STUDIES ON FLORAL BIODIVERSITY OF DISTRICT MIANWALI AND ALLIED AREAS WITH EMPHASIS ON ETHNOBOTANICAL USES

BY

RIAZ ALI SHAH

Department of Plant Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad Pakistan 2013 STUDIES ON FLORAL BIODIVERSITY OF DISTRICT MIANWALI AND ALLIED AREAS WITH EMPHASIS ON ETHNOBOTANICAL USES

A Thesis Submitted to the Quaid-i-Azam University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

In Plant Sciences (Plant Systematics & Biodiversity)

By

RIAZ ALI SHAH

Department of Plant Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad Pakistan 2013 IN THE NAME OF ALLAH

IN THE NAME OF

ALLAH

The Most Merciful

The Most Beneficent

CERTIFICATE

This thesis, submitted by Mr. Riaz Ali Shah, is accepted in its present form by the Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad Pakistan as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Plant Sciences (Plant Systematics & Biodiversity).

SUPERVISOR ______(Prof. Dr. Mir Ajab Khan)

EXTERNAL EXAMINAR-1 ______

EXTERNAL EXAMINAR-2 ______

CHAIRPERSON ______(Department of Plant Sciences)

Date______CONTENTS

TITLES Page No

CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction to district Mianwali (Punjab) 1 1.1 Location 1 1.2 Geographical Division 1 1.3 Geo-climate 1 1.4 Ethnic structure and brief history 7 1.5 Linguistics 7 1.6 Places of interest 7 1.7 Hhydrography 8 1.8 Geomorphology 8 1.9 Soil 8 1.10 Area statement 8 1.11 Population size, growth and distribution 8 1.12 Agriculture : A socio-economic perspective of the area 10 1.13 Agroecology 12 1.14 Fauna of the area 12 1.15 Flora of the area 12 1.16 Indigenous culture for ethnobotanical uses 14 1.2 Ethnobotany : History and field guide to explore plant resources 15 1.2.1 Ethnobotanical culture and exploration 18 1.2.2 Ethnobotanical review in Pakistan 20 1.2.3 Worldwide overview of ethnobotany 29 1.3 Back ground justification for ethnobotanical exploration in district Mianwali 35 1.4 Objectives 35

CHAPTER: 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 District Mianwali : A heritage of ethnobotanical resources 36 2.2 Documentation of Ethnobotanical information 36 2.3 Plant collection and identification 37

2.3.1 Floral and ethnobotanial inventory 37 2.3.2 Pictorial guide 37

2.3.3 Questionnaire : Ethnobotanical documentation 38

CHAPTER: 3 RESULTS 45

CHAPTER: 4 DISCUSSION

4.1 Conservation of ethnobotanical resources in district Mianwali 199 4.2 Impact of urbanization on plant resources in district Mianwali 201 4.3 Documentation of indigenous knowledge in district Mianwali 202 4.4 Ethnomedicinal culture of plants utilization in District Mianwali 203 4.5 Relationship between community and medicinal plants in district Mianwali 205 4.6 Medicinal plants collection, processing and storage 207 4.7 Ethnoveterinary Knowledge in Mianwali 209 4.7.1 POTENTIAL OF ETHNOVETERINARY MEDICINE (EVM) IN MIANWALI 210 4.7.2 THREATS TO ETHNOVETERINARY KNOWLEDGE 215

4.8 Pressure on fuel wood and timber yielding species 217

4.9 Poverty alleviation & non timber forest products (NTFPs) 217 4.10 Impact of fodder species 218 4.11 Vegetables and pot herbs of the area 219 4.12 Beekeeping is useful incentive 220 4.13 Use of fruits yielding species 220 4.14 Current thinking and conservation strategy of Biodiversity in the Area 221 4.15 Conclusion 222 4.16 Recommendations 223

CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES 228

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praises to Almighty ALLAH, Who gave me the ability and strength to complete this project and all respects are for His last Prophet MUHAMMAD (Peace and Blessing of Allah Be Upon Him) guided me in every sphere of my life.

I am highly grateful to my research supervisor Prof. Dr. Mir Ajab Khan, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad for his constant guidance, amicable behavior, timely suggestions, and inspiration and encouragement throughout my studies.

I acknowledge the moral support and encouragement from Prof. Dr. Asghari Bano, Chairperson & Dean, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad Pakistan.

I am greatly indebted to Dr. Mushtaq Ahamd, Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad for his co-operation, valuable suggestion, company and guidance during field visits always make me successful in every field of life.

Sincere thanks are extended to Dr. Muhammad Zafar, Herbarium Botanist, Department of Plant Sciences, Q.A.U., for his encouraging behavior, co-operation and support he rendered for completing my thesis.

Special thanks are extended to Dr. Shazia Sutlana, Sufayan and Farooq Dept. of Plant Sciences, Q.A.U. for their prayers. Words always seem to shallow whenever it comes to my dearest and loving family members. I am absolutely nothing without their support, guidance, encouragement and especially their prayers.

RIAZ ALI SHAH LIST OF PLATES Plate # Title Plate 1 View of Namal Lake surrounding by indigenous community of Chakrala Plate 2 A view of Geomorphology of the Area Plate 3 A Historical Town of Kalabagh Plate 4 Indigenous communities surrounding by floral resources Plate 5 Mining in the area Plate 6 Drought in the area Plate 7 Agricultural extension : A threat to floral diversity Plate 8 Salt Deposits near Mari Indus Plate 9 Reserve Urial at Kalabagh Plate 10 A view of nomadic life Plate 11 Grazing : A Threat to Floral Diversity Plate 12 Fuel Wood Consumption : A Threat to Floral Diversity Plate 13 Field Data on Floral Diversity by Author Plate 14 Floral Identification in field Plate 15 Ethnobotanical Documentation through male interviews Plate 16 Documentation on Indigenous recipe through Questionnaire Plate 17 Interviews from villagers Plate 18 Ethnobotanical Documentation through female interviews Plate 19 Information gathering from shopkeeper about home made products Plate 20 Information on Bee Flora Plate 21 Witania coagulans Plate 22 Echinops echinatus Plate 23 Tecumela undulata Plate 24 Argemone mexicana Plate 25 Solanum incanum Plate 26 Ocimum americanum Plate 27 Opuntia dillini Plate 28 Salvadaro persica Plate 29 Overgrazing by goats Plate 30 Stunted growth by overgrazing Plate 31 Use of Plant in thatching Plate 32 Traditional house made of plants Plate 33 People meeting place (Jirga) made up of plants Plate 34 Shelter by the Dandrocalamus strictus Plate 35 Use of plants in making home Plate 36 Storage of Wheat husk Plate 37 Interviews in the filed by the author Plate 38 Interview from local herb seller Plate 39 Trichodesma indicum Plate 40 Acassia nilotica Plate 41 Punica granatum Plate 42 Uromastic (A type of Lizard) in the area Plate 43 Seagull at the bank of River Indus Plate 44 Way of transportation by Camel Plate 45 Herbal Market Survey Plate 46 Herbal Products display Plate 47 Traditional well (for drinking and irrigation purposes) Plate 48 Local hand pump for drinking purpose Plate 49 Prosopus ciniraria Plate 50 Boerhaavia procumbense Plate 51 Zizyphus jujuba (wild fruit) Plate 52 Typha ungustifolia Plate 53 Periploca aphylla Plate 54 Ceropegia bulbosa Plate 55 Ottostegia limbata Plate 56 Ajuga bracteosa Plate 57 Silybum marianum Plate 58 View of Dense Vegetation Plate 59 Grasses on hills Plate 60 A View of River Indus passing through Kalabagh Plate 61 Overgrazing of domestic goats : A serious threat to plant biodiversity Plate 62 Overgrazing view Plate 63 Overgrazing by Cattles Plate 64 Overgrazing in cultivated lands Plate 65 Hibiscus wild species Plate 66 Heliotropium strigosum Plate 67 Industrialization : A serious threat to biodiversity Plate 68 Newly established industries in the area Plate 69 Collection of fuel by children Plate 70 A female member carrying fuel wood Plate 71 Wood cutter doing his job Plate 72 Huge storage of fuel wood Plate 73 Deforestation in area Plate 74 Fuel wood cutting and transportation Plate 75 Collection of Grass fodder Plate 76 Collection and drying of medicinal plants Plate 77 Transportation of timber wood Plate 78 A View of Fuel Wood Transportation in remote village (Mari Indus) Plate 79 Dried cow dung (an alternative fuel source) Plate 80 Tea prepration through the use of dried cow dung Plate 81 Labour making sheets Plate 82 Sheets overview in the market Plate 83 Bamboo for sale Plate 84 Different kinds of sheets Plate 85 Sheet preparation on machine Plate 86 Display of sheets and other things Plate 87 Some plant based products Plate 88 Fancy and other items Plate 89 Shelves and baskets etc. Plate 90 Decoration pieces Plate 91 Baskets and sweeping products Plate 92 Different types of sweeping products Plate 93 Kitchen used items and some other products Plate 94 Products made by Arundo donax Plate 95 Kitchen accessories Plate 96 The use of wooden handles Plate 97 Pestle made of wood Plate 98 Display of ropes Plate 99 Fodder collection at home level Plate 100 Mechanical cutting of fodder Plate 101 Agricultural implements Plate 102 Shovel (Belcha) Plate 103 Vegetables display in the market Plate 104 Fresh vegetables Plate 105 Fruits and aerial parts of some herbs Plate 106 Herbal products Plate 107 Honey Bee keeping boxes Plate 108 Brassica campestris (Honey bee visiting plant) Plate 109 Helianthus annus (Honey bee visiting plant) Plate 110 Rosa alba (Honey bee visiting plant) Plate 111 Flowers and bucket display Plate 112 Rose petals for ceremonies Plate 113 Aquatic Flora of the area Plate 114 Nelumbo nucifera Plate 115 A local healer administrating the goats Plate 116 Treading dog Plate 117 Licking Salt and powdered herbs LIST OF FIGURES

Figure # Title Page No. Fig. 1 Map of Pakistan, showing the Study Area 2 Fig. 2 Map of District Mianwali 3 Fig. 3. Map showing the dominant vegetation places 4 Fig. 4 Percentage interviews among various respondents 44 Fig. 5 Various Age Groups with Percentage Interviews 44 Fig. 6 Plants used in different fields of life 198 Fig. 7 Mode of adminstration of recipies 199

LIST OF TABLES Table # Title Page No.

Table 1 Check List of Medicinal Plants Used for Livestock diseases in District 163 Mianwali Table 2 Fuel Wood Species of District Mianwali 166

Table 3 Distribution of the sample household according to their size 168 Table 4 Distribution of the sample household according to land holding size 169 Table 5 Distribution of sample household by fuelwood sources 169 Table 6 Mechanism of fuelwood supply 169 Table 7 Timber Yielding Species of District Mianwali 176 Table 8 Fodder and Forage species of District Mianwali 178 Table 9 Plants of District Mianwali used in Making Agricultural Implements (Tools) 184 Table 10 Key To Ethnobotanical Description 184 Table 11 Plants species of District Mianwali used as vegetables and Pot herbs 185 Table 12 Bee flora of District Mianwali providing the Nectar and Pollen to honey bees 188 Table 13 Fruit yielding Species of District Mianwali 190 Table 14 Market Value of Medicinal Plants in District Mianwali 191

Table 15 A market value of some important vegetables in local markets 192

ABSTRACT

This study confined to the ethnobotanical exploration in District Mianwali and

surrounding areas based on plant resources with particular emphasis on documentation of

indigenous knowledge from local communities. The area is located adjacent to salt range and

arid region of Punjab Province, Pakistan with unique hills of Kala Bagh Estate, Musa khail and

Chashma Barrage. The study was carried out to assess the linkage among the people with the

ethnobotanical potential of the area. The people of the area have close relationship with

surrounding plant resources and have for a long time dependent on plant resources for their food,

health, shelter, fodder, fuel wood and other cultural purposes. In total 448 species were reported

to be used for various purposes as 150 species of medicinal value, 71 as ethnoveterinary, 40 fuel

wood, 16 timber, 66 fodder, 14 of agricultural implements, 45 vegetables / pots herbs, 31 bee

flora and 15 species were used as fruit yielding. It is stated from this study that the area has great

potential of plant resources with rich heritage of indigenous knowledge regarding the use of

these species. However during the surveys it was found that the area is under severe pressure of habitat degradation, population pressure, extensive cutting of fuel wood, timber and non timber

forest products (NTFPs) species. The study concludes that there is the need of time to aware the

indigenous communities to protect and conserve their plant resources by educating each other for sustainable development and utilization. The study strongly recommend to adopt practical measures including in-situ and ex-situ conservation strategies by the Government, policy makers,

forest departments, wild life institutions by the involvement of local communities for future

generation.

Introduction Chapter 1

1 INTRODUCTION TO DISTRICT MIANWALI (PUNJAB)

1.1 Location

District Mianwali is located in the North West of the Punjab province. It represents the plains of the western part of the salt-ranges near the Sakesar hill (Iftikhar, 1964). It has eight district boundaries; Attock district in the North, Chakwal in the North East, Bhakkar in the South, Khushab in the East, Laki Marwat in the West, Kohat and Karak in the North West and D.I Khan in the South West (Census, 1998). District Mianwali is geographically located between 32° 30′ and 33° 14′ N. and 71° 7′ and 71° 44′ E., with an area of 5840 square KM. Most of the area is the continuation of Potohar Pleatue and Salt Range.

1.2 Geographical Division

The Mianwali district consists of various towns including Musa Khel, Mianwali, Kalabagh, Isakhel, Kundian, Daud Khel, Kamar Mushani, Mochh etc. Among these Mianwali City is the largest town with 100000 populations. Kundian is the 2nd largest town where Chashma Nuclear Power Plant, Chashma Barrage and Kundian - Jehlum link canal are located. Kalabagh is famous due to the red salt hills (Plate 8), Indus river (Plate 60), Kalabagh Dam and the Nawab of Kalabagh. Isakhel is famous to Niazi tribe, while Kamar Mushani is famous due to minerals trade (Plate 05, 58).

1.3 Geo-climate

Climate of the district as a whole is extreme with long hot summer and cold dry winters. June-July is the hottest months with average maximum temperature is 48 oC while December-January are the coldest months with average minimum temperature 4-5 oC. For the district as a whole the rain fall is scanty and uncertain. The average rain fall in the district is 400 mm.

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Fig. 1. Map of Pakistan, showing the Study Area

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Fig. 2. Map of District Mianwali

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Fig. 3. Map showing the dominant vegetation places

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Plate 1.View of Namal Lake surrounding by indigenous community of Chakrala

Plate 2. A view of Geomorphology of the Area

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Plate 3 A Historical Town of Kalabagh

Plate 4 Indigenous communities surrounding by floral resources

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1.4 ETHNIC STRUCTURE AND BRIEF HISTORY

Mianwali District owes its name from Syed Mian Ali migrated from Baghdad (Iraq) who has laid the foundation of Mianwali. Historically all the major rulers of South Asia Goverened of this area in their turn. Current district of Mianwali was founded in November 1901. The area is predominantly inhabited by Niazi tribes followed by Awan (Malik), Jutts, Baloch, Syed, Sheikh, Mughal etc. Most of these tribes claim to be decendents of the invaders who came from Central Asia and Afghanistan. Tribal and ethnic affiliations are still very strong. However, this trend is showing signs of weakening with the spread of modern education, social awareness besides the emergence of a new class of people working abroad.

1.5 LINGUISTICS

The mother tongue of 90% household is Siraiki while 10% had other languages like Hindko, Urdu, Pustho etc. There are, of course differences in dialects with in the area among the Siraki speaking people.

1.6 PLACES OF INTEREST

There are a number of historical monuments in the area which are famous throughout the country. Some of the major ones are;

(i) Kalabagh Dam (ii) Chashma Barrage (iii) Jinnah Barrage (iv) Namal Lake (Plate 1) (v) Thal Desert (vi) River Indus (vii) Kalabagh Old Town (vii) Salt Deposits of Mari Indus

District Mianwali is the most picturesque, presenting every variety of scenery. Travel by Boat from Kalabagh to Chashma Barrage, and as you pass through the gorges, you might be on the Rhine. At Kalabagh, looking across the expanse of water, where Indus River flows, to the green clads slopes of the Kalabagh estate. Water is also used from traditional wells and hand pumps (Plate 47 & 48).

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1.7 HYDROGRAPHY

The whole district is drained through local tributaries into the river Indus. paradoxically, the river Indus has a great value to the district for irrigation purposes.

1.8 GEOMORPHOLOGY

The area for the most part is in the “Pothwar” and “Salt Range”. The rocks which underlie the “Pothwar” are the soft grey sand-stones and orange to bright red shale’s. While the Salt deposits are red and white in color. Lime stones, clay, gypsum, coal, dolomite and stransium sulphate are important mineral recourses of District Mianwali and allied areas (Plate 2).

1.9 SOIL

Topography of the whole area is the combination of hills and semi arid planes. In general, the soil of the area take their character from the underlying rocks and are in consequence either limestone or sandstone detritus. But there are wide variations from this rule. Lands of the Kalabagh (Plate 3 & 4) nearest to Indus River are fertile in quality, sandy and stony. But remaining area is very semi arid and soil is rich in loam and alluvial deposits from the Indus and surrounding hills (Anon, 1968).

1.10 AREA STATEMENT

The total area of the district is 5840 Sq. KM. The forests areas vary considerably in size from 250 acres to 40220 acres.

