTH INDUS RIVER WATER TEMPERATURE Vs MOSQUITO INCREASE RATE (MIR) DRAWING 4-6 !OMAX.TEMPEMIN.TEMP MIR 50 % MIR 2.5 40 2 30 1.5 DEGREESC 20 I 10 0.5 J F M A M J J A S O N D MONTH AIR TEMPERATURE Vs MOSQUITOINCREASE RATE (MIR) DRAWING4-7 +~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~SAW B I D IS T T. ^ ; a f ' ~~~~~LAHOR IxI~~ '0 ~~~~~~~~-N ^w-0tA0+ -/ '°- JNDUS /'--- BARRAGE . CO f , ' ->-- Y_7AN'JS.RMA'Ar,l Ao-, N- - ..LillIestN-\. \/Y4 ,/ <,_ M F N . . . . . S ' A ' A , ,N tAANC.J9 k % y <, , ;,.Z ~~~~~~a T T .C. K D I S T T .:,_Fq'.A.NL A o Swndy graves HED ON 01 2' ZNORTH HEADPOND Ghazi Sand .a -SOUTH HEAD POND 9 -T** A ~~~~Trmari A . ~~~~~~sand K _a9SAu. }.EHRr Ab,,Wond9;S / Ebo.1-y _.L EGEN D sand~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Sandy Gramets LR lovs- S.nd - zawlencepAE 4, V, LLneEi TOWN Bura ___SSEY R..IDR4sWINGS APA7 S sS400 ...WAPCAR EOSi / ~~~~~~~ ~ison / N. E SAERIE N5000 VE an hi -- S~OP MAPS,00 / ~ ~ SandyG \j- YE R oh~~~~~and labthandy Gael - -- o2 -ONTOORS N FgET to- ot°i 95 ' IPSdy Grovels/ Ohok Kumharan 0 ~~~~~~~Limnestone e~~~~~~, LOCATION OF BORROW AREAS DRAWING 5.1I APPENDIX A APPENDIX A LIST OF PREPARERS AND CONTRIBUTORS A.1 PAKISTAN HYDRO CONSULTANTS A.1.1 Environmental Team Mr. Anis A. Chaudhry Soil/Water Scientist Dr. Peter L. Ames Zoologist Mr. M.A. Bodla Botanist Dr. Hugo Jamnback Entomologist Mr. M. Saleem Chaudhry Water Quality Engineer A.1.2 Other Contributors Mr. Iftikhar Khalil Project Manager Mr. A.C.J. Baker Sr. Deputy Project Manager Dr. William Jobin Public Health Engineer A.2 DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND MUSEUMS Mr. M. A. Haleem Archaeologist Mr. Gulzar Muhammad Khan Archaeologist Mr. Muhammad Yousaf Archaeologist A.1 APPENDIX B . APPENDIX B LIST OF CONTACTS B.1 CONTACTS IN RESPECT OF ECOLOGICAL STUDIES Mr. M. Shabir Baig Deputy Director and Incharge of Ecological Unit, Soil Survey of Pakistan, Lahore. Dr. Syed Razi Abbas Shamsi Professor, Department of Botany, University of the Punjab, Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore. Dr. Abdul Rehman Beg Forest Botanist, Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar. B.2 CONTACTS IN RESPECT OF RIVER WATER QUALITY Dr. Khurshid Ahmed Professor & Officer Incharge, Institute of Public Health Engineering and Research, Univesity of Engineering & Technology, Lahore. B.3 CONTACTS IN RESPECT OF PUBLIC AND ANIMAL HEALTH Mr. Mukhtar Ahmad Shah Parasitologist, Directorate General Health, Lahore. Dr. Imtiaz Shah Director, National Institute of Malaria Research And Training, Lahore. Dr. Ch. A.N. Mujahid Directorate of Malaria Control, Islamabad. Dr. Sabz Ali Khan Medical Officer Incharge Topi Regional Hospital, Topi. Dr. Ayub Khan Medical Officer, Rural Health Centre, Ghazi. Shams-ul-Qamar Malaria Supervisor, Rural Health Centre, Ghazi. Dr. Sardar Saeed Assistant District Health Officer, Basic Health Unit, Harripur. B.1 Major (Rtd.) Dr. Sayed Raza Hussein Medical Superintendent, Tarbela Hospital, Tarbela. Dr. Abdul Hammed Medical Officer, Basic Health Unit, Ghurghushti. Dr. Mohammad Afzal Malik District Health Officer, Attock. B.2 APPENDIX C APPENDIX C OTHER LITERATURE STUDIED C.1 IN RESPECT OF RIVER ECOLOGY Ahmed, S.; Botany Deptt. Punjab University, Grasses and Sedges of Lahore District, Publication No. 12 (1954). Baig, M.; Shabbir and Q. Ali; Vegetation Ecological Zones of Pakistan. Proc. XII Int. Forum on Soil Taxonomy and Agrotechnology Transfer, Lahore, Pakistan (1985). Chaudhry, H.M.; Evaluation of Salinity Control and Reclamation Project No. 1., M&P (P&I) WAPDA Pub. No. 3 (1973). Daubenmire, R.; Plant Communities - A textbook of Plant Synecology. Harper & Row Pub. Newyork (1968). Witton, B.A.; River Ecology, Blackwell Scientific Publication (1975). C.2 IN RESPECT OF PUBLIC AND ANIMAL HEALTH General Environment and Urban Affairs Div., Government of Pakistan (GOP), Islamabad; Environmental profile of Pakistan. pp. 246. 