1.11 POPULATION SIZE, GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION

Population as a whole is sparse as compared to other districts of Punjab, but there is a marked difference of its density in the fertile “Mianwali City” area and the remaining hilly areas and upland plains of the district. The total population of Mianwali district is 1,057,240 souls according to the 1998 population census. It increased by 50% during the 1981-1998 intercensal period (17 years) at an average annual growth rate of 2.2%. The urban population was 17.3% of total population which grew at an average annual growth rate of 3.5 % during 1981-1998. Rest of the population that was about 82.7% which is rural (Anon, 1998). ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 8

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Plate 5 Mining in the area

Plate 6 Drought in the area

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1.12 AGRICULTURE : A SOCIO-ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE OF THE AREA

During the last two decades, the socio-economic structure of the area has considerably changed. The people of the tract are essentially agriculturists but their holdings are too small to provide subsistence. The people also find it difficult to maintain large number of cattle. Ploughing by bullocks has been replaced by mechanical methods by 90%. Each family prefers to rear a few cattle or some goats mainly for milk. Herds of goats and sheep have almost disappeared except joint herds. The practice of stall feeding is limited. Browsing by bakerwals has been permitted by the Government in right-free areas causing an adverse pressure on the forests (Plate 7).

People mostly depend for domestic firewood on forests, as only a small part of their requirements is met from private lands. Use of bottled gas in villages and piped gas in Mianwali city have greatly reduced dependence on forests for fire wood.

Proclaimed offenders have often found refuge in Kalabagh, Essa Khel, Mari Inuds forests. As a result, the small habitations inside and around the forest have shifted to safe places releasing pressure on the forest resources to some extent.

Economy of the major population, about 85% depends on Agriculture that is farming, forests, and Agriculture business. Highest average income was earned by those who have business in addition to agriculture but agriculture still remains dominant profession and source of income in the study area. But there are certain problems in relation to agriculture that is, inadequate water for agricultural purposes (Arid areas), salinity and chronic land erosion in the area are major obstacles in the way of Agriculture development. In order to boost agricultural production, important measures may be adopted to solve these problems of the Agricultural land otherwise land will lose fertility and become arid and barren which ultimately cause bad effects on the socio-economic structure of the area.

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Plate 7 Agricultural extension : A threat to floral diversity

Plate 8 Salt Deposits near Mari Indus

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1.13 AGROECOLOGY

The people of the area are essentially agriculturist and their main occupation is farming. Practically the whole population (85%) resident in rural areas and large proportion of the urban population is either engaged in or dependent on agriculture. They cultivate various crops such as Groundnut, Maize, Mustard, Cotton, Sugarcane, Rocket Seeds, Cluster Beans and wheat etc. large part of the area is cultivated by vegetables such as cauliflower, cabbage, Gourds, Melons, Radish, Turnip and other green vegetables that is coriander, fenugreek, spinach etc. People of the area have also the fast growing trees such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Dalbergia sissoo, Morus sp, Melia azedarach etc. for timber and fuelwood consumption.

1.14 FAUNA OF THE AREA Variety of the wild animals are found in different tracts of the area and are of considerable importance. The mountain sheep or Urial (Plate 9) affords the best large game in the Kalabagh range and outlying spurs. The Ravine deer or Chinkara (Indian gazelle) generally called Hiran, occurs in the arid region of tehsil Essa Khel. The Jackal is occasionally seen and constantly heard in all parts of the tract. The blue rock pigeon is common especially in the Kalabagh hills. Domestic camels are also abundant in this area (Plate 10 & 44). The grey partridge (tittar) is fairly common everywhere but black partridge is found very rarely. Although there is a large variety to choose from, sport in the area is not good but game hunting would probably be more plentiful. If there were not such a large number of guns always ready to shoot it wherever it is to be found, and if netting and snaring were not such prevalent practices with the natives of the area.

1.15 FLORA OF THE AREA The flora of the area is very unique due to diverse habitat, soil, topography etc. The forest range include the Kalabagh, Kunidan and Kachha forest near Indus river. There are various preserved areas. All the large landowners make their own rakhs, in which they carefully preserve the grasses and wood species and allow no one to trespass. Everywhere the most common tree is the Acacia modesta (Phulai). The more graceful Acacia nilotica (Kiker) is found along roads. Dalbergia sissoo (Tali) is fairly common in the richest parts of the area. The other commonest hill wood is Olea ferruginea (Kao) and Prosopis

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Plate 9 Reserve Urial at Kalabagh

Plate 10 A view of nomadic life

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juliflora (Velati kiker). Melia azedarach (Dherak) grows wild as well as planted on well’s fields and houses. The Morus alba, (Chitta Toot), Morus nigra (Kala Toot), Eucalyptus sp. (Lachi) are found among roadsides trees in the area.

By far the common hill shrubs are Adhatoda vasica (Bekkar), Dodonaea viscosa (Sanatha), Rhazya stricta (Sawa veirana), Withania coagulens (Panir dodi) etc. The grasses of the area are of considerable importance as in many places where there is very little fodder to be had for the cattle. Similarly there is a great diversity of herbs in various tracts of the area. The common herbs are, Amaranthus sp, (Chauli) Boerhaavia procumbens, (Gulabi Itsit), Asphodelus tenuifolius (Bokat), Carthamus oxyacantha (Poli), Chenopodium sp, (Bathua), Silybum marianum (Plate 57) (Kandari), Peganum harmla (Harmal), Trianthema portulacastrum (Itsit) etc.

Adjoining to the arable croplands are the dry rugged low hills or mountain ranges with poor soils. They are generally represented by sparsely distributed scrubs of Adhatoda, Dodonaea, Periploca (Plate 53) and Otostegia (Plate 55) species with a large variety of grasses and a few trees of Acacia modesta, olive, Melia or oaks. These areas generally serve as rangelands for livestock grazing (Plate 29, 61, 62, 63 & 64). Unchecked grazing and extensive fuel wood collection during the last few centuries have changed it into scrubs (Plate 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 & 78).

1.16 INDIGENOUS CULTURE FOR ETHNOBOTANICAL USES

The area has a rural culture of old traditions and the local people have their own principle and choice for a village site house, family, dress and ornaments, weddings, Childbirth, death ceremonies, cultural functions, festivals and socio-religious belief. The local ladies are more dynamic and laborious in comparison to the gents. The lack of communication with modern civilization have kept them closer to nature where they derive many of their day-to-day needs. The people of the area are very much close to natural vegetation, both in their habitat and livelihood. Hence, the people of the area have empirical observations of nature and by communicating with other people of their culture, they get indigenous knowledge about the local plants. They are, thus gaining the

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indigenous knowledge generation after generation from their ancestors. The plant and plant materials available from the nearly area are used as food, fodder, medicine, veterinary medicines, timbers, households, oilseeds and also for socio-religious and other purposes. Similarly, local people in various villages of the area gathered indigenous medicinal plants in different seasons of the year for marketing, personal use and whole community use with in the area. So, in this way, the Ethnobotanical knowledge of wild and cultivated plant use is linked to local culture and history.

1.2 ETHNOBOTANY : HISTORY AND FIELD GUIDE TO EXPLORE PLANT RESOURCES

Indigenous knowledge is as old as human civilization but the term ethnobotany was first coined by an American botanist, Harshburger, in 1896, to study the plants used by the primitive and aboriginal people. Since then it has been defined as the traditional knowledge of indigenous communities, about surrounding plant diversity and as the study of how the people of a particular culture and region make use of indigenous plants. Ethnobotany has its roots in botany. Botany, in turn originated in part from an interest in finding plants to help fight illness. In fact, medicine and botany have close ties. Many of today's drugs have been derived from plant resources. (Pei, 1995)

It can also be seen as the basic data gathering stage of the ethnobotanical discipline. At present the ethnobotany has shifted its focus from the use of plants by people to the relationship between people and plants, which include use, cognition and ecology. Recent definitions of ethnobotany (Balick and Cox 1996; Cotton 1996; Ford, 1994; Turner, 1995) demonstrate consensus on the move to include more than just use by focusing on the relationship between people and plants. However, there is not consensus whether the discipline should focus on all people or traditional and indigenous people. Neither Cotton (1996) nor Balick and Cox (1996) provide a clear argument as to why ethnobotany should be limited to traditional and or indigenous peoples.

The study of direct interaction between human and plant population through its culture each human plants, developed attitudes, believes and learn the use of plants, while human behavior has a direct impact on the plant communities with which they interact, the plants themselves also impose limitations on humans, these mixtures interactions are focuses of ethnobotany. Early ethnobotanical work and indeed much even today was often purely

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descriptive, concerned primarily with making lists of plants used for various purposes, together with their local names. Such study has been of little direct use for conservation or rural development.

No one knows when or where plants first began to be used in the treatment of diseases, but the connection between plants and health has existed for thousands of years, evidence of this early association has been found in grave of a Neanderthal man buried 60,000 years ago. An accidental discovery of some new plant food or juice that eased pain or relieved fever might have been the beginning of folk knowledge, which was passed down for generations and eventually became the foundation of medicine. The earliest known medical document is a 4,000 years old Sumerian clay tablet that recorded plant remedies for various illnesses. By the time of the ancient Egyptian civilization, a great wealth of information already existed on medicinal plants. This information, along with hundreds of other remedies, was preserved in the “Ebers papyrus” about 3500 years ago. Ancient China is also a source of information about the early medicinal uses of plants. The “Pun-tsao” a pharmacopoeia published in 1600 contained thousands of herbal cures. In India, herbal medicine dates back several thousands years to the “Rig-Veda”. This led to a system of health care known as Ayurvedic medicine. Western medicine can be traced back to the Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377B.C.), known as the father of medicine. He believed that diseases had natural causes and used various herbal remedies in his treatments. Early Romans writings also influenced the development of western medicine, especially the work of Dioscorides (1st century A.D.). Although Greek by birth, Dioscorides compiled this information in De Materia Medica, which contained an account of over 600, species of plants with medicinal value. Dioscorides work remained the standard medical reference in most of Europe for the next 1500 years, since little new knowledge was added during the Middle Ages. Although medical botany was nearly at a stand still in Europe, progress was being made in the Islamic world. Most notables are the early eleventh century Persian, Aveicenna, who wrote a canon of medicine that included new information on herbal medicine.

Some of the most richly illustrated herbals were those written by the four German “Fathers of botany” in the sixteen century: Otto Brunfels, Jerome Bock, Leonhart Fuchs and Valerius Cordus. During this same period, the Englishman John Gerard published his famous work, “The herbal or general Histories of plants” in 1597. Other English herbals ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 16

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published in the mid seventeen century were John Parkin son’s “Theartrum Botanicum”. The “Complete herbal” of Nicholas culpepper, is one of the most popular herbal of the day. All the herbals focused on the medicinal uses of plants. The most famous advocate of the Doctrine of signatures was early 16th century Swiss herbalist Paracelsus. He believed that medicinal uses of plants could easily be ascertained by recognizing distinct “Signatures” visible on plants that corresponded to human anatomy. For example the red juice of blood wort should be used to treat blood disorders, and lobed appearance of liverworts suggested their use in treating liver complaints. During eighteenth century, a dichotomy in medicine developed between practitioners of herbal medicines and regular physicians. Although herbalism banned in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many of the remedies employed by the herbalists provided effective treatment. Some of these became useful prescriptions, as physicians began experimenting with therapeutic agents. William Withering was the first in the medical field to scientifically investigate a fold remedy. His studies (1775-1785) of foxglove as a treatment of dropsy set the standard for pharmaceutical chemistry (Levetin and Mcmahon 1999).

Since the beginning of human civilisation, people have used plants as medicine. Perhaps as early as Neanderthal man, plants were believed to have healing power. The earliest uses are found in Babylonian circa 1770 BC in the code of Hammurabi and in ancient Egypt circa 1550 BC. In fact, ancient Egyptians believed that medicinal plants to have utility even in the afterlife of their pharaohs. Plants have been recorded from the Giza pyramids and can be found on display in a dark corner of Cairo Museum.

The herbal medicines occupy distinct position right from the primitive period to present day. The ethnobotanical pharmacology is as old as man himself. In Indo-Pak first record of plant medicine were compiled in Rig Veda between 4500-1600 BC and Ayurveda between 2500-600 BC. This system traces its origin to Greek medicine, which was adopted by Arabs and then spread to India and Europe. About 80% population of the world depends on the traditional system of health care (Ahmad, 1999).

Different parts of the world contain different types of the plants. Different societies of the world use the plants according to their own beliefs and knowledge and previous experiences. Their knowledge about the use of the plants is usually not known to the other world or science. It needs to explore the hidden areas and with their plants and knowledge

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about these plants (Antony, 2001). This exploration is done by ethnobotany. Ethnobotanists explore how plants are used for such things as food, shelter, clothing, medicine and religious ceremonies (Ambara, 2001).

Today ethnobotany is widely accepted as a science of human interactions with plants and its ecosystem. The fundamental structure of ethnobotanical research is to examine the dynamic relationship between human population, cultural values and plants. Ethnobotany is more than simply a study of plants useful to people, for it’s devoted to understanding the limitations and behavioral consequences of human population’s action on their plant environment. The concept of neutraceutical i.e. use of plant for health and food gives new perspectives in medicinal plant research. To know these objectives a number of efforts have been made internationally as well as nationally.

1.2.1 ETHNOBOTANICAL CULTURE AND EXPLORATION

Pakistan is divided into nine major ecological zones, which are endowed with over 6000 unique plant species. Due to its diverse climate, Pakistan is quite rich in medicinal herbs, which are scattered over a large area. These herbs are growing in the wild and no methodical attempt has been made to collect and cultivate them. Most of these plants have remarkable medicinal and economic value, often only known to indigenous communities of Pakistan. In Pakistan, medicinal plants are primarily used by Tibbi dawakhanas (medical centers of indigenous physicians known as Hakims). Unfortunately, very little attention has been paid to the ethnobotanical aspect of plants as Hakims are only concerned with the floral and vegetative parts of medicinal plants without any regard to their botanical characteristics, or distribution in the various ecological zones of Pakistan. Herbs are not only used in the ayurvedic system of treatment but in the preparation of many allopathic and homeopathic drugs: no wonder these herbs are now being commercially exploited for the extraction of various ingredients.

Though ethnobotany is a well-known discipline all over the world yet in Pakistan it is not a developed field. In our own region most of the countries such as China, India and Bangladesh a lot of research has been carried out and indigenous plants are extensively used to prepare quality medicines. Recently some national and multinational companies and organizations have developed interest in the field of ethnobotany. Among these WWF

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and Qarshi industries are at the top of the list. Qarshi industries are pioneer in establishing national herb center for the conservation of medicinal plants and providing all kinds of information including cultivation methods and tissues culture of these plants. WWF is also working in collaboration with the Pakistan Council for scientific and industrial research (PCSIR) and National Resource Conservation Project (NRCP). They organize training workshops for the conservation of medicinal plants. They are also educating people about conservation of important species. Ministry of food, Agriculture and livestock (MINFAL) and WWF are jointly working for the cultivation of medicinal plants, production of seeds of these plants, community organization and all other activities for the conservation of these plants (Latif, 2005).

Pakistan is one of the few places on earth with such a unique biodiversity, comprising of different climatic zones with a wide range of plant species. Approx. 6000 plant species with medicinal properties are found in Pakistan. There is a dire need on the part of manufacturers of allopathic and herbal medicines to carryout extensive research on medicinal plants to save foreign exchange spend on their imports. Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants is fast diminishing because as more plants are lost, so is the knowledge of their value to humanity.

Traditional Unani medicine is a part of our culture and Pakistan is one of those countries where traditional Unani medicine is popularly practiced among the large segment of its population. It originated in Greece, founded by old ancient Greek philosophers and was used/documented by Muslims during the glorious period of Islamic civilisation. It was brought to the Indo-Pak subcontinent by Muslim scholars and practiced here for centuries. It also benefited from the Ayurvedic system of medicine, which was an important component of Hindu civilisation. Traditional Unani medicine heavily depends on medicinal plants, apart from using animals and minerals. Pakistan has a varied climate and is quite rich in medicinal herbs, though scattered over a large area. All the plants are growing wild and no systematic attempt has been made to collect and cultivate herbs in an appropriate way.

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1.2.2 ETHNOBOTANICAL REVIEW IN PAKISTAN

One of the important aspect of ethnobotany is ethnomedicinal knowledge. In Pakistan, most of the ethnomedicinal information is available from Khyber Pakhtoon Khawa, Northern Areas and Kashmir. Because of the presence of forests and difficult mountainous remote area. People of these areas rely on forest products for most of their needs.

Ahmad (1956) published a note on the plants of medicinal value from Pakistan, in which their botanical names, families, habit, vernacular names, locality and medicinal uses are mentioned. Flora of Chitral, climatic conditions and sketch of vegetation and catalogue of Plants in which 206 plants with their botanical name, locality, flowering period and distribution is mentioned (Chaudhary, 1959). A review of hundred drugs plants with their families and botanical names, distribution, description, constituents, actions and uses are given for marketing survey of medicinal plants source and origin, quality and quantity is essential. Khan (1976) conducted marketing survey of natural drug plants of Swat, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Multan, Sukhar, Lahore and Karachi. He mentioned botanical names of the species, their part used, source of collection, mode of disposal of drug, approximate quantity sold during 1976 and rates per Kg. A compendium of medicinal plants was made by Ikram and Hussain (1978) in which annual consumption and approximate value in rupees, constituents and references of 138 medicinal plants of Pakistan is presented.

Ahmed (1956) published a note on the plant of medicinal value found in Pakistan, with their botanical names, families, habit, vernacular names, locality and medicinal uses. 356 plant species are noted in this document. Chaudhry (1959) described the flora of Chitral and mentioned the area, climatic conditions, and sketch of vegetation and catalogue of plants, in which he mentioned 206 plants each with its botanical name, locality, flowering period, and distribution. Zaman and Khan (1970) reviewed families, botanical and local names, distribution, description, constituents, action and uses of hundred drug plants of West Pakistan.

Khan (1976) made a marketing survey of natural drug plants of Swat, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Multan, Sukkar, Lahore and Karachi and mentioned their names, part used, source of collection, mode of disposal of drugs, approximate quantity sold during 1976,

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and rates per kgs. Ikram and Hussain (1978) made a compendium of medicinal plants and mentioned botanical, vernacular names, annual consumption, approx. value in (Rs), and imported from of 92 medicinal plants and mentioned botanical names, part used, quantity in Kg and value in rupees of 9 medicinal plants, exported from Pakistan and also mentioned botanical names, constituents and references of 138 medicinal plants of Pakistan.

Noor (1978) studied comparison of grazed and ungrazed vegetation of sub alpine ecological zone at Sari and found higher air-dried forage production and vegetation cover in the closure than in the adjacent grazed area. Khan et al., (1979) described family, part used, description, histology, constituents and uses of 53 medicinal plants of West Pakistan. Haq and Shah (1986) described 33 medicinal plants of Peshawar district (Khyber Pakhtonkhwa) Pakistan, with their botanical and local names, part used, constituents, descriptions and uses.

Akram and Nazir (1991) described herbal drug store for Rawalpindi and Islamabad (Pakistan) and mentioned 74 medicinal plants each with its botanical and local names, distribution, habit, uses and herbal drug name. Hamid et al., (1991) described 10 medicinal plants of family Cucurbitaceae of Pakistan, each with its botanical name, other names, local name, locality, description, flowering and fruiting periods, part used, chemical composition, and uses.

Khan and Ahmed (1991) studied marketing of herbal drugs and its problems and mentioned 250 plant species each with its botanical and local names, part used, quantity consumed in tons/annum and source from pansar markets of Peshawer, Mardan, Lahore, Rawalpindi, Faisalabad, Multan, Bhawalpur, Hyderabad and Karachi. Goodman and Ghafoor (1992) conducted an ethnobotanical study in Baluchistan and collected information about 114 plant species used by nomads and village dewellers for utilitarian and medicinal purposes.

Siddiqui and Amjad (1992) studied marketing of wood fuels in Peshawar city (Pakistan). They mentioned national energy situation, historical perspective, factors effecting choice of fuel wood (Plate 12), influence of fuel type, energy consumption in household sector, house hold fuel expenditure, comparative prices of different fuels, future

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trend in market demand for wood fuels, energy consumption in commercial sector, wood fuel consumption in Government sector, total market demand for wood fuels, wood fuel supplies basic marketing factor product quality, marketing channel, prices, charcoal prices, and price trends. Ansari et al., (1993) described 35 medicinal plants of 23 families from district Khairpur, Sindh (Pakistan), each with its botanical and vernacular names, family and uses.

Haq and Hussain (1993) described 55 medicinal plants from Mansehra, (Pakistan), each with its family, botanical name, synonym, English and other names, part used, distribution, constituents, local and medicinal uses. Khan (1994) described the past and present status of natural thorn tropical forests in Punjab (Pakistan), which were the main source of fire wood supplies for urban and rural population and concluded that the natural tropical thorn forests of Punjab had almost disappeared due to over grazing, fueling, and wild erosion, desertification, salinity and water logging. Leporatti and Lattanzi (1994) described 27 medicinal plants used ethnobotanically in Makran, (Southern Pakistan) and discussed their traditional medicinal uses.

Siddiqui (1994) studied the environmental impacts of deforestation size and scale of alternate and sustainable energy supply in dry and cold mountain areas of Pakistan. Hamid et al., (1995) described 9 medicinal plants of family Cucurbitaceae of Pakistan, each with its botanical, local and other names, description, flowering and fruiting periods, part used, constituents and uses. Haq and Hussain (1995) described 47 medicinal plants of Palandri, district Poonch, (A.J.K) along with family, botanical names, description and uses.

Sabir et al., (1995) studied the medicinal plants of family Araliaceae of Pakistan, with their botanical, other and local names locality, description, flowering and fruiting periods, part used and medicinal uses. Badshah et al., (1996) described floristic and ethnoeclogical studies on 97 medicinal plants belonging to 43 families of Pirghar Hills, S.Waziristan (Pakistan). Each plant is given with its botanical name, family, life form, leaf size and traditional uses. Hamid et al., (2009) described 6 medicinal plants of families Salvadoraceae, Sapindaceae, and Pedaliacea of Pakistan alongwith their families, botanical, local and other names, descriptions, flowering and fruiting periods, part used, constituents, uses and remarks. Bukhari (2009) described the ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants of National Park, Mackyaria, Muzaffarabad (A.J.K).

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Ahmed et al., (2010) described medicinal properties and constituents of 6 species of the genus Phyllanthus in Muzafarabad (A.J.K.). Ali et al., (1998) described 15 medicinally important plants alongwith their uses and constituents in Karachi (Pakistan). Hamid et al., (1998) studied the medicinal plants of family Datiscaceae at Lahore (Pakistan), each with its botanical and other names, distribution, description, flowering and fruiting periods, chemical composition, medicinal uses and remarks. Rizvi et al., (1998) described 5 poisonous plants having medicinal uses growing around Madinat-Al-Hikmah, Karachi (Pakistan). Each plant is given with its botanical name, family, common names, description, distribution, constituents, poisonous constituents, and severe effects of poison.

Saleem et al., (1998) studied medicinal uses and chemical composition of 11, species of genus Acacia, at Lahore (Pakistan). Each plant is given with its botanical name, medicinal uses, and chemical composition. Shinwari and Khan (1998) published a book entitled “ethnobotany of Margallah Hills, National Park, Islamabad (Pakistan). They gave information of about 160 plant species used by the local inhabitants for the treatment of diseases, as fuel wood, fodder, and for miscellaneous uses. Problems of the park were discussed and solutions were suggested. Arshad and Akram (1999) described 41 plant species belonged to 29 families each with its botanical and vernacular names, family, part used and traditional uses.

Khan et al., (1999) reviewed 88 plants belonging to 44 families dispensed by the local Hakims for the control of diabetes, at Peshawar (Pakistan), each with its botanical name, family, vernacular name, and active part. Inam et al., (2000) published a checklist as an attempt to accumulate the taxonomically nomenclature, ecological, economical and ethnobotanical information on 232 species of plants cited from the North Western areas of (Khyber Pakhtonkhwa) Pakistan. Khan et al., (2000) described the Ethnobotanical and taxonomic studies of Trianthema portulacestrum, and Boerhaavia procumbens, from Potowar region of Pakistan.

Khan et al., (2000) described ethnobotany and taxonomic study of Echinops echinatus, from Potowar region of Pakistan and mentioned that the plant is alterative, aphrodisiac, diuretic, nerving tonic, also recommended in hysteria, dyspepsia, jaundice and scrofula. Dastagir (2001) reviewed 34 medicinal plants of Mai Dhani Hills, Muzaffarabad (A.J.K) and species are arranged alphabetically with Hindi and Punjabi names, part used general

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properties and uses. Qureshi et al., (2001) studied ethnomedicinal properties of Aloe barbadensis with particular reference to the people of Nara district, Balouchistan (Pakistan). Shahzad and Qureshi (2001) studied common ethnomedicinal uses of 31 plants in Jatlan area of district Mirpur (A.J.K). Each plant is given with its botanical name, family, vernacular name, description, and uses.

Hussain et al., (2006) collected ethnobotanical data of total 12 gymnosperms belonging to four families from the local people of the Kaghan Valley, Pakistan. A complete list of the plants is given with their name, family and ethnobotanical use, distribution and occurrence. They found that inhabitants of the area have to use the medicinal plants for various purposes and have for a long time been dependent on surrounding plant resources for their food, shelter, fodder’s, health, care and other cultural purposes. Pinus roxburgii, P. wallichiana, Cedrus deodara, Abies pindrow and Taxus wallichiana are prominent gymnosperms of the area which are not only source of timber but also utilized as fuel wood and for medicinal purposes.

Shah and Khan (2006) published Checklist of medicinal plants of Siran vally Mansehra, Pakistan. They recorded ethnomedicinal uses of 80 plant species belonging to 49 families. The cultivated medicinal plants consist of 21 species. The check list and ethnomedicinal inventory was developed alphabetically by botanical name, followed by local name, family, part used and ethnomedicinal uses.

Saqib and Sultan (2005) conducted first comprehensive ethnobotanical survey in Palas valley, Pakistan. They reported 139 ethnobotanically important plant species. Most of the plants are utilized as medicine for humans (68 species). Only 3 species could be recorded for their use as veterinary medicine. There were 29 fuel species, 2 torchwood species, 28 fodder species and 10 timber species. Agricultural tools and handles were found to be made from 13 different species. Those employed for hedges, fencing and thatching included 7 species. Five species were used as spices, three for tea and 28 species were recorded for miscellaneous i.e., other than those mentioned above. Currently there are 10 major species that are brought to market for sale. They mentioned that market plants especially are under severe pressure due to ethnobotanical collections. High summer pastures are the focus areas for collection of most of the plant species and additionally intense grazing has posed a serious threat to these areas.

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Ahmad et al., (2005) innvestigated ethnobotanical resourses of Manikhel forests, Orakzai Tirah, Pakistan. The present investigations comprise 172 plant species belonging to 80 families. Bulk of these plants exhibits multiple uses. The local population is entirely rural and poor. They are primarily dependent on the forest resources for their necessities.

Hamayun (2005) conducted ethnobotanical studies of some useful Shrubs and Trees of Buner, KPK, Pakistan. It was found that 94 different plant species were used for medicinal, timber, fuel wood, fodder, ornamental, agricultural tools, Thatching, fencing, naming (folk lore) and fruit yielding purposes. They mentioned that several species are under severe pressure from local population and require protection and conservation strategies. Hamayun et al., (2005) investigated marketing of medicinal plants of Utror- Gabral Valleys of upper Swat, Pakistan. They mentioned that the residents of the area use indigenous medicinal plants for curing diseases and also sell some of them in the local market for earning their live hood. About 44 medicinal plants are collected in the area. Out of these 44 species collected and marketed, 8 species of medicinal plants are endangered, 8 species are vulnerable and 8 species are rare.

Ahmed et al., (2003) conducted ethnobotanical study of 30, cultivated plant species of Chhuchh region, Attock, Pakistan. They mentioned each species with its family, botanical name, English name, local name, part used, medicinal uses and other uses. Dastagir and Hussain (2003) published a review work on different medicinal plants.

Hussain (2003) studied pollen morphology and ethnobotany of Chrysanthemum leucanthemum from Gallies (Abbottabad), KPK, Pakistan. He mentioned botanical name, part used, distribution, polynomorph, constituents and medicinal uses of each plant species. Khan et al., (2003) studied Seabuckthorn, a magic plant of the northern areas of Pakistan. They gave various uses of this plant in the study area. Qureshi et al., (2003) studied 6, plant species belonging to family Capparidaceae around Madinat al Hikmah, karachi, Pakistan. They provided description, identification and illustrations of each species.

Shinwari and Shinwari (2003) studied medicinal and economic uses of rose with reference to ancient civilization in Islamabad, Pakistan. Ahmad et al., (2005) published a Checklist of medicinal flora of Tehsil Isakhel, district Mianwali- Pakistan. They recorded

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ethnomedicinal data on 55 plant species belonging to 52 genera of 30 families. The check list and ethnomedicinal inventory was developed alphabetically by botanical name, followed by local name, family, part used and ethnomedicinal uses. Ahmad et al., (2005) studied ethnophytotherapical approaches for the treatment of diabetes by the local inhabitants of Attock, Pakistan.

They mentioned that 37 indigenous plant species belonging to 23 Angiospermic families are used as traditional phytotherapies for the control and treatment of diabetes millitus. The rural inhabitants of the area classified these traditional phytotherapies on the basis of uses of various parts of plants and method of their uses. About 29 traditional phytotherapies were investigated from the rural inhabitants of the area. These traditional phytotherapies were classified as antidiabetic extracts, leaves, powders, flour, seeds, vegetables, fruits and herbal mixtures.

Anderson (1988) described 198 medicinal plants from Pakistan in Unani Materia Medica, with their Unani characteristics, (Mizaj) temperament, botanical and vernacular names. Khan et al., (1988) studied the fuel consumption for brick industry in (KPK) Pakistan and recommended that firewood used for baking bricks is obtained from the farmlands and local market. A campaign should be started to motivate the farmers to grow fuel wood species so that fuel wood is available locally at low prices. KPK is facing fuel wood crises especially in the big cities like Peshawar. It is highly desirable that same type of restriction like by the Government of Punjab has imposed on the use of firewood in brick industry is also imposed (Plate 67, 68).

Shahani et al., (1989) studied 14 wild medicinal plants of family Malvaceae in Sindh (Pakistan), each with its botanical and local name, synonym, habitat, locality and medicinal uses. Amjad (1990) described fuel wood scarcity in Pakistan and mentioned price rises, exchange value, trade balance, and increase in consumption of substitutes. Haq and Rehman (1990) described 51 medicinal plants of upper Swat, (Khyber Pakhtonkhwa), Pakistan and mentioned their families, botanical and local names, descriptions, constituents and uses.

Mcketta (1990) studied the wood shortage in Pakistan (hypothetical contradiction) and mentioned Pakistan’s wood production, consumption relationship, wood and other sources

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of domestic energy, price trends as scarcity indications, fuel wood price trends, and timber price trends. Saeed and Rizvi (1990) described 10 wild medicinal plants of Madinat-Al- Hikmat and its adjacent area Karachi (Pakistan), with their distribution, description, different names and uses. Siddiqui (1990) studied wood as a source of energy in Pakistan (current situation and future prospects) and mentioned data base development, current situation, countrywide fuel wood supply and demand, scarcity, wood energy prospects, environmental aspects and future strategy. Siddiqui et al., (1990) studied fuel collection in the coniferous forests of Hazara, Civil Division, Khyber Pakhtonkhwa.

Arshad et al., (2002) documented wealth of medicinal plants of Cholistan desert, Pakistan. They mentioned botanical name, local name and medicinal uses of 64, plant species. Matin et al., (2002) documented traditional uses of 12, shrubs and 18, trees of Shogran valley Mansehra, Pakistan. Each plant is given with its botanical name, family, part used and traditional uses. Qureshi, (2002) conducted ethnobotanical survey on Rohri hills, Sindh, Pakistan. He recorded 78, plant species used by the local people to meet their daily requirement of medicine, food, fodder, agricultural equipment and shelter.

Hamayun (2005) carried out an ethnobotanical study in order to document the folk uses of tree species in the remote region of Swat Kohistan, Pakistan. The population of the region primarily depends upon plant resources for their domestic needs. It was found that 28 tree species belonging to 15 different families are utilized for multiple purposes in Swat Kohistan. Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana is also exported to other parts of Pakistan and thus play a vital role in the economy of the area. Most of these tree species are also used for medicinal purposes.

Hamayun et al., (2005) investigated ethnobotanical profile, conservation status and plant diversity of Utror and Gabral valleys, Swat, Pakistan. According to them the inhabitants of the area utilize 181 plant species for more than 42 domestic needs. Most of the plants are used for multiple purposes. Some plants are also sold in the local markets, thus providing an additional source of income.

Latif and Shinwari (2005) studied sustainable market development for non-timber forest products in Pakistan. According to them, 80% of the forest dwellers are dependent on NTFPs in one-way or the other due to poverty. They mentioned some of the important

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NTFPs produced in Pakistan like; morels, honey, fruits and nuts, vegetable, baskets, sheets, carpets, sweeping products, condiments and spices, mazri palm, silk cocoon, and many other. 131 species are reported during the study. About 34% of local people are dependent on NTFPs for income generation. The prices and production of many NTFPs are fluctuating in different years.

Some of NTFPs are exported, earning valuable foreign exchange like chalghoza, morels, walnuts etc. There was an export of 1384.72 million in 1999-00. These products, after collection and processing sold to the middleman who than sells into main market. 65% of the product is lost during the way to final product. The study reveals present situation of trade and marketing of NTFPs and future guidelines for proper planning and management.

Noor (2010) studied vegetation changes due to closure at Jaba sheep farm Mansehra, Khyber Pakhtonkhwa (Pakistan) and concluded that air dried forage production and cover percent were found to be significantly higher in the closure than in the adjacent grazed area. The overgrazed area is still producing a high quality forage and capable of quick recovery if protected due to favorable ecological conditions.

Mughal (2011) reviewed six oaks species in Pakistan, namely Quercus baloot, Quercus dilatata, Quercus glauca, Quercus incana, Quercus rubra, and Quercus semicarpifolia are found in the temperate and sub tropical forests of Pakistan. The key character, brief description, distribution, ecology and uses of these species are discussed. Rafique (2011) studied the effect of grazing management and fertilizer application on vegetation and soil properties of a moist temperate forest range in Siran valley, Mansehra, (KPK) Pakistan.

Ahmad et al., (2011) described vegetation dynamic as influenced by fire in Margallas Hills, Islamabad (Pakistan). Abbasi et al., (2010) reported the cultivation of 4 medicinal plants belonging to 4 families at Madinat-Al-Hikmah, Karachi (Pakistan). Zafar et al., (2011) studied potential threats involved in the decline of some medicinal plants of Margallah Hills, Islamabad (Pakistan). Carissa opaca, and Dodonaea viscosa were the major species exploited as fire wood and grazing materiel. Shazia et al., (2012) described

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ethnobotanical uses of Adhatoda vasica, in chest diseases used by tribal and rural people of Pakistan.