1988. Mosquitoes and Malaria Nadeem, G.; Determination of effective and economical insecticide spraying regime in the field. Annual Report, National Institute of Malaria Research and Training: 105-109. 1989. Reisen, W. et al.; Population dynamics of some Pakistan mosquitoes : temporal changes in reproductive status, age structure and survivorship of Anopheles culicifacies, An. stenhensi and Culex tritaeniorhynchus. Ann. Trop. Med. and Parasit. 80(1): 77-95. (Contains extensive references on mosquitoes). 1986. Suleman, M.; Malaria in Afghan refugees in Pakistan. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. and Hyg. 82(1): 44-47. Sandflies and Leishmaniasis Burney, M. and Lari, F.; Status of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Pakistan. Pakistan J. Med. Res. 25: 101. 1986. C.1 Ghazi, R. and Ali, R.; Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Uthal, Baluchistan, with a note on its status in Pakistan. Proc. Parasit. 1988(5): 40-45. 1988. Lewis, D.J.; The phlebotomine sandflies of West Pakistan. Bull. Brit. Mus. (N.H.) 19:1. 1967. Nasir, A.; Sandflies as vectors of human diseases in West Pakistan. Pakistan J. Health; Karachi 14: 26. 1964. Rab, M. et al; Cutaneous leishmaniasis in Baluchistan: Reservoir host and sandfly vector in Uthal, Lasbella. J.P.M.A. 36: 134-138. 1986. WHO; The leishmaniasis. WHO Tech. Rep. Ser. 701. 1984. Viruses Go, T.; Seroepidemiological studies of Flavivirus infections among domestic animals in and around Karachi, State of Sindh, Pakistan. Jap. J. Ver. Res. 38(2): 50. 1990. Camicas, J.; Les arbovirus a tiques en zone tropicale. Medicine Tropicale 40(5): 499-508. 1980. simulium Lewis, D.J.; The Simuliidae of Pakistan. Bull. Ent. Rest, 62: 453-470. 1973. Datta, M. and Dad Gupta, B.; Host preferences of black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) of Darjiling, West Bengal. Proc. Zool. Soc. Calcutta 28 (1975): 147-153. 1978. Saito, K. et al.; The blackflies (Diptera: Simuliidae) collected in the northern part of Pakistan. Jap. J. Sanitary Zoology 40 (supplement). In, Zoogeographical studies on the medically important Diptera in southwest Asia (Edited by Kamimura, K. et al., Dept. Parasit. School Med., Yokohama Univ. 1989. Liver fluke Chaudry, A. and Niaz, M.; Liver fluke, a constant threat to livestock development. Pakistan Veterinary J. 4(1): 42-42. 1984. C.2 APPENDIX D APPENDIX D SPECIES OF FLORA ENCOUNTERED Shot 1 of 2 RIVERREACH SUCCESSIONAL POSSIBLEUSE SPECIES BRAIDEDATOCK ALLUVIAL STATUS RIVER GORGE BASIN CHANNEL TREES: Acacianilotica + + + Climax Timber, Fuel Forage.Industry A. hydaspica + Climax Fuel.Forage A. modesta + + Climax Fuel, Forage Ailanthusglandulosa + Climax Cassiaalesus + Climax Fuel Dalbergia sisso + + + Climax Timber, Fuel Prosopisjulif lora + Climax Fuel Tamarixaphylla + Climax Fuel ZizyphusJujuba + + Climax Food, Fuel, Forage SHRUBS: Aeurajavanica + Intermediate - Anisomelessp. + Cllmax Calotropis procera + + Intermedlate - Lautanacamera + Climax - Prospisgland ulosa + + Climax Fuel Rhamnuscachemirica + + Cllmax Fuel Ruelliasp. + Rumex hestatus + + ClImax Forage Zizyphusnummularia + + Intermediate Food,Fuel, Forage Z. oxyphylla + Climax Fuel FORBS& GRASSES: Agrostisciliaris + Poineer Forage Alpudamutica + + + Intermediate Forage Anthroxon lancifolius + + Intermediate Forage Argyrolobiumroseum + + Intermediate Forage Artemisiascoparia t t Intermediate Arundodonax + Polneer Bidens biternata + + Intermediate Boerhaaviadiffusa + Intermediate Forage Botrhrlochloaintermedla + + Intermediate Forage D. 1 APPENDIX D SPECIES OF FLORA ENCOUNTERED Sheet2 of 2 RIVERREACH SUCCESSIONALPOSSIBLE USE SPECIES BRAIDED ATTOCKALLUVIAL STATUS RIVER GORGE BASIN CHANNEL FORBS& GRASSES:(Contd) Cannabissativa + + Climax Cenchrusciliaris + + + Climax Forage Comosumsp. + + Intermediate Forage Crotalariamedicaginea + + Intermedlate Forage Cymbopoganjawarencusa + + + Intermedlate Cynodondactytlon + + + Polneer Forage Cyperusdifformis + Poineer Desmostachyabipinnata + t + Intermediate Forage Eleusinesp. + + Intermediate