1.2.3 WORLD WIDE OVER VIEW OF ETHNOBOTANY

Just like the allopathic and homeopathic medicine system the herbal traditional system use special combination of plants to treat diseases. The fact is that different plants have different chemicals, which can cause different results on different organisms. Proper quantity and quality per day is must to get positive results otherwise no benefit or some mishap can occur. That is why local people are always in search of authentic recipes. Today a lot of people are using the traditional system e.g. in China the traditional Chinese Medicine is relied upon for non-toxicity and most Chinese avoid the allopathic or other systems. The standard recipes are developed from the time immemorial by time-to-time experience got during treatment of patients of different diseases. Traditional herbal professional healers have special names changing from area to area. From business point of view these healers are reluctant in sharing the information of their recipes as their trade secret. Now-a-days phtyochemical laboratories have standard procedures to use the plant extracts directly on a wide range of bacteria, fungi, viruses etc. These and other researches on animals are also adding to the knowledge of herbal healing.

Various digestive disorders are treated by herbal products e.g. in Thailand the annual incidence of diarrhea is as high as 34 episodes per child, when children had diarrhea 65.5 % of mothers sought progression help, 25.2% used drugs bought from store, 2.3% used herbal medicine and 6.11% gave no treatment (Varavithya et al.1989) and in Uganda the traditional methods are widely used for the management of diarrhoeal diseases (Anokbongo et al. 1990) similarly a decoction of 12 herbs is used in traditional Taiwanese medicine against kidney disease in men and animals was also shown to protect against the proteolytic glomecluopathic effect of Agkistrodon accutus snake venom (Sugimoto et al. 1991).

In some other countries like in rural areas of Guinea republic traditional healers play a vital role in population health care (Dialo and Gbance, 1992). Herbal tea containing extracts of chamomile, liquorice and fennel are used for treatment of colic in Israel (Weizman et al. 1993). The number of eggs of gastrointestinal nematodes reduced about ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 29

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60 % in 1 and 2 weeks, with a recipe of 5g garlic +5g epazote (Perezgrovas et al. 1994). In Kashmir Himalaya herbal recipe of worm infestation include 12 plants (Virendra and Singh 1994). Traditional herbal medicine is commonly used in Zimbabwe for the treatment of urinary disorder and schistosomiasis (Ndamba et al. 1994). In Sumatra Indonesia 144 commonly used medicinal plant species are reported by Grosvenor et al. (1995). Out of the 144 species 50 were used for fever, 33 for diarrhea and 31 for gastrointestinal problems.

Drumstick (Moringa aptera) and agasta (Sesbania grandiflora) as vegetable trees and mango (Mangifera indica), seetaphal (Annona squamosa), Jack fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) and bor (Ziziphus mauritiana) are grown in India to use them in recipes for malnutrition (Patil (1987). In the cerrado regions of Brazil, aratium (Annona crassiflora), baru (Dypterix alata), cagaita (Eugenia dysenterica) and jatoba (Hymenaea stignocarpa) fruits and seeds are used in recipes for food and drinks (Almeida et al. 1990).

Diabetes is a serious disease and its treatment is very difficult and need long follow up. Xiaoke tea, a herbal traditional treatment for diabetes mellitus, reduced blood glucose concentration in streptozotocin diabetic mice (Hale et al. 1989). Mandango et al. (1990) investigated anti diabetic plants of Kinshasa, Zaire. In Kinshasa, 28 recipes are used by 16 different traditional healers to treat diabetes. These recipes have 33 plant species in use. The plants most used are Morinda lucida, Nauclea latifolia and Bridelia ferruginea. Gbile et al. (1990) investigated Nigerian flora and its pharmaceutical potential. In Nigeria various medicinal plants are used as sources of anti diabetic agents, anti-hypertensive drugs, anti-fertility agents etc. In a case study in Australia, a 66 years old diabetic man, who had an ulcer on his foot which would not respond orthodox treatment, was successfully treated with herbal preparation containing Trifolium pratense and Ichinacea angustifolia and Tilia europiea etc (Mckeon, 1994). In India tribal herbalist use dozens of plant species for the treatment of conjunctivitis, diabetes, fever, malaria, leucorrhoea, whooping cough and hepatitis (Vedavathy and Rao, 1995). The lipid levels can be lowered in human suffering from primary or diabetic hyperlipidaemia when treated with Dai- Saiko-to a Japanese and Chinese traditional medicinal mixture (Kampohozai) prepared from 7 medicinal plants (Yamamoto et al. 1995).

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Various plant repellents are used in India e.g. Azadirachta indica leaves which produces anti-mosquito or mosquito repellent smoke thus reducing the biting activity of mosquitoes (Pandian et al. 1989). Ethenolic extract of leaves of Ficus pyrifolia and Rhus tartana are used in traditional herbal medicine in Madgascar for the treatment of malaria, strongly active against Plasmodium falciparum (Ratis et al. 1991). In some villages in Srilanka the people used herbal remedy for the treatment of malaria (Silva, 1991). In Cameroon, multi component herbal mixtures with the main ingredient as Cinchona bark with the addition of Alstonaia boonei and Salix subserrata was devised for the treatment of malaria (Kinyuy et al. 1993). In rural areas of western Kenya the self treatment of malaria is extremely common. A study in this area reported that in 138 episodes of febrile illness, 60 were treated at home with herbal remedies of medicine purchase at local shops (Ruebush et al. 1995).

A variety of plants are used medicinally for various diseases in China e.g “Hachimijiogan” a Chinese herbal medicine is used to reduce serum prolactine level resulting in normal ovulatory cycle and pregnancy without a side effect (Usuki et al. 1989). Treatment of Bovin mastitis is carried on by decoction of herbs, including Dandelion, Honey, suckle flower, Radix isatidis, Radix scutellaria and Radix angelica gave 81.8% clinical and 33.3% bacteriological cure in cocos with mastitis (Fang et al. 1990). A Chinese drug composed of buds on the primary root of Aconitum carmichaeli is used to treat headache, rheumatism, arthritis, bruises and fractures (Chang et al. 1994). AIDS was treated with Chinese herbal medicine in Chicago, U.S.A (Ryan and Shattuck, 1994). Chinese medicinal herbs are used for atopic eczema in England (Sheehan and Atherton, 1994). Teas are prescribed for treating jaundice and teas with antihepatotoxic effects were prepared according to Tibetan recipes in China (Ubasheev et al. 1989).

The traditional treatment of gonorrhea is made through herbal drugs in Hardoi and Sitapur villages of a district in India (Siddiqui and Husain, 1993). Two Unani herbal preparation, Safoof–e-Khash Khash and Sharbat-e-Bezoori moatadil are used for hypertension in India (Alam et al. 1994). Alhagi maurorum is used as laxative, diuretic and expectorant (Kamil et al. 2001). The alcoholic extract isolated from the leaves of Colderia procumbens has analgesic activity (Senthamarai et al. 2001) and methanolic

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Introduction Chapter 1

extract of Azema tetracantha is used in the form of ointment as well as injection to heal a wound (Jaswanth et al. 2001).

Realizing the need of fodder, various scientists performed research to report existing fodder plants e.g. Kulhari and Joshi (1992) elaborated 50 species of fodder plants belonging to 11 families with their local name, period of availability and other details with pertinent comments and enumerated season-wise. Singh (1993) presented a checklist of useful plants of Arunachal Pradesh including plants used as fodder. Mulkumov et al. (1992) investigated resources of Ferula karavatica as a potential source of fodder and presented the density of the population of Ferula Karavatica (plant/100m2) and above ground phytomass. Similarly Patil and Mungikar (1992) collected 40 grasses as fodder value from the west Khandesh region of Maharashtra state, identified and analysed for nutrient content. Dinebra retroflexa, Panicum antidotale, Brachiara cruciformis, Cynodon dactylon and Eragrotis Pilosa were found to be nutritionally superior on the basis of their proteins and mineral content.

In another study of above ground mass productivity, chemical composition and food value reveals that twenty-two grass species are the most promising fodder grasses including Festuca regeliana, Dactylis glomerata and Alopecurus pratensis as the leading species for fodder production (Aknazarov, 1991). Some other plants like Helleteres isora has good nutritional qualities, cropping ability, palatability, phenological stages and regeneration potential (Bhatt et al. 1992). Acacia nilotica sub-spp. tomentosa is a prime fodder of goat herds, especially in seasons where herbaceous pasturage is particularly sparse (Audru et al. 1993). In Ireland non-grass forages used for ruminant include fodder beet, mangold, fodder rape kale, swedes, fodder turnips and maize. The combined area of all these crops fell from 483,000 hectares in 1981 to 33,140 hectares in 1992 (Culleton and Cullen, 1994). In West Africa, true fonio Digitaria exilis (Kipp) and black fonio Digitaria iburua (Stapf.) are two domesticated millets of West. These cereals are used as fodder and food. They are persistent crops that do not require careful cultivation and thrive under a range of difficult agricultural condition (Hilu et al. 1997). In Bangladesh the overall density of cattle per household was 7.17 and average grazing hours per day varied from 1.1 in October to 5.6 in February. In summer they were offered naturally grown Cynodon dactylon with supplementary feeding of rich straw (Islam et al. 1995). Some projects are ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 32

Introduction Chapter 1

working in the Northern Areas of Pakistan to study the conditions of Livestock, fodder and pastures but a detailed research is lacking (Wright et al.2005).

Various techniques are applied to increase the yield and quality of exiting crops as in the case of Maize, which is an integral part of traditional ecosystems and serves as an important source of fodder (Benz et al., 1990). It could be detopped for little or no adverse effect on grain yield, however fodder yield increases with increased plant density (Roy and Biswas, 1992).

Catch crop fodder cultivation in dry cold season can provide sufficient food for livestock. Fodder yield and value were found to be notably higher on the catch crop fields than on traditional fellow pastures (Schmidt and Lothan, 1992).

Growth and yield of green fodders from cultivars of food sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench) during the rainy seasons of the year increases significantly with the increase in N level and cutting at 40 days interval (Malik et al. 1992).

Although nutritional demands may not comply completely, broad leaf herbaceous species of weeds, which are vigorous in growth and need little attention of farmers, may be used as fodder in some areas, providing a good alternative in fodder deficient areas (Chhetri et al. 1993). Leguminous trees play a vital role in many agroforestry systems currently in use throughout the world and can provide high quality of fodder for both small holder and large scale livestock (Guterridge and Shelton, 1993). The traditional indigenous methods of storage are: store on ground, roof of houses and large branches of trees but modern methods need to be developed for conservation and storage of fodder. The proper time of cutting grassland can greatly increase the productivity of fodder (Brozoska and Franciszek, 1994).

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Introduction Chapter 1

Plate 11 Grazing : A Threat to Floral Diversity

Plate 12 Fuel Wood Consumption : A Threat to Floral Diversity

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1.3. BACKGROUND JUSTIFICATION FOR ETHNOBOTANICAL EXPLORATION IN DISTRICT MIANWALI

In the last five years many areas of Pakistan except District Mianwali were explored by various ethnobotanists regarding the uses of plants among various communities (Ahmad et al., 2007, Marwat et al.,, 2010, 2011, Jabeen et al.,, 2010, Zafar et al., 2010, Ahmad et al., 2011, 2012, Sultana et al., 2011, Abbasi et al., 2012, Khan et al., 2011). District Mianwali is unique and have rich diversity of medicinal and other useful plants and large number of native population offer an immense scope for Ethnobotanical studies. The area have never been surveyed ethnobotanically, hence the ethnobotanical information is quite meager. The indigenous natural flora of the area and associated areas is continuously declining because of biotic pressure from population fast growth, intensive agricultural practices, unfair means of deforestation, extensive grazing and browsing, salinity and water logging, invasion of exotic species, like, Alternanthera pungens (Kabli Kanda), Prosopis juliflora (Kabli Kiker), Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Lachi), Parthenium hysterophorus (Gandi Booti), Lantana camara (Punjh Phuli) etc.

Due to these potential threats faced by the area, Ethnobotanical study was the need of time, in order to carry out systematic work and to record the indigenous knowledge about the plants from the local inhabitants of the area.

1.4 OBJECTIVES

The present project is based on following objectives;

1. To document indigenous knowledge of local communities regarding the use of plants resources. 2. To compile the base data and floral inventory regarding distribution, local names and uses of plants as well as to record medical terminology, diagnostic skills and treatment procedures. 3. On a community level, to identify ways of making ethnobotanical products beneficial and effective for human use, ethnoveterinary, community use and profitable on a domestic and commercial scale. 4. To develop a field guide consisting of unique floral pictorial for future studies regarding economically important products, conservationists, botanists and policy makers to protect indigenous flora and knowledge for socio-economic up lifting of the region. ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 35

Materials and Methods Chapter 2

Project on ethnoboanical exploration in District Mianwali and surrounding areas was conducted for a period of four years program. The main emphasis was on documentation of indigenous knowledge regarding the ethnobotanical uses of floral biodiversity in the area. To facilitate and complete the study, the following steps were undertaken.

2.1 DISTRICT MIANWALI : A HERITAGE OF ETHNOBOTANICAL RESOURCES District Mianwali was selected for ethnobotanical documentation due to its diverse and unique biogeography and floral diversity. The prominent regions of this area includes Kalabagh reserves, Essa Khel, Piplan, Chakrala and Musa Khel Hills. These areas were selected, because of the rich indigenous knowledge of the local communities regarding the utilization of local plant resources. The area was also chosen due to, the variation in ecological zones (mainly Soil and water conditions), rich diversity of medicinal plants and cultivation practices for forest plantation, crops, their management system, and interested local community.

2.2 DOCUMENTATION OF ETHNOBOTANICAL INFORMATION

For ethnobotanical documentation various inter disciplinary approaches were followed in order to collect optimum information regarding the use of plant resources among various communities. Inter disciplinary approaches confined to ethnobotany, sociology, anthropology, plant taxonomy and ecology. The method used in order to collect indigenous knowledge mainly based on questionnaires (Ahmad et al., 2011). In total of 300 local inhabitants including men, women, herbal doctors (Hakeem) and resource persons were surveyed for collection of indigenous data regarding the use of plant resources among various communities. The questionnaires were devised to document the indigenous knowledge regarding various uses of plants through general meetings with male members, interviews with females, herbal doctors and resource persons. The questionnaires contain various information including general observations, experience and cross questions.

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2.3 PLANT COLLECTION AND IDENTIFICATION

Frequent field trips of the area were conducted according to the life form, flowering period and the season of utilization of the plant products by local people. Throughout the field trips a general collection of plants were made. Blotting papers, old newspapers and a plant presser were used for the preservation of specimens and newspapers were changed from time to time. The fully dried specimens were poisoned and then mounted on Herbarium sheets. Plants were identified with the help of available literature (Stewart, 1972, Nasir & Rafique, 1995). Confirmation of plants were carried out by comparing with the already identified plant specimens of the Herbarium, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad. After correct identification, the plants were given voucher number and deposited as voucher specimens in the Herbarium for future references.

2.3.1 FLORAL AND ETHNOBOTANICAL INVENTORY

The Ethnobotanical inventory consists of botanical name, family name, common/English names, local/vernacular names, Habit and Habitats, distribution (local & worldwide), flowering period, part used, ethnobotanical uses (method of use).

2.3.2 PICTORIAL GUIDE

Field photography including floral macorphotographs, habitat, byproducts, panoramic views, common threats and byproducts of non timber forest products (NTFP) were developed during field surveys by using Sony Digital Camera W50. This pictorial guide helps to readers for physical appearance of the area, flora and ethnobotanical uses for future studies and application.

Field trip performance and discussion with local people is presented in (Plate No. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 37 & 38). Figure No. 4 and 5 represent the percentage interviews among various respondents and various age groups.

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QUESTIONNAIRE : ETHNOBOTANICAL DOCUMENTATION

A- Information about Respondent Person/s interviewed______Date______Age______Occupation ______Household composition: Men ______Women ______Children ______Total _____ Source of income: a. Local Employment? Yes/No If Yes Annual Income ______b. Overseas Employment? Yes/No. If yes Annual income ______c. Estimated income from other sources Livestock Fuel Wood Vegetables Byproducts etc

B. Information about Plant Species & its Uses Local Name of Species______Habitat of Species ______Status (Wil/cultivated) ______Flowering period ______1. Medicinal use of the Species:

Do you solely use Herbal Medicines? Yes/No Do you consult a Hakim? Yes/No Do you consult Family/other Elders? Yes/No For what reason would you consult a Doctor in preference to using Herbal Medicines. Surgery Accident Birth Non availability of herbs others. Who collect the Medicinal plants? (Men/women/children/others) Which part used? (Leaf, Stem, Flower, Seed, Root, fruit, bark, whole plant) Which Ailments treated ______Success of use ______

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2. Fuel Wood/Timber use:

Purpose______

3. Fodder use:

Priorities______Effects______Animal type ______Preferred part ______

4. Other Ethnobotanical uses:

Vegetable & Pot herbs ______Fruits yielding ______Poisonous plants ______Bee Flora ______Other uses ______Method of collection ______Method of use ______Ethnoveterinary Use ______

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Plate 13 Field Data on Floral Diversity by Author

Plate 14 Floral Identification in field

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Plate 15 Ethnobotanical Documentation through male interviews

Plate 16 Documentation on Indigenous Recipes through Questionnaire

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Plate 17 Interviews from villagers

Plate 18 Ethnobotanical Documentation through female interviews

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Plate 19 Information gathering from shopkeeper about home made products

Plate 20 Information on Bee Flora in the field

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Fig. 4. Percentage interviews among various respondents

Fig. 5. Various Age Groups with Percentage Interviews

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3.1 ETHNOBOTANICAL FINDINGS

District Mianwali looks like a human head, focusing east ward Isakhel thehsil forms the back of the head, Bhangikhel area projecting at the top like a crest, and the Sakesar hills forming a shorp nose. The distirct can be divited into two parts, a hilly terrain in the north, south-west and north – east, and firm clay plain falling in front of Salt Range and the Dhuk hills and a sandy plain in the center and the south. The vegetation of Mianwali is not fully explored in past years. Present study revealed that medicinal plant biodiversity of the area is very significant. The major component of vegetation belong to grasses (Poaceae), Legumes (Fabaceae), Lamiaceae, Ranunculaceae, Acanthaceae, Solanaceae, Asteraceae, Caryophyllaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Malvaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Liliaceae, Boraginaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Brassicaceae, Capparidaceae and Lineaceae along with a small proportion of many other families. The dominant vegetation of the range constitute Dodonea viscosa, Acacia modesta, Olea ferrugenia, Justicia adhatoda, Rhazya stricta, Ottostegia limbata, Carisa opeca, Capparis aphylla, Periploca aphylla, Abutilon indicum and Capparis deciduas.

The medicinal plant wealth of Mianwali in the present project is extensively documented and presented in four sections;

3.1 Indigenous Plant Based Medicinal Formulation 3.2 Indigenous phytotherapies by local communities of district Mianwali

i. Abdominal pain& worms: ii. Asthma, cough & bronchitis iii. Cold, flue and influenza iv. Diabetes v. Diarrhea and dysentry vi. Digestive disorders vii. Ear infections: viii. Eye complaints ix. Hair problems x. Headache and fever xi. Hepatitis ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 45

Results Chapter 3

xii. Jaundice xiii. Joints’ pain (rheumatism) xiv. Kidney stone (renal calculi) xv. Piles xvi. Sexual tonic xvii. Skin diseases xviii. Snake and scorpion bite

3.3 Ethnoveterinary Medicine 3.4. Fuel wood species in District Mianwali

3.5. Timber yielding species 3.6. Fodder and forage species 3.7 Plant species used in making agricultural implements

3.8 Vegetables/pot herbs, of district mianwali 3.9. Beeflora of district Mianwali 3.10. Fruit yielding species 3.11. Roses at Mianwali

In total 448 species were reported to be used for various purposes as 150 species medicinal, 71 as ethnoveterinary, 40 fuel wood, 16 timber, 66 fodder, 14 agricultural implements, 45 vegetables / pots herbs, 31 bee flora and 15 species were used as fruit yielding.

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(i) Acanthaceae 1. Justicia adhatoda L.

English Name = Vasaka Local Name = Bhekkar Habit and Habitat = It is the perennial shrub and is one of the dominant species. Distribution= In World; Panama, Indonesia, Malaya, S.E. Asia, India and Pakistan. In Pakistan; Karachi and Sind, North Waziristan, Kohat, Khyber, Kurram, Dir, Swat, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Leaves and flowers Flowering Period = March-April Voucher Specimen No = 1 Ethnomedicinal Uses = Leaves are used for cough and wounds in the crushed form. They are also used in dysentery, especially in cattles leaves and flowers are also used for asthma, chronic bronchitis etc. Fresh leaf extraction is used for diabetes by local people. Dose Recommended = 1 cup (120ml), of decoction (at one time) is given 3 times per day for 4-5 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Plant in dired form is used as fuel wood.

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(ii) Aizoaceae 2. Trianthema portulacastrum L.

English Name = Horse purslane Local Name = Itsit Habit and Habitats = It is very common succulent herb found throughout the area. Flowers light pink & white. Distributin = In World; Tropical America, Africa, W. Asia, Ceylon, India and W. Pakistan. In Pakistan; Sind and Karachi, Peshawar, Jhelum, Lahore, Swat, Hazara, Mansehra, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = July-August Voucher specimen No = 120 Part used = Whole Plant Ethnomedicinal uses = It is used for the treatment of jaundice and liver disorders. It is diuretic and used in dropsy. Also used in swelling to body, pain in bladder, cought, Asthema and fever. Dose Recommended = Aerial parts (250g), are ground for 8-10 minutes and 1-glass (250ml), of water is mixed. ½ cup (60ml), of juice (at one time) is given 3-4 times per day for one week. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fodder for cattle.

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(iii) Amaranthaceae 3. Achyranthes aspera L.

English Name = Chaff flower. Local Name = Puthkanda. Habit and Habitat = It is annual herb found in waste places very abundantly. Distribution = In Pakistan; Sind, Balochistan, KPK, Peshawar, Swat, Multan, Lower Hazara, Kashmir, Jhelum, Jammu, Poonch, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Roots, Leaves and Stem. Flowering Period = September-April Voucher Specimen No = 5 Ethnomedicial uses = Decoction in water is used for asthma, cough, stomach pain, dropsy, piles and skin eruption. Dose Recommended Decoction 100 ml (at one time) is given daily at night (bedtime) for (10-15) days.

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4. Aerva javanica L.

English Name = Silver Spiked Cockscomb Local Name = Khip Habit & Habitat = It is common, erect, spicate, Xerophytic undershrub. Commonly found in desert parts of the area. Distribution = In world; it is found in the drier parts of the tropics and subtropics of the Old World, from Burma, India and Ceylon westwards through S.W. Asia, across N. Africa to Morocco and south to Cape Verde Islands and Cameroun through Uganda and Tanzania to Madagascar. In Pakiatan; Sind, Kurram, Bannu, Peshawar, Dir, Pponch, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Aerial parts Flowering Period = Throughout the year (mostly July-September) Voucher Specimen No = 6 Ethnomedicinal Uses = Plant powder is used for Kidney stone. It is anti inflammatory and has diuretic activites. Dose Recommended = 1 cup of drug (at one time) is given two times per day for 6-7 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as firewood in houses. Plant is attached to roof for visiting honey bees for the production of Honey.

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5. Amaranthus viridis Linn.

English name = Prince feathers Local Name = Chaulai Habit & Habitat = It is very common weed with slender, terminal inflorescence. It occurs throughout the area. Distribution = In world; it is found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions and penetrating further into the temperate. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluch, KPK, Hazara, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Leaves. Flowering Period = July –October Voucher Specimen No = 7 Ethnomedicial Uses = It is emollient and antidote (against) for scorpion and snake bite. Also used for joint pain. Dose Recommended = 2 cups of decoction at one time is given once per day for 2-3 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fodder for cattle.

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(iv) Apiaceae 6. Anethum sowa L.

English Name = Dill weed. Local Name = Soay Habit and Habitats = It is annual herb commonly cultivated. Distribution = In world; Europe, USA, Asia. In Pakistan; it is widely cultivated, KPK, Baltistan, Gilgit, Salt Range, Punjab, Kahmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = Feburary-March Voucher specimen No = 202 Part used = Whole Plant Ethnomedicinal uses = Seeds were used for gastritis, digestive disorders and colic in babies. Also used for cattles to increase the milk production. Dose Recommended = 3-4 teaspoonful (15-25ml), of this decoction is mixed with 1 glass (250ml), of water (at one time) and is given 2-3 times per day for 10-12 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Aerial parts were used as vegetables, flavourings and also as a salad by the local people of the area.

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7. Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Link.

English name = Bishops’ weed. Local Name = Ajwain. Habit & Habitat = It is annual cultivated herb in plains of the area. Leaf segments are nearly filiform. Distribution = In World; Afghanistan, Middle East, USSR, North Africa, India, West Pakistan. In Pakistan; Kurram, KPK, Punjab, Hindu Kush, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Seeds. Flowering Period = March-April Voucher Specimen No = 8 Ethnomedicinal Uses = Digestive ailments, diarrhoea, dysentery, gastritis, Bone fewer and abdominal pain. Dose Recommended = 2-10g of ash powder (at one time) is given (2-3 times) per day for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as ingredients of Spices in houses.

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(v) Appocynaceae 8. Nerium oleander L.

English Name = Oleander Local Name = Gulabi gunaira Habit and Habitats = It is perennial shrub. Commonly found in moist places. Distribution = In world; it is found from the Mediterranean to Persia, China and Japan, also commonly cultivated and naturalized throughout Pakistan. In Pakistan; Sind and Karachi, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = April-October Voucher specimen No = 203 Part used = Whole Plant Ethnomedicinal uses = Bark is used in skin deseases, specially leprosy. Root is used for abortion. Root paste is useful against scorpion and snake bite. It is a poisonous plant according to local people. Kids of the goat died by eating its stem (People’s observation). Dose Recommended = Powder of leaves mixed with Euphorbia helescopia leaves is applied on skin rash for 1 time per day for 3 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses= Cultivated in houses and gardens as ornamental plant.

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9. Rhazya stricta Dcne.

English Name = Wolf's eye Local Name = Sawa Venra Habit and Habitat = It is an evergreen shrub upto 1 m tall. It is Commonly found in stony plains and slopes of the area. Distribution = In world; it is found in Arabia, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. In Pakistan; Sind and Karachi; lower Baluch, KPK; Khyber, Malakand, Dargai, Salt Range, Kala Chitta Hills, Attock Hills, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Leaves and branches. Flowering Period = December-March Voucher Specimen No = 91 Ethnomedicinal Uses = Extract of leaves is used in digestive ailments, diarrhoea, diabetes, dysentery and gastritis. Branches used to cure toothache. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (15-20g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 1 glass (250ml) of water (2 times) (Morning - Evening) per day for 15-20 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Extensively grazed by donkeys, goats and sheep.

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10. Carissa opaca Stapf ex Haines

English Name = Natal Plum Local Name = Gungir Habit and Habitat = A shrub upto 3 m or more tall. It is one of the Dominant species. Distribution = In World; it is found in drier parts of India and Pakistan (from Punjab-Himalayas, in Murree), Burma and Sri Lanka. In Pakistan; Karakar Pass in Swat eastward, in the Sub-Himalayan zone and in the adjacent plains, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = April-June Voucher Specimen No = 9 Ethnmedicinal Uses = Root is grounded and put in worm infested sores of animals. Leaf decoction is used for asthma. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (15-20g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 1 glass (250ml) of water (2 times) (Morning - Evening) per day for 15-20 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Fruit is edible. Whole plant is used as fuel Wood.

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(vi) Asclepiadaceae

11. Calotropis procera R.Br.

English Name = Sodoms Apple/wallo wart. Local Name = Akk. Habit and Habitat = It is erect shrub with milkey juice. It is found Commonly throughout the area. Distribution = In world; Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq. In Pakistan; it is found in Sind, Lower Baluch; Kurram, KPK, Himalayas and Mianwali. Part used = Unripened flowers, sometime whole plant. Flowering Period = Throughout the year. Voucher Specimen No = 21 Ethnomedicinal Uses = It is used for Gastritis, abdominal diseases, malaria, cholera and asthma. Roasted leaves in mustard oil are applied on chronic scabies and other skin ailments. Dose Recommended = 3-4 teaspoonfuls (25-35ml) of decoction are mixed in 2-cups (250ml) of water (at one time) and is given 3- 4 times per day for 25-30 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Lower parts of the stem sometimes used as fire wood. It is one of the poisnous plants speices of the area.

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12. Caralluma edulis L.

English Name = Carrion Local Name = Chounga Habit and Habitat = It is uncommon. Flowers are solitary or in pairs at the upper nodes. Distribution = In World; India (Punjab); Pakistan (Sind, Punjab, Baluchistan). In Pakistan; Karachi, Malir, Jamidar; Scinde, Kotri; Baluch, Multan, Fatehjang near R’pindi, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = Throughout the year Voucher Specimen No = 13 Ethnomedicinal Uses = It is used as vegetable and juice of the plant is used for diabetes. Dose Recommended = 1 cup (120ml) of decoction (at one time) is mixed with 2 cups (200 ml) of water and 10-15g of sugar, then it is shacked well and is given (2 times) (Morning - Evening) per day for 5-6 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as vegetable.

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(vii) Asteraceae 13. Ageratum houstoniarum Mill.

English Name = Goat weed Local Name = Neeli booti Habit and Habitat = It is branched annual upto 60 cm tall herb. Flowers are purplish pink. It is commonly Found in cultivated fields and waste places. Distribution = In World; Southeastern Mexico and Central America, Pakistan. In Pakistan; it is found in Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Leaves and inflorescence juice. Floweing Period = February - April Voucher Specimen No = 10 Ethnomedicinal Uses = It is used to cure wounds and is antidote for snake bite. Dose Recommended = 3-4 teaspoonfuls (25ml) of decoction (at one time) are mixed in 1 glass (250ml) of water and are given (2-3 times) per day for 6-7 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is the weed and sometimes used as fodder by goats and sheep.

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14. Carthamus oxycantha M. Bieb.

English Name = Carthamus Local Name = Poli Habit and Habitat = It is spinose branched herb. It is very commonly found grain fields after harvesting season. Distribution = In World; California, North America, Pakistan. In Pakistan; it is found in Baluch, KPK, Swat, Lower Hazara, Jammu, Kala Bagh and Mianwali (Plate 43). Flowering Period = March-June Voucher specimen No = 204 Part used = Seeds. Ethnomedicinal uses = Seeds are used for Jaundice. Oil extracted from the seed used for dressing ulcer. Dose Recommended = 1 cup (120ml) of decoction (at one time) is given 2 times (Morning - Evening) per day for 10-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Roasted seeds are used as dry fruits in winter.

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15. Cichorium intybus L.

English Name = Chicory Local Name = Kasni/Neeli Shountaul. Habit and Habitat = Perennial suberect to spreading herb. It is commonly cultivated as well as common weed of open places. Distribution = In World; Europe; Asia; introduced also in Africa, South America. In Pakistan; it is found in Baluch, Wazir, Kurram, Peshawar, Swat, Astor, Gilgit, Balti, Haz, Murree, Poonch, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Maianwali Flowering Period = June-September Voucher specimen No = 205 Part used = Whole plant. Ethnomedicinal uses = Plant is used as liver tonic, also used for diarrhea, fever and enlargement of spleen. Dose Recommended = 2 teaspoonful (10-12g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given with one glass (250ml) of water twice a day (Morning - Evening) for 14-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Used as fodder for cattle.

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16. Lactuca sativa L.

English Name = Lettuce Local Name = Salad. Habit and Habitat = It is common cultivated annual herb with yellow flowers. Distribution = In World; Eurasia; introduced also in Mexico; In Pakistan; it is found in Kala bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = March-May Voucher specimen No = 206 Part used = Leaves Ethnomedicinal uses = Fresh leaves with little amount of table salt is used for stomach ulcer, digestive disorders and indigestion. Dose Recommended = 1 glass (250ml) of extract of drug is given daily once at morning for 7-8 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as salad.

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17. Taraxacum officinale Weber.

English Name = Dandelion. Local Name = Dudal Bumbola. Habit and Habitat = A common herb with yellow flowers. Very commonly found throughout the area. Distribution = In World; North America, Pakistan. In Pakistan; it is found in Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = February-April Voucher specimen No = 207 Part used = Leaves and roots. Ethnomedicinal uses = Leaves and roots are effective against snake bite, leaves are also used for diabetes. Root paste is applied on swelling and joints. Dose Recommended = 1-2 teaspoonful (10-12g) of this powder drug (at one time) is given with 1-glass of milk 2-times (morning - evening) per day for 15-20 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Plant is grazed by goats and sheep.

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18. Xanthium strumarium Linn.

English Name = Cocklebur Local Name = Chhota Dhatura. Habit and Habitat = It is the undershrub which is commonly found in waste places and grave yards. Distribution = In World; Mexico; Central America; South America; widely introduced in Old World. In Pakistan; Sind and Karachi, Baluch, KPK, Chitral, Swat, Astor, Gilgit, Balti, Hazara, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Maianwali. Part used = Roots, fruit and seeds. Flowering Period = January-March Voucher Specimen No = 14 Ethnomedicinal Uses = It is sedative and diuretic and is used in

Stomach diseases. It is demulcent and its cooling effect is given in small Pox and dysentery.

Dose Recommended = 1 glass (250ml) of extract / decoction of drug (at one time) is given daily once at morning before breakfast for 15-20 days.

Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as firewood.

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19. Calendula arvensis Linn.

English Name = Marigold Local Name = Zergul Habit and Habitat = Branched leafy low growing annual herb. Commonly found in open places, roadsides and cultivated fields. Distribution= In World; Calif.; Eurasia; Africa; Atlantic Islands. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, Koshak, KPK; Lower Swat and Lower Hazara, Poonch, Kashmir, Baltistan, Ladak, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Flowers Flowering Period = March-May Voucher Specimen No = 19 Ethnomedicinal Uses = It is used to strengthen eye sight. Also used for heart diseases and healing of the skin cuts. Dose Recommended = 40-50g, of drug (at one time) is given 2-times per day for 10-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is scented weed only graze by goats.

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20. Helianthus annuus Linn.

English Name = Sun flower Local Name = Suraj Mukhi. Habit and Habitat = It is common cultivated annual oil yielding crop. Distribution = In World; Mexico; intoduced nearly worldwide. In Pakistan; Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Seed oil. Flowering Period = May-July Voucher Specimen No = 94 Ethnomedicinal Uses = It is an expectorant. It is used for cold and cough, bronchitis, malaria and fever. Dose Recommended = 1-glass (250ml), of decoction (at one time) is given once daily at morning before breakfast for 6-7 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Seeds are used to extract edible oil. It is also cultivated as ornamental. Flowers are visited by honey bees.

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21. Saussueia hetromalla L.

English Name = Costus. Local Name = Kali Ziri Habit and Habitat = Erect annual herb up to 120 cm tall. Very Commonly found along roadsides, cultivated fields, graveyards and waste places. Distribution = In World; High mountains of temperate Asia, particularly in Siberia, C Asia, the Himalaya. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, Kurram, Trans-Indus, Chital, Gilgit, Swat, Hazara, Salt Range, Muree Hills, Kashmir and Jummu Hills, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Roots Flowering Period = March-June Voucher Specimen No = 35 Ethnobotanical Uses = It is an aphrodisiac tonic and is useful in liver diseases, kidney and chest complaints. Dose Recommended = 1-2 cups (200ml), of decoction / extract of drug (at one time) is given once daily at morning before breakfast for 10-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fodder for buffaloes. It is trouble some weed of wheat crop.

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22. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.