Forage Eragrostispoaeoldes + + + Intermediate Forage Euphrobiapilulifera + + + Poineer - FumariaIndica + + Polneer - Heteropogancontortus + + Polneer - Indigoferalinitolia + + + Intermediate - Juncellus pygmeus + + Poineer - Lactucasp. + Intermediate - Launeanudicaulis Intermediate - Oryzopsislatilolia iIntermediate Forage Oxaliscorniculata + + + Intermodiate Poasupina + + + Intermediate Forage Ploygonumbarbatum + Poineer - Saccharumgrifithii + + + Poineer - Saccharumspontaneum + ' Polneer - Saccharummunja + + Intermedlate - Solanumsorathansis + + + Intermedlate - Tritoliumpretense Intermediate Forage Typhaangustata 4 Poineer (+) indicatesthe presenceof the speciesin the respectivemorphological zone. D. 2 APPENDIX E ;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I-k APPENDIXE SPECIESOF FAUNAENCOUNTERED Shea I of 2 COMMONNAME SCIENTIFICNAME STATUS BIRDS-* Grey Heron Ardea cinerea Uncommon Little Egret Egretta garzetta Uncommon Cattle Egret Bubulcusibis Scaree Pond Heron Ardeola grayi One Spot-billedDuck Anas poecilorhyncha Uncommon,40-50 Pintail A.acuta Common, 200± Common Teal A.crecca Common, 300± Black Kite Milvus migrans Rare, only at Mulla Mansoor Mandori Harrier Circus sp Ono only Long-legged Bu7zard Buteo ruftinus Several, nr Jaba and Dhcr Shikra Accipiter badius One, Tarbela Colony Kestrel Falco tiinunculus Two, nr Gorge Great Stone Curlew Esacus recurvirostris 3, on bars Little Pratincole Glareola laicteA 400+, together Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius 25-50, together Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus scarce, 8 Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola 6-8, scattered Marsh Sandpiper T. stagnatilis Scarce Common Sandpiper T. hypoleuca Uncommon Redshank T. totanus 6, together Greenshank T. nebularia S-10, scattered Black-bellied Tern Sterna Rock Dove Columba livia Common in Gorge Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto Scarce Litde Brown Dove S.sonegalensis Scarce Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus One, Pontia Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri rare, Kabul R. only House Swift Apus Bltinis Scarce, Attock Br. only White-br. Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis Scarce, 4-6 Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis Uncommon Common Kingfisher Aleedo attliis scarce, 3 Eurasian Bee-eater Merops apiaster Flock,.cf 20+ Blue-tailed Bee-eater M.philippensis Flock of 10-12 Little Bee-eater M.orientalis Flock of 5-6, nr Pontia El . APPENDIXE SPECIESOF FAUNAENCOUNTERED Sheo 2 of 2 COMMONNAME SCIENTIFICNAME STATUS Hoopoe Upupa epops One, ur Barotia Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis 3, along roads Crested Lark Galerida cristata Scarce, nr Barotha Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea Common, on islands Red-winged Bush Lark Mirafra erythroptera Uncommon, river banks Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica Uncommon Red-rumped Swallow H.daurica Gorge & Kabul R. Sand Martin Riparia paludicola Common, over water White Wagtail Motacilla alba Common YeRlow Wagtail M. flava Scarce Large Pied Wagtail M. maderaspatensis Uncommon White-checked Bulbul Pyononotus leucogenys Nullahs, in Gorge Red-vented Bulbul P. cafer Tarbda Colony Black Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis Uncommon, nr river Rufus-backed Shrike Lanius sclach Tarbdla Colony Great Grey Shrike L. excubitor One, Barotha Whistling Thrushi Myiophoneus cacrulcus One, Haro R. Humes Wheatear Oenanthe alboniger One, nr Barotha Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata Uncommon Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata one, nr Barotha Streaked Fantail Warb. Cisticola juncidis Several, Gorge Red-headed Bunting Emberiza brunneiceps One, nr Dher Common Babbler Turdoides caudatus Common Wall Creeper Tichodroma muraria One, nr Haro R. House Sparrow Passer domesticus Common, villages Common Mynah Acridotheres tristis Common, agriculturo