English Name = Wormwood. Local Name = Dona jhan Habit and Habitat = It is annual herb. Very commonly found in Arid and sandy soils. Distribution = In World; C & E Europe, Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan (Balochistan, KPK., and Punjab), N. W. India, China, Mongolia, Russia. In Pakistan; Sind, Mulir; Baluch, Las Bela, Ziarat; Kurram; Hariab Dist.; KPK; Peshawar, Salt Range, Lahore; Dir and Chitral; Rupal Nullah; Baltistan, Skardo and Braldo; Kashmir, and Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = August-November Voucher Specimen No = 16 Ethnomedical Uses = Infusion of the plant is used as purgative and is used to cure earache. It is also used for snake and scorpion bite. Dose Recommended = 2-teaspooonful (10-15g), of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 1-glass (250ml), of water 2-3 times per day for 2-3 days. Other Ethnobotanical Uses = It is used as firewood in houses.

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23. Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist

English Name: = Horseweed Local Name = Paleet Habit and Habitat = It is erect weed with many capitula without coloured ray. It is very common about ation throughout the area. Distribution = In World; North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. In Pakistan; it is found in Sind, Punjab, KPK, Hazara, Murre Hills, Astore, Skardu, Gilgit, Kashmir, Shiger, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = August-October Voucher Specimen No = 11 Ethnomedicinal Uses = Used as homeostatic, astringent, diuretic. It is also used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea. Dose Recommended = 1-cup (120ml), of decoction (at one time) is given 2- 3 times per day for 4-5 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fodder.

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24. Sonchus asper L.

English Name = Sow thistle Local Name = Dodal Habit and Habitat = It is annual herb with golden yellow flowers. Very common in graveyards, waste places and in near cultivated field. Distribution = In World; it is naturalized in areas adjacent to China including Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, Japan, Kashmir, Kazakhstan, Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Thailand, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. In Pakistan; Sind, Balochistan, Kurram, KPK, Punjab, Chitral, Swat, Gilgit, Ladakh, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = March-May Voucher Specimen No = 46 Ethnomedicial Uses = It is diuretic, cooling, sedative and antiseptic. It is useful in cough, bronchitis, asthma and phthisis. Dose Recommended = 1-cup (120ml), of drug is (at one time) 3-4 times per day for 7-10 days (for respiratory ailment). Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is a weed, some time graze by donkeys, goats and sheep.

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(viii) Brassicaceae

25. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.

English Name = Shepherds purse. Local Name = Jangli Saro Habitand Habitat = A ubiquitous spring weed in the plains and hills Distribution= = Cosmopolitan mostly Part used = Seeds. Flowering Period = February-March Voucher Specimen No = 24 Ethnomedicinal Uses = It is useful in Dropsy, Diarrhoea, and healing of wounds. Dose Recommended = 1-teaspoonful (10-15ml), of powder drug (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 4-5 days. Other Ethnobotanicial uses = It is used as fodder.

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26. Eruca sativa Millergard.

English Name = Rocket. Local Name = Tara mira / Jumiha. Habit and Habitat = It is cultivated annual oil yielding crop in poor soils, throughout the area. Distribution = In World; Europe, N. Africa, S. W. Asia, widely introduced elsewhere. In Pakistan; Sind, Balchistan, Waziristan, KPK, Punjab, Chitral, Lower Swat, Upper Hazara, Kashmir, Poonch, Kalabagh, Mianwali Part used = Leaves and seeds. Flowering Period = February-April Voucher Specimen No = 28 Ethnomedicial Uses = It has warming and stimulating properties and has pungent smell. It is used for rheumatism and joint pain. Dose Recommended = 1-teaspoonful (10-15ml), of powder drug (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 7-8 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as vegable and fodder.

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(ix) Caeselpiniaceae 27. Cassia fistula L.

English Name = Goldens’ shower Local Name = Amaltas Habit and Habitat = It is the perennial cultivated tree. Commonly found in houses, schools and hospital. Distribution = In World; W. Pakistan, common in deciduous forests throughout the greater part of India, Burma and Ceylon. In Pakistan; Swat, Hazara, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Part used = Pods, seeds. Flowering Period = April-May Voucher Specimen No = 41 Ethnomedicical Uses = It is used as astringent, blood purifier, detergent resolvent, styptic. Seeds are used in conjunctivitis, skin eruption, leprosy and haematuria. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (15-20g), of powdered drug (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 4-5 days with 1- glass (250ml), of water. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is cultivated as ornmental plant.

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28. Bauhinia variegata L.

English Name = Local Name = Kachnar Habit and Habitat = It is cultivated tree found in houses, schools and hospitals. Distribution = In World; Kashmir; W. Pakistan; India (Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Assam, Central India, Madras; Sikkim); Nepal; Burma; China; widely cultivated in tropics. In Pakistan; Swat, Sind, Balochistan, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Maianwali. Part used = Bark, flowers, bud, root. Flowering Period = February-April Voucher Specimen No = 40 Ethnomedical Uses = Bark is used as anthelmintic tonic and is useful in skin diseases. Dried buds are used in dysentery piles and diarrhoea. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (12-15 g), of drug (at one time) is given with 1-glass (250 ml), of milk or water 2-3 times per day for 10-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is cultivated as ornamental tree. Young pods are used as vegetable.

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(x) Cannabinaceae 29. Cannabis sativa L.

English Name = Indian hemp. Local Name = Bhung. Habit and Habitat = It is gregarious shrub found very commonly in waste places, along roadsides and graveyards. Distribution = In World; Russia, China, India, Pakistan, Iran and cultivated elsewhere. In Pakistan; Hunza, Kala Bagh and Maianwali. Part used = Whole plant. Flowering Period = April -October Voucher Specimen No = 53 Ethnomedical Uses = It act as sedative, norcotic intoxicant and antispasmodic. It is useful in diarrhoea. Young inflorescence is used for cattles’ diseases. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (15-20ml), of decoction (at one time), is mixed in 1 glass (250ml), of water, 8-10 g of salt is also added and is given 2-3 times per day for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as firewood.

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(xi) Capparidaceae 30. Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.

English Name = Caper tree. Local Name = Karin. Habit and Habitat = It is a perennial tree. It is found commonly only in the desert parts of the area. Distribution = In World; N. and Tropical Africa, Arabia, eastward to India. In Pakistan; Karachi, Sind, Lower Balochistan, KPK, Punjab, Salt Range, Mirpur and Jammu, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Flowering Period = May-July Voucher specimen No = 55 Part used = Branches, flowers and fruits. Ethnomedicinal uses = The coal of the old plant mixd with honey is internally used for asthma, cough and chronic pain in joints. The young branches are chewed to relieve toothache. Flower buds and unripe fruits are boiled and cooked as vegetable for rheumatic pain. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (15-20ml), of decoction (at one time), is mixed in 1 glass (250ml), of water, 8-10 g of salt is also added and is given 2-3 times per day for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = The young twigs are used as fodder for camels. The unripe fruitis used as vegetable. ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 76

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(xii) Caryophyllaceae. 31. Stellaria media (L.) Vill.

English Name = Chick weed Local Name = Cheridana Habit and Habitat = Annual with prostrate or decumbent stems. Flowers white very commonly found about Cultivation, waste places and shady and Moist places. Distribution = Cosmopolitan. Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = December-Feburary Voucher Specimen No = 66 Ethnomedicial Uses = Plant is known as cooling and astringent. It is also used in plasters to be employed on broken bones and swellings.

Dose Recommended = 3-4 teaspoonful (20-25g), of powder drug (at one time), is given once daily at morning before breakfast for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Whole plant is used as vegetable. Aslo used as fodder for cattles.

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32. Silene conoidea L.

English Name: = Campion Local Name = Chhota Takla Habit and Habitat = Annual herb upto 35 cm tall with pink flowers. Common in cultivated fields. Distribution = Eurasia, Pakistan Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = Febrauary-April Voucher Specimen No = 67 Ethnomedicial Uses = The plant is known as emollient and used in bath. Dose Recommended = 40-50g of aerial parts are dissolved in 2-3 teaspoonful (15-20ml), of water (at one time). Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is weed and used as fodder.

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(xiii) Chenopodiaceae 33. Chenopodium album L.

English Name = Goose foot. Local Name = Chilla Bathua Habit and Habitat = Annual era herb. Commonly found in Cultivated fields and waste places. Distribution = Almost cosmopolitan, common in subtropical to temperate zones, more infrequent in the tropics and cooler regions Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = February-March Voucher Specimen No = 73 Ethnomedical Uses = It has cooling effect. It is used to cure liver diseases and jaundice. Dose Recommended = 1-2 teaspoonful (10-12g), of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 1 glass of milk, (250ml), two times (morning - evening) per day for 10-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is weed and used as fodder. It is also used as vegetable.

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(xiv) Convolvulaceae 34. Convolvulus arvensis L.

English Name = Bind weed. Local Name = Lali poli/ Hiran padi. Habit and Habitat = It is prostrate or climbing living her. Flowers Pale pink to white pink. Commonly found in cultivated fields. Distributin = In World; throughout the temperate and tropical regions except Australia. In Pakistan; Ladakh, Baltistan, Sind, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Part used = Whole plant, leaves especially. Flowering Period = January-March (Throughout year). Voucher Specimen No = 26 Ethnomedical Uses = It is useful for piles and skin wound. Roots are Purgative. Dose Recommended = 2 teaspoonful (10-12g), of powdered drug (at one time), is given 2 times (morning-evening) per day for 14-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fodder and is weed of wheat crop.

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(xv) Cuscutaceae 35. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

English Name = Dodder Local Name = Akash bail. Habit and Habitat = It is climbing leafless parasite & stem is thread alike, spirally twining. Very common on Zizyphus sp. Distribution = In World; Afghanistan, throughout northern India to Yunnan (China), Java and in Ceylon. In Pakistan; Karachi, Sind, Balochistan, KPK, Dir, Chitral, Swat, Gilgit, Punjab, Salt Range, Hazara, Abbotabad, Murree, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Part used = Whole plant. Flowering Period = August-September Voucher Specimen No = 20 Ethnomedical Uses = It is useful in diarrhoea, and dysentery of goat and sheep and baldness in males. Dose Recommended = 2 teaspoonful (8-12g), of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 2 cup (100g), of curd or 1 glass (250ml), of diluted milk (Lasi) daily at night (bedtime) for 3-5 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is the parasites of many fruit yielding plants. It is the trouble some weed.

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(xvi) Crassulaceae 36. Bryophyllum pinnatum Kurz.

English Name = Air plant/life palnt. Local Name = Zakham-e-Hayat / Patharchutt. Habit & Habitat = It is common potted herb in houses. Distribution = In World; native to Tropical Africa, cultivated or naturalized elsewhere. In Pakistan, Sind, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Part used = Leaves and Juice (Mucilage). Flowering Period = November - December Voucher Specimen No = 79 Ethnomedicinal Uses = It is used against Hypertension, Gastro-intestinal trouble, Depression, Renal calculus (Kidney’s stone) and skin diseases. Dose Recommended = ½ cup (60ml) of decoction (at one time) is given two times (Morning-Evening) per day for 10-15 days. Other Ethbnobotanical uses = It is cultivated as ornamental plant.

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(xvii) Cucurbitaceae 37. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.

English Name = Caper tree. Local Name = Tumbera. Habit and Habitat = It is the annual climbing herb. It found as cultivated. It is now uncommon but in paste it was very common. Distribution = In World; Northern Tropical Africa, Atlantic Islands, North-West India, Pakistan and Australia. In Pakistan; Sind, Balochistan, Lasbella, KPK, Waziristan, Margalla, Kashmir, Bolan, Kala Bagh snd Mianwali. Flowering Period = July-August. Voucher specimen No = 208 Part used = Fruit. Ethnomedicinal uses = The fruit is regarded as highly purgative and used in many traditional recipes for digestive troubles in human beings and livestocks. The fruit along with Aloe barbadensis L. is given to cattle for constipation and indigestion. Dose Recommended = 2 teaspoonful (15ml) of decoction (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Aerial parts are used as fodder for cattle.

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38. Cucumis melo var. agrestis Naudin.

English Name = Wild Melon. Local Name = Raindi/Chibbar. Habit and Habitat = It is annual climbing herb with yellow flowers. It is commonly found in cultivated fields. Distribution = In World; throughout the Old-World tropics, USSR & S.W. Asia. In Pakistan; Baltistan, Salt Range, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Flowering Period = July-September Voucher specimen No = 209 Part used = Whole Plant. Ethnomedicinal uses = The fruit is used as condiment and as a mild laxative. Local people make the Sauce (Chatni) from the ripened fruit and is used for indigestion and other digestive disorders. Dose Recommended = ½ cup (60-70ml), of decoction (at one time) is used 3-4 times per day for 3-4 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Local people of the area dired the fruit undershade and used as flavouring agent in cooking the vegetables. Whole plant is also used as fodder for cattle.

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39. Momordica charantia L.

English Name = Bitter gourd. Local Name = Karela. Habit and Habitat = It is annual herb with simiple tendrils. It is commonly cultivated Distribution = In World; tropical and South Africa, South East and Far East Asia to Australia; naturalized in tropical and South America including W. Indies. In Pakistan; Punjab, Salt Range, Klabagh, Mianwali Flowering Period = June-August Voucher specimen No = 210 Part used = Whole Plant. Ethnomedicinal uses = Juice of the fruit is used for diabetes by local people. Fresh fruit is cooked as vegetable and is used for abdominal worms, and blood purification. Dose Recommended = 1 glass (250ml), of juice (at one time) is given once daily at morning for 10-15 days (or in accordance with the sugar level). Other Ethnobotanical uses = Fruit is used as vegetable. The whole palnt is used as fodder for cattle.

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(xviii) Cyperaceae 40. Cyperus rotundus L.

English Name = Nut grass Local Name = Deella Habit and Habitat = It is the herb with reddish inflorescence and is pestiferous weed in poorly drained soil. Distribution = In World; tropical and subtropical areas of all continents. In Pakistan; Sind, Balochistan, KPK, Peshawar, D.I khan, Punjab, Lahore, Sialkot, Attock, Hazara, Swat, Chitral, Gilgit, Burbhan, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Part used = Whole plant, especially roots Flowering Period = May-July Voucher Specimen No = 33 Ethnomedical Uses = It is used to cure infected skin, eczema, scabies, chronic skin sculpturing and abdominal pain. Dose Recommended = 1 glass (250ml) of decoction / extract of drug (at one time) is given once daily at morning before breakfast for 10-15 days. Other ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fodder. It is trouble some weed of cultivated crops.

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(xix) Euphorbiaceae

41. Euphorbia helioscopia L.

English Name = Spurge. Local Name = Chattri dodak Habit and Habitat = It is very common weed of the plains blooming in early spring. Distribution = In World; more or less throughout Europe, N. Africa and Asia; introduced into N. America Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = February-March Voucher Specimen No = 32 Ethnomedicinal Uses = It act as cathoratic, anthelmintic and purgative. Dose Recommended = 1-2 teaspoonful (10-12g), of powdered drug (at one time) is given once daily at night with 1-glass of water or milk for 15-20 days. Ethnobotanical uses = It is poisnous weed not graze by cattles.

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42. Ricinus communis L.

English Name = Casteroil Local Name = Arind Habit and Habitat = It is common wild shrub commonly found in waste places and along the streams. Distribution = Sub-Himalayan tract and in the plains (Plate 44). Part used = Seeds and leaves Flowering Period = Throughout the year Voucher Specimen No = 34 Ethnomedical Uses = It is useful for intestinal swelling, jaundice, constipation and rheumatic swelling. It makes intestine soft. Dose Recommended = 1 teaspoonful (5-6g), of powdered drug (at one time) is boiled in 1 cup of water for 5-6 minutes and then given 2 times per day for 7-8 days.

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(xx) Fumariaceae 43. Fumaria indica (Haussk) Pugsley

English Name = Fumitory Local Name = Shatera/ Papra Habit and Habitat = A diffuse, prostrate much branched annual herb with pale-pink flower. A common weed of cultivated crops specially wheat. Distribution = In World; India, Pakistan, Afghanistan & C. Asia; introduced elsewhere. In Pakistan; Sind, Balochistan, Kurram, KPK, Punjab, Hazara, Kashmir, Swat, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = January-April Voucher Specimen No = 68 Ethnomedicial Uses = It is used for blood purification, piles. It is diuretic and anthelmintic. It is useful in skin allergy. Also used for digestive disorders. Dose Recommended = 250g of decoction / extract of drug (at one time) is given 2 times (morning - evening) per day for 2-3 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fodder.

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(xxi) Lamiaceae

44. Otostegia limbata (Bth.) Boiss.

English Name = Bitter gourd. Local Name = Buhi Kanda. Habit and Habitat = A densely branched spiny shrub 2-3 feet high. It is fairly common in dry, and stony places of the area. Distribution = In Pakistan; Kurram, Para Chinar, KPK, Peshawar, Khyber, Chitral, Swat, Bari Kot and Mangora, Skardu, Hazara, Mansehra, Kaghan Punjab, Salt Range, Kashmir, Jhelum, Mirpur, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Flowering Period = May-June Voucher specimen No = 211 Part used = Aerial parts. Ethnomedicinal uses = Leaves of the plant are used to applied on childrens’ gums. Leaves are dried in sunshine and then powdered made “Surma” which is used for eye diseases specially Opthalmia. Dose Recommended = (a) 2-4 teasponful (30-40g) of powder drug (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 3-4 days. (b) a minute quantity of surma (fine powder) is applied in eye ailment. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Plant is used as firewood. Plant is also used as a embankment across the cultivated fields.

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45. Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth.

English Name = Wild sage. Local Name = Ghoulkund Habit and Habitat = A perennial under shrub growing from a rosette. It is Common in desort parts and waste places of the area. Distributin = In World; E. Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir, to Nepal. In Pakista; Balochistan, Zarghun, Quetta, Kurram, Punjab, Taxilla, Dir, Chitral, Swat, Hazara, KPK, Kashmir, Jhelum, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Part used = Leaves and roots Flowering Period = February-April Voucher Specimen No = 87 Ethnomedicial Uses = It is useful for headache, relief high fever, skin diseases. Dose Recommended = 1 glass (250ml) of decoction (at one time) is given once per day at morning for 7-8 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is sometimes used as firewood.

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46. Salvia officinalis L.

English Name = Sage. Local Name = Garden Sage. Habit and Habitat = It potted plant in houses & gardens. Distribution = In Pakistan; Kashmir, Kalabagh and Mainwali. Part used = Leaves. Flowering Period = January-March Voucher Specimen No = 36 Ethnomedical Uses = It is recommended for fever, ulcer of mouth and throat, Liver and Kidney trouble. It is used as a hair tonic. Dose Recommended = 1 teaspoonful (4-5g) of powdered drug (at one time) is crushed under teeth once daily at night (bed time) for 3-4 days. Other ethnobotanical uses = It is cultivated as an ornamental plant.

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(xxii) Liliaceae 47. Asparagus adescendens Roxb.

English Name = Wild Asparagus Local Name = Musli Habita and Habitat = Plant with erect stem upto 100 cm tall, spiny. Flowers white. Uncommon throughout the area. Distribution = In World; Pakistan, Kashmir and India (Kumaon). In Pakistan; Khyber Pakhtonkhwa, Kohat, Malakand, Punjab, Salt range, Hazara, Punjab, Murree hills, Mirpur, Jammu, Kala Bagh and Mianwali Part used = Aerial parts Flowering Period = October-November Voucher Specimen No = 12 Ethnomedical Uses = It is diuretic. It is used to cure Jaundice and congestive liver. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (20ml) of decoction (at one time) is given 2- 3 times per day for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Some time graze by goats and sheep.

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48. Aloe vera L.

English Name = Aloe Local Name = Kunwargandal. Habit and Habitat = It is perennial succulent potted plant in houses grdens. Distribution = In World; It is Cultivated in the Mediterranean region, widely naturalized in Portugal, Turkey, China (S. Yunnan), Pakistan, India and Nepal, West Indies and Central America. In Pakistan; Sind, Punjab, Poonch, Kalabagh, Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant, especially leaf gel. Flowering Period = September - November Voucher Specimen No = 43 Ethnomedical Uses = It is useful for general pain, wounds, antiseptic, heart diseases, gastritis, stomach diseases, diabetes and dermatitis eczema. Dose Recommended = 3-4 teaspoonful (40-50g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 1 glass (250ml) of water 2-3 times per day for 10-15 days.

Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is cultivated as ornamental in houses.

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49. Asphodelus tenuifolius Cavan.

English Name = Wild Onion Local Name = Bokhat Habit and Habitat = An erect glabrous annual upto 50 cm tall. It is common weed of grain fields. Distribution = In World; North Africa, S. W. Europe, South West Asia, Pakistan and India. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, KPK, lower Swat, Hazara, Poonch, Mirpur, Kalabagh and Mianwali. Part used = Leaves Flowering Period = February-April Voucher Specimen No = 80 Ethnomedical Uses = Used as condiment. It is recommended in fever. Dose Recommended = ½ cup (60ml) of decoction (at one time) is mixed in 1 cup (120ml) of water and is given 2 times (morning and evening) per day for 7-8 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fodder.

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(xxiii) Malvaceae 50. Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet

English Name = Indian Mallow Local Name = Peeli Booti. Habit and Habitat = It is erect perennial herb or undersshrub with pale yellow flowers. Fairly common in arid dry places. Distribution = In World; Tropics and subtropics of New and Old Worlds. In Pakistan; it is common in Sindh and Punjab, Lahore, Sialkot, Rawalpindi, Kashmir, Kalabagh and Mianwali & rare in KPK. Flowering Period = Feburary-March Voucher specimen No = 212 Part used = Leaves and flowers. Ethnomedicinal uses = Poultice is made from leaves which is used to treat boils. Locally leaf juice is given to drink in case of Jaundice. Plant is known as diuretic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory. Dose Recommended = 1 teaspoonful (6-8g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 1 glass (250ml) of water for 5-6 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Stem is used for roof that ching, whole plant is also used as fodder.

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51. Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke

English Name = Mallow Local Name = Peeli katori. Habit and Habitat = A branched undershrub upto 1 m tall. Flowers yellow. Widely found in waste places and roadsides. Distribution = In World; India, Japan, Myanmar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, America. In Pakistan; Sind, KPK, Salt range, Lahore, Mirpur, Jammu, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = Throughout the year. Voucher specimen No = 213 Part used = Whole plant Ethnomedicinal uses = Leaves are cooling and applied to inflamed sores and wounds. Plant is known as emollient and diaphoretic. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (15-20g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 1 glass (250ml) of water 2-3 times per day for 8- 10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Whole plant is dired and used as firewood in houses.

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52. Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Boiss.

English Name = Country Mallow Local Name = Simak. Habit and Habitats = Semiprostrate branched herb with stem green or dark-brown to purplesh flowers yellow. Widespread weed common in waste places. Distribution = In World; Tropical and subtropical regions of the World. In Pakistan; Sind, Multan, Lahore, Jhelum, Dir, Poonch, Kashmir, Mirpur, Jammu, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = Throughout the year. Voucher specimen No = 214 Part used = Whole plant Ethnomedicinal uses = Root is used for stomachic, seeds are used for piles. Juice of the fresh plants is used in rhoumatism and spermatorrhoea. Dose Recommended = 1 cup (120ml) of drug (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 4-5 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Whole plant is dired and used as fodder for shep and donkeys, dried plant is used as fire wood.

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(xxiv) Menispermaceae 53. Tinosporia cordifolia Miers.

English Name = Tinosporia Local Name = Giloo Habit and Habitat = It is clinbing plant and uncommonly found . Distribution = In World; Naturalized and cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical regions of Pakistan, India, Burma and Sri Lanka. In Pakistan; Eastern Punjab, Peshawar. Flowering Period = March-May. Voucher specimen No = 215 Part used = Stem Ethnomedicinal uses = It is used for Stomachic and also used as aphrodisiac, antidysentric and antipyretic. Fresh juice of the plant isused for diarrhoea, useful in gonorrhoea and diabetes. Also used for Malaria, fevers and blood purifiction. Dose Recommended = 1-2 teaspoonful (12-25ml) of decoction (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 2-3 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Stem also used as toothbrush (Miswak) for tooth and gum diseases.

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(xxv) Mimosaceae

54. Acacia modesta Wall

English Name = Arabic Gum Tree Local Name = Phulai Habit and Habitat = It is one the dominant tree species of vegetation of the area. Distribution = In World; West Pakistan, India (Punjab, Uttar Pradesh), Afghanistan. In Pakistan; KPK. Province, Punjab, Baluchistan, Kala Bagh and Mianwali (Plate 45). Part used = Gum Flowering Period = March-May Voucher Specimen No = 81 Ethnomedical Uses = Sexual tonic, restorant, cough, catarrhal affections and bronchial disorders etc. Dose Recommended = ½ cup of juice (made from gum powder) (60ml) (at one time) is given 2 times per day for 5-6 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as Timber, fuelwood yielding speices. Agricultural implements are also formed fromits wood.

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55. Albizzia lebbek L.

English Name = Siris Tree Local Name = Kala Sirin Habit and Habitat = It is largest tree commonly found in area. Distribution = In World; W. Pakistan, widely cultivated; Tropical Asia; N. Australia and Tropical Africa. In Pakistan; Hazara, Swat, Sind, Baluchistan, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Bark, flowers, seeds and pods. Flowering Period = May-July Voucher Specimen No = 83 Ethnomedical Uses = Bark and seeds are used as restorative and in piles, diarrhoea, dysentery. Flowers are used in skin diseases. All parts are used in snake bite. Flowers are used for headaches. Dose Recommended = 1-2 teaspoonful (10-12ml) of decoction (at one time) is given 2 times (Morning - Evening) per day for 1-2 days. Other Ethnobotanical use = It is used as fuel wood, timber yielding speices.

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56. Albizzia procera L.

English Name = Siris Sail Local Name = Chhita Sirin Habit and Habitat = It is medium size tree. It is uncommonly found in the area. Distribution = In World; Native of Central India, east of Jamna; Burma; much planted in Punjab as a roadside tree. In Pakistan; Punjab, Sind, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Bark, flowers, seeds and pods. Flowering Period = May-July Voucher Specimen No = 84 Ethnomedical Uses = Bark and seeds are used as restorative and in Piles, diarrhoea, dysentery. Flowers are used in skin diseases. All parts are useo in snake bite. Powdered seeds are used for eyes’ diseases. Dose Recommended = ½ cup (60 ml) of decoction (at one time) is given 2 times (Morning - Evening) per day for 3-4 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is sometimes used as shelter belt and fuelwood.

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(xxvi) Moraceae 57. Ficus religiosa L.

English Name = Fig/Peepal Local Name = Pipal. Habit and Habitat = It is branched large size tree and is uncommon. Distribution = In World; Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Ceylon, China, Burma and Thailand; introduced and cultivated in S.E. Asia, Middle East, North Africa (Egypt, Libya), U.S.A. and elsewhere. In Pakistan; Sind, lower Baluchistan, Punjab, KPK, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Bark of tree, fruit, seeds. Flowering Period = October-November Voucher Specimen No = 74 Ethnomedical Uses = Bark of tree and fruits are used against Asthma, weakness of urinary bladder and constipation. Decoction of bark is used for vomiting. Dose Recommended = 1 teaspoonful powder drug (5-6 g) drug (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 2-3 days (one cup of decoction in the morning and evening for 2-3 days for vomiting). Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fuelwood.

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58. Ficus benghalensis L.

English Name = Banyan tree. Local Name = Bohr, Bargad. Habit and Habitat = It is branched very large size tree. It is uncommon only Found on shrines. Distribution = In World; Pakistan, India. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, KPK, Punjab, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Aerial roots, stem bark, latex. Flowering Period = April-May Voucher Specimen No = 86 Ethnomedical Uses = Aerial roots are used to treat diarrhoea. It is used to control rise of blood sugar among diabetic patient emission, piles, latex is ucracking of feet, Latex mixed with honey is given orally. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (25-30g) of drug (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 15-20 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Plant is cultivated for shadow. Whole palnt is used as Fuelwood.

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59. Morus alba L.

English Name = White Mulberry. Local Name = Chitta toot / Sufaid toot. Habit and Habitat = It is branched cultivated tree found throughout the are very commonly. Distribution = In World; Native of China and probably in temperate Asia, now widely distributed in Japan, China, Malaya, Burma, Indo-Pak. Subcontinent westwards to N. Africa, South & Central Europe; introduced in the New world. In Pakistan; Hunza, Ladakh, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Fruit and bark. Flowering Period = March-April Voucher Specimen No = 95 Ethnomedical Uses = It act as a refrigirent and anthelmentic. It is used as a remedy for sore throat. Dose Recommeded = 2 teaspoonful (10-12ml) of juice (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 2-3 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Wood is used as fuelwood, Timber, roofing and shelte- ring. Leaves are browse by camels, goats & sheep. Fruit locally known as “Lail” is edible.

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60. Ficus palmata Forssk.

English Name = Wild Fig. Local Name = Jangli anjeer/khabara Habit and Habitat = It is medium sized tree uncommonly found on graveyards. Distribution = In World; Nepal, N. & N.W. India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Arabian Peninsula, Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia and S. Egypt. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, Kurram, KPK, Chitral, Swat, Kashmir, Gilgit, Hazara, Murree hills, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Fruit and latex Flowering Period = April and October Voucher Specimen No = 58 Ethnomedical Uses = It act as expectorant. It is used to treat kidney stones. Other Ethnobotancial uses = Wood is used for fuel purposes.

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(xxvii) Myrtaceae 61. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn.

English Name = Eucalyptus. Local Name = Sufaida. Habit and Habitat = It is perennial large size tree. Very abundantly found on graveyards. Distribution = It is common in gardens. Part used = Seeds, oil of leaves. Flowering Period = March-August Voucher Specimen No = 77 Enthmedical Uses = It act as an antiseptic, antibacterial, Diuretic. It is used as cold and cough remedies, throat lozenges, Malaria and toothache. Dose Recommended = 2 teaspoonful (12-15ml) of fresh juice is mixed in 1 cup of decoction (at one time) and is given 2-3 times per day for 8- 10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Wood is used as Timebr, fuel, sheltering and roofing .

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62. Psidium guajava L

English Name = Guava Local Name = Amrood Habit and Habitat = It is commonly found as cultivated medium size tree in the area. Distribution = Native of Mexico, widely cultivated in plains. Part used = Fruit and leaves Flowering Period = May Voucher Specimen No = 76 Ethnomedical Uses = Dried fruit is used to treat diarrhoea, stomachache and diabetes, hot water extract of dried leaves is taken orally for diabetes. Dose Recommende = 2 teaspoonful (12-15g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 1 glass (250ml) of water 2-3 times per day for 4- 5 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Plant is visited in flowering season by honey bees. Wood and branches some time used as firewood.

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(xxviii) Nyctaginaceae 63. Mirabilis jalapa L.

English Name = Four-o-Clock Local Name = Gul-e-Bashi Habit and Habitat = Erect branched undershrub. Very commonly found in shadely, moist and wste places. Also cultivated in houses and gardens. Distribution = In World; A native of S. America; widely cultivated and found as an escape in many tropical areas. In Pakistan; Swat, Rawalpindi, Poonch, Abbotabad, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Leaves, flowers and roots Flowering Period = March-July Voucher Specimen No = 71 Ethnomedical Uses = It act as anti-inflammatory, purgative, blood purifier. It is used to treat piles, jaundice and skin diseases. Root paste is used both topically and internally to treat piles. Dose Recommended = 1-2 teaspoonful (8-10ml) of decoction (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 2-3 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Cultivated as ornamental.

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(xxix) Oleaceae 64. Olea ferruginea Royle

English Name = Wild Olive/Indian Olive. Local Name = Kao. Habit and Habitat = A medium size evergreen tree. It is the characteristic vegetation of dry hills of Kala Chitta and Attock Khurd. Distribution = In World; Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir. In Pakistan; Dir, Chitral, Swat, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = March-September Voucher specimen No = 216 Part used = Aerial parts. Ethnomedicinal uses = Plant is known as Astringent, antiseptic and antiperiodic. Fruit and leaves are used for eye problems, fever, debility and gonorrhea, toothbrush and young branches is used for toothache and gum diseases. Dose Recommended = ½ cup (60ml) of decoction (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 3-4 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Wood of the plant is very hard and durable used for timber and fuel purposes. Wood is also used for making agricultural implements. When it is extensively graze it is changed into small bushy undershrub (Kavi). Fresh leaves of this bushy shrub is used to made tea (Kavi tea) which is very tasteful and used for digestive disorders and as heart tonic. ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 110

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(xxx) Oxalidaceae 65. Oxalis corniculata L.

English Name = Wood Sorrel. Local Name = Khatti Mitthi booti Habit and Habitat = It is creeping annual herb flowers yellow. Found commonly in wasrte places, shaddy & moist places and cultivated areas. Distribution = A cosmopolitan weed. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, KPK, Punjab, Chitral, Hunza, Hazara, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = March-December Voucher Specimen No = 59 Ethnomedical Uses = Juice of the plant is given in stomach trouble. Decoction of the root is given for worms. Dose Recommended = 1 tablet (3-5g) (at one time) is given with 1 cup (150ml) of water two times (Morning - Evening) per day for 6-7 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Leaves are used as vegetable and used in sauce.

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(xxxi) Papilionaceae 66. Argyrolobium roseum (Camb.) Jaub. & Spach.

English Name = Maiden hair fern Local Name = Makhni Booti Habit and Habitat = It is annual herb with trifoliate leaves. Found commonly in lower hills of Attock khurd and Kala chitta. Distributin = In World; Pakistan, Persian Baluchistan; Arabia, Aden. In Pakistan; Kashmir, Waziristan, Peshawar, Balakot, Punjab, Jhelum, Hazara, Rawalpindi, Murree, Baluchistan, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant. Flowering Period = April-October Voucher Specimen No = 51 Ethnomedical Uses = It is used as aphrodisiac and tonic. It is also given to goats to increase milk and butter production. It is used as sexual tonic for sexuality debility in males. Dose Recommended = 2 teaspoonful (10-15g) of powdered drug is given with one glass (250ml) of water (at one time) once daily at morning before breakfast for 10-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Some time graze by goats and sheep.

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67. Trigonella foenum-graecum L.

English Name = Fenugreek Local Name = Mathri / Mathray. Habit and Habitat = It is annual cultivated vegetable throughout the area. Distribution = In World; Pakistan; Kashmir; India; Southern Europe; Orient; Arabia; Ethiopia. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Leaves and seeds. Flowering Period = January - April Voucher Specimen No = 25 Ethnomedical Uses = It is a powerful tonic. It is useful for Back pain. Seeds in powdered from used for diabetes. Dose Recommended = 1 teaspoonful (6-8g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given 2 times (at morning before breakfast, at night (bed time) with 1 cup of milk for 4-8 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as vegetable. Aerial parts are dried in sun light and used as flavouring agent in cooking.

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68. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

English Name = Sissoo Local Name = Tali / Shesham. Habit and Habitat = It is common perennial cultivated as well as wild tree Found throughout the area. Distribution = In World; Pakistan; India; Sikkim; Afghanistan; Persia; Iraq. Part used = Leaves and wood. Flowering Period = March-April Voucher Specimen No = 3 Ethnomedical Uses = Leaves extract used for softening and cleaning the hairs. It is a hair tonic and promote the growth of long hairs. Dose Recommended = 2 teaspoonful (10-15g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given 2 times (at morning before breakfast, at night (bed time) with 1 glass (250ml) of milk for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fuelwood, timber, thatching and sheltering species.

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69. Tephrosea hamiltonii J.R. Drum.

English Name = Tephrosea Local Name = Sirphuka. Habit and Habitats = An erect undershrub with pink flowers. Very commonly found in Lawrencepur, Kamra and Dukhnair Villages of the area. Distribution= In World; Southern Asia, Australia, Tropical Africa, southwards to Natal; introduced in Tropical America. In Pakistan; Madras, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = July-September Voucher specimen No = 218 Part used = Whole plant. Ethnomedicinal uses = Dried parts of the plant is used for the preparation of local medine used for digestive disorders and indigestion. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful for (15-20g) of powder drug (at one time) is given 2 times (Morning - Evening) for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Fresh plant is regarded as harmful, may cause blindness in cattle. It is only reported as fodder for cow and goat when it is dried.

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(xxxii) Primulaceae 70. Anagallis arvensis L.

English Name = Anagalis. Local Name = Cheri mava. Habit and Habitat = It is annual herb with blue flowers. Common in cultivated fields, moist places and shaddy places. Distribution = In World; N.W. Africa, the Mediterranean, Europe to W. Asia, Australia, N. America, temperate and E. tropical South America. In Pakistan; Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = March-April Voucher specimen No = 217 Part used = Whole plant. Ethnomedicinal uses = Whole plant is used for inflammation, kidney, gout, epilepsy and leprosy. Plant is also used to intoxicate fish and expel leeches from the nostrils of buffaloes. Dose Recommended = 1 glass (250ml of decoction / extract of drug (at one time) is given once daily at morning before breakfast for 10-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Whole plant is used as fodder.

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(xxxiii) Poaceae

71. Avena sativa L.

English Name = Oat Local Name = Jounda Habit and Habitat = It is cultivated annual grass found throughout the area. Distribution = In World; Pakistan, Europe; western and Central Asia. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, Punjab, KPK., Gilgit & Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Seeds Flowering Period = March-April Voucher Specimen No = 60 Ethnomedical Uses = It is useful for Nervous exhaustation, skin allergies. Dose Recommended = 50-60g of powder drug (at one time) is given 2 times (Morning - Evening) per for day 6-7 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Cultivated for fodder.

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72. Cymbopogon jawarancusa (Jones) Schulf.

English Name = Wild Lemon grass. Local Name = Khavi. Habit and Habitat = It is common annual scented desert grass of plains and low hills. Commonly found on Kala Chitta hills of the area. Distribution = In World; Pakistan, India (mainly in the west) and Nepal. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, Punjab, KPK., Gilgit & Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = August-September Voucher specimen No = 219 Part used = Whole plant. Ethnomedicinal uses = The decoction of leaves, flowers and roots is given in seasonal fevers. The plant is crushed in water and made into poultice which is applied over painful joints and inflamed parts. Dose Recommended = (a) 2 teaspoonful (10-15g) of powder drug (at one time) is put in smoking pipe and is smoked by patient 2-3 minutes 1- 2 times per day for 10-15 days. (b) one cup of decoction is given in morning and evening for 3-4 days (for fever). Other Ethnobotanical uses = Whole plant is used as fodder for cattle.

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73. Saccharum benghalense Retz.

English Name = Wild Lemon grass. Local Name = Kana. Habit and Habitat = It is largest perennial grass. Very commonly found throughout the area. Distribution = In World; Pakistan, North and Northwest India; Afghanistan. In Pakistan; Sind, Punjab & KPK, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = August-October Voucher specimen No = 220 Part used = Whole plant. Ethnomedicinal uses = Roots decoction is given to cattle for abdominal worms and to relieve loss of appetite. Dose Recommended = ½ cup (60ml) of decoction (at one time) is applied 3-4 times per day. Other Ethnobotanical uses = The stem is used in making roof, locally called as “Kirrah” and is used for roof thatching. Chairs and baskets are also made from the stem.

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74. Cymbopogon citrates

English Name = Lemon grass. Local Name = Mushki ser. Distribution = Old World tropics and subtropics, elsewhere introduced or in cultivation only. Habit and Habitat = It is the perennial scented cultivated grass. Its cultivation is uncommon and is confined only in Chhachh region. Flowering Period = August-September Voucher specimen No = 221 Part used = Whole plant. Ethnomedicinal uses = Aerial parts of the plant are used for indigestion, vomiting, and Cholera. The infusion of the plant is used as a gargle for toothache and to strengthen the gums. Dose Recommended = 1-2 cups (150ml) of decoction (at one time) is given with bread (2-3 times) per day for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Tea prepared from the aerial parts of the plant is commonly used after meal by local people.

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75. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

English Name = Baham grass. Local Name = Khabul guaha. Habit and Habitat = It is perennial grass and is very abundantly found throughout the area. Distribution = In World; tropical and warm temperate regions throughout the world. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, Punjab, KPK. & Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Flowering Period = April-October Voucher specimen No = 31 Part used = Whole plant. Ethnomedicinal uses = Plant is crushed to make paste which is applied externally on eyelids for reducing the swelling, redness of eyes and eyes pain. The paste is also applied on cuts and wounds. Dose Recommended = One spoon of paste is applied on swelling and cuts / wound twice a day for 5-7 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is the favourite fodder for buffaloes, cows, donkeys, and horses.

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76. Zea mays L.

English Name = Corn. Local Name = Makki. Habit and Habitat = It is the annual cultivated grain yielding crop in the area. Distribution = Widely cultivated everywhere. Part used = Stigma from female flower. Flowering Period = July-November Voucher Specimen No = 44 Ethnomedical Uses = It is used against the inflamation of urinary system. Bladder cleaner and removal of Kidney stones. Dose Recommended = ½ cup (60ml) of decoction (at one time) is given 2 times (Morning - Evening) per day for 5-6 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Grain is used as food for both human being as well as cattles. Plant is also used as firewood in houses.

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(xxxiv) Polygonaceae 77. Polygonum plebejium R.Br.

English Name = Polygonum Local Name = Derank Habit and Habitat = A prostrate mat forming herb. Common in moist places and cultivated fields. Distribution = In World; Africa; s Asia; Australia. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, KPK, Chitral, Lower Hazara, Kashmir, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Whole Plant Flowering Period = February-June Voucher Specimen No = 75 Ethnomedical Uses = Dried and powdered plant is taken internally in pneumonia. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (10-15g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 1 glass (250ml) water two times (Morning before breakfast, evening at bedtime) per day for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Sometimes grazed by cattles.

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78. Rumex dentatus L.

English Name = Sorrel. Local Name = Jangli palik Habit and Habitat = An erect annual upto 90 cm tall. Leaves mostly radical. Common weed of plains and hills. Distribution = In World; Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, East Asia. In Pakistan; Chitral, Drosh, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = March-May Voucher Specimen No = 82 Ethnomedical Uses = It is used to cure inflammation of urinary system. It is used for bladder cleaner and removal of kidney stones. Dose Recommended = 2 teaspoonful (15-15ml) of powder drug (at one time) is mixed in a cup (120g) of curd and is given (2-3 times) per day for 2-3 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as fodder for cattles.

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(xxxv) Portulacaceae 79. Portulaca oleracea L.

English Name = Purslane Local Name = Kulfa Habit and Habitat = It is annual cultivated herb with succulent aerial parts. Commonly cultivated in Chhachh area. Distribution = In World; a cosmopolitan weed, native of South-West parts of United States and now widely distributed in warm temperate, tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, Punjab, Gilgit, Hazara, Hunza, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = May-July Voucher Specimen No = 69 Ethnomedical Uses = Hot water extract of dried aerial part is taken orally as a diuretic. Water extract of the plant is taken for asthma. Dose Recommended = (20-25ml) of drug (at one time) is mixed in 2 cups (200g) of curd and is given (2-3 times) per day for 3-4 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Whole plant is used as vegetable and fodder.

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(xxxvi) Rhamnaceae

80 Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Whight & Arn.

English Name = Jujube. Local Name = Mallah Habit and Habitat = It is a medium sized tree on hills of the area. Very commonly found throughout the area. Distribution = In World; Palestine, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, Kurram, KPK, Punjab, Lower Hazara, Sind, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Leaves and fruits Flowering Period = March-June Voucher Specimen No = 54 Ethnomedical Uses = It is used as a tonic for urinary bladder and hair cleaner. It is useful for insomnia. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (15-20ml) of powder drug (at one time) is given once daily at morning for 5-6 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Fruit is edible. Wood is used for fuel, timber and agricultural implements purposes.

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(xxxvii) Rosaceae 81. Rosa indica L.

English Name = Rose Local Name = Gulab. Habit and Habitat = A perennial cultivated shrub common in houses and gardens. Distribution = In World; W. China, Eastern Himalaya, Nepal, introduced and cultivated in India and Pakistan. Part use = Flowers and juice. Flowering Period = Throughout the year Voucher Specimen No = 37 Ethnomedical Uses = It has cooling effects on eye. It is useful for indigestion, constipation and eye diseases. Dose Recommended = 1 cup (250ml) of drug decoction / extract (at one time) is given once daily at morning before breakfast for 10-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Cultivated ornamental.

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(xxxviii) Scrophulariaceae

82. Verbascum thapsus L.

English Name = Mullein Local Name = Gidder tambakoo Habit and Habitat = Perennial upto 45 cm tall, stem simple and leaves basal. Common only in graveyards and rocky places. Distribution = In World; Asia and Europe, naturalized throughout the Northern Hemisphere. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, Kurram, KPK, Chitral, Dir, Swat, Gilgit, Deosai, Baltistan, Hazara, Punjab, Kashmir, Ladakh, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Leaves and flowers Flowering Period = March-October Voucher Specimen No = 42 Ethnomedical Uses = It act as expectorant and antispasmodic. It is used to cure tuberculosis, respiratory ailments and bronchitis.Leaves smoke is used to ease cheast complaints and asthema. Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (15-20ml) of drug powder (at one time) is given once daily at morning for 5-6 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Plant is some time used as firewood.

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(xxxix) Solanaceae

83. Solanum surratense Schrad & Wendl

English Name = Wild egg plant Local Name = Mohakrfi Habit and Habitat = A prestrate branched herb with prickly durk green leaves. Common in desert parts, low hills and some time cultivated fields. Distribution = In World; N. Africa, S. & S.E. Asia, Australia and Polynesia. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, KPK, Kurram, Punjab, Hazara, Swat, Kashmir, Poonch, Kala Bagh and Mianwali (Plate 30). Part used = Fruit and leaves Flowering Period = Throughout the year Voucher Specimen No = 22 Ethnomedical Uses = It is used against cough, bronchitis, respiratory trouble,

abdominal pain and for blood purification. Seeds are used to cure toothache.

Other Ethnoboticanical uses = It is used as firewood.

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84. Solanum nigrum L.

English Name = Nighshade. Local Name = Kachmach/Makko Habit and Habitat = It is annual herb common in cultivated fields, most and shaddy places. Distribution = Cosmopolitan Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = Through out the year Voucher Specimen No = 4 Ethnomedical Uses = It is used in liver diseases, diabetes, Rheumatism,

diarrhoea and constipation. It is also used in skin

and heart diseases. Also act as expectorant and sedative.

Dose Recommended = 2-3 teaspoonful (10-15g) of powdered drug (at one time) is given with 1 glass (250ml) of water 2-3 times per day for 3- 4 days.

Other Ethnobotanical uses = Plant is used as vegetable

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85. Datura innoxia Miller

English Name = Thorn apple Local Name = Aam dhatura Habit and Habitat = Branched pubescent herb, leaves entire wavy. Common along roadsides, open places and graveyards. Distribution = In World; C. and S. America, W. Indies, S. Western USA. Naturalised in the Mediterranean area, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Malaysia. In Pakistan; Punjab, Jhelum, Murree, Poonch, Baluchistan, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant, seeds poisonous Flowering Period = March-July Voucher Specimen No = 96 Ethnomedical Uses = Leaves are applied to sores, fruits are sedative and

intoxicating, seeds are narcotic and antiseptic.

Dose Recommended = 1 cup (120ml) of decoction (at one time) is given once daily at night (bedtime) for 3-4 days.

Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is poisnous plant and used some time as fire wood.

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86. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

English Name = Winter Cherry Local Name = Asganth Habit and Habitat = A perennial herb up to 90 cm tall. Common in waste Places and graveyards. Distribution = In World; Canary Islands, Mediterranean, Africa, Iraq, South Iran, Syria, Turkey, Palestine, Arabia, Pakistan and India. In Pakistan; Karachi, Sind, Baluchistan, KPK, Lower Kurram, Swat, Hazara, Punjab, Salt Range, Multan, Jhelum, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Roots and fruits Flowering Period = Round the year Voucher Specimen No = 65 Ethnomedical Uses = Used against old cough, asthema, gastritis. It is antispasmodic and also relieve the abdominal pain. Roots used in debility and rheumatism. Dose Recommended = 2 cups (250ml) of decoction (at one time) is given once daily at night (bedtime) for 8-10 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is cultivated sometime as ornamental.

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87. Capsicum annuum L.

English Name = Green Pepper. Local Name = Lal mirch / Hari mirch. Habit and Habitat = It is a common cultivated annual vegetable, throughout the area. Distribution= Native to C. America. Widely cultivated everywhere. Part used = Fruit and seeds. Flowering Period = May-August Voucher Specimen No = 72 Ethnomedical Uses = It act as a stimulant and antiseptic. It is used as a blood circulation stimulant for cattle. Also used as condiments and spices. Dose Recommended = (20-50 years persons), 1 cup (120ml) of juice with minute quantity of drug water (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 4-5 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Fruit is used as vegetable and ingredient of spices.

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88. Withania coagulens (L.) Dunal

English Name = White Winter Cherry. Local Name = Chitta Verna Habit and Habitat = It is perennial undershrub with white thick leaves. Commonly found on Attock khurd and Kala Chitta hills. Distribution = In World; Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. In Pakistan; Karachi, Sind, Baluchistan, KPK, Lower Kurram, Waziristan, Khyber, Kohat, Punjab, Salt Range, Multan, Attock, Jhelum, Kala Bagh and Mianwali (Plate 19). Part used = Fruit and seeds. Flowering Period = September - November Voucher Specimen No = 92 Ethnomedical Uses = It is used for digestive disorders, gastritis and blood purification. Seeds are used for Diabetes. Seeds soaked in water and used for sexual debility. Dose Recommended = 1 cup (120ml) of decoction (at one time) is given 2-3 times per day for 10-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Sometime plant is used as firewood.

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(xxxx) Sapindaceae 89. Dodonaea viscosa L

English Name = Hopbush Local Name = Sanatha Habit and Habitat = It is peremial everygreen dominant species of Kala Chitta and Attock Khurd hills. Distribution= In World; Australia, S. Africa, N. America, China, India, Ceylon and W. Pakistan. In Pakistan; Karachi, Sind, Baluchistan, Kurram, KPK, Punjab, Salt Range, Dir, Swat, Kala Bagh and Mianwali (Plate 23). Part used = Leaves Flowering Period = February - March Voucher Specimen No = 50 Ethnomedical Uses = Leaves are used in the treatment of wounds, swelling, burns, fever and rheumatism. Leaves are also used for diabetes. Dose Recommended = 1 glass (250ml) of drug (at one time) is given once daily at morning before breakfast for 10-15 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Plant is used as fuelwood.

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(xxxxi) Violaceae

90. Viola stocksii Boiss.

English Name = Blue violet. Local Name = Banafsha / Makhni Booti Habit and Habitats = Slender annual 3-15 cm tall herb. Flowers blaish-white coloured. Only found in drier parts of Kala Chitta hills. Distribution = In World; Pakistan, India, Afghanistan and Iran. In Pakistan; Karachi, Sind, Baluchistan, Boogti Hills, Waziristan, Kurram, KPK, Peshawar, Musa Khail, Shahpur, Punjab, Jhelum, Mirpur, Hurnai, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = March-April Voucher Specimen No = 93 Ethnomedical Uses = Used in Cold, cough and fever.

Dose Recommended = ½ cup (60ml) of decoction (at one time) is given two times (morning - evening) per day for 3-4 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is used as an aphrodiasic medicine and only identified by knowledgeable person and Hakeems of the area.

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(xxxxii) Verbinaceae

91. Vitex negundo L.

English Name = Five-Leaved Chaste Tree Local Name = Marvand Habit and Habitat = It is shrub with palmately divided leaves. Found along with water channels. Distribution = In World; Pakistan, India, W. Asia and N. Africa; introduced and widely cultivated as an ornamental elsewhere. In Pakistan; Kurram, Khyber, Swat, Lower Hazara, Rawalpindi, Murree, Kashmir, Jhelum, Mirpiur, Poonch, Kala Bagh and Mianwali. Part used = Leaves and roots Flowering Period = March-June Voucher Specimen No = 61 Ethnomedical Uses = Fresh leaves are used in the form of bandage for chest and back pain. Dried leaves are smoked for the relief of headache. Also used for skin allergy.

Dose Recommended = 1 cup (120ml), of syrup (at one time) is given 3 times per day for 4-5 days. Other Ethmobotanical uses = Sometime used as firewood.

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(xxxxiii) Zygophyllaceae. 92. Fagonia indica Burm. f.

English Name = Fagonia. Local Name = Dumahan. Habit and Habitat = Perennial or annual glabrous slow growing herb. The pretty flowers are pink to pink-purple. Commonly found in desert, drier parts and hilly tracts of the area. Distribution = In World; Indo-Pakistan subcontinent westwards to North and East tropical Africa in arid and semi-arid regions (Plate 47). Flowering Period = Throughout the year