Bank Mynah A. gingianus Scarce. House Crow Corvus splendens abundant, but more so away from river Raven C. corax Pair nr Mandori MAMMALS: Jackal Canis aureus Road kill just inside Tarbeda gate Rat. Species Burrows ca. 2'dia, common on permanent islands Swine Sus scrofa Tracks and diggings on one island. * Includes all species observed in 1990 and 1991 field surveys. E.2 APPENDIX F APPENDIX F DESCRIPTION OF ANOPHELES AND BIMULIUM BREEDING SITES INVESTIGATED A water dipper with a long handle was used to collect samples by taking repeated dips of water with the sampler and examining the water for mosquito larvae or pupae. Cobbles in fast water were examined to find Simulium larvae and pupae. An effort was made to sample a variety of habitats to determine the kinds of sites that support Anopheles and Simulium breeding and those that do not. Drawing 4.1 shows the approximate locations of the sites investigated. Site a. Tarbela dam face; a small grassy seep near the base of the dam, about 50 first or second instar Anopheles larvae per dip, no Simulium larvae on trailing grass although it was a favorable site. Site b,c,d. Accumulations of polluted water along roadside on right side of Indus river heading towards Topi. No Anopheles breeding. Site e. Right bank small village (Batakara), open drain, stagnant water, heavily polluted, 100's of Culex larvae and pupae per dip. No Anopheles breeding. Site g. Main channel right side of Indus river, downstream from Pontia; shallow clear water silt bottom, protected by grassy vegetation, little water movement, small first or second instar Anopheles larvae present, about 2 per dip. Site h. Same area as Site g but further downstream, grass and shallow clear water, silty substrate, small first and second instar Anopheles larvae present. Site i. Main channel, same area as Site g, substrate gravel and cobbles, no vegetation, water clear, not moving, no Anopheles breeding. Site k. Near Aldo on left bank in, Indus river, fast clear water flowing over cobbles, looks like a good Simulium breeding site, no larvae or pupae. Site 1. Same area as Site k, but in still pools with cobble and gravel substrate, no Anopheles breeding. Site m. Left bank Indus river, near barrage site, sandy margins in embayment with sparse vegetation, no Anopheles breeding. F.1 Site n. Same area as Site o, pools of still water with cobble and gravel substrate, no Anopheles breeding. Site o. On left bank, similar to Site n, no Anopheles breeding. Site p. Ghurghusti area downstream of nullah on banks of Indus river, substrate all gravel and cobbles, water clear, moving slowly, no Anopheles breeding. Site q. Same area, in nullah about 3 m wide, 3 km downstream of Jalalia, water clear, rapidly flowing over cobbles, imuliu larvae and pupae present, about 50 per cobble. Site r. A little further downstream in a silty field with short grass vegetation. Very small Anophle larvae present in small open pool of still water that connected with an eroded channel leading to the river; also present in adjacent pools with emergent grass. Site s. Same area as Site r, main channel, slow water movement, silty bottom, no Anopheles breeding. Site t. Near Site r, good Simulium site in Indus river, fast flowing water over cobbles, no Simulium breeding. Water has receded drastically about 0.5 m today. Such rapid fluctuation of water level would inhibit or prevent Simulium breeding. Site u. Near Akhundheri, right bank with a wide band of cobbles observed on right bank, not sampled as inaccessible, left bank appears silty with no vegetation, slow water movement, both probably unsuitable for Anopheles breeding, not sampled. Site v. Indus river just before junction with Kabul river. Right and left banks, both gently sloping silty substrate, beachlike, probably unfavourable for Anopheles breeding but not sampled. ,Site w. Barotha village, slowly moving nullah with silty substrate polluted, shallow, about 3 m wide, no Anopheles breeding. F.2 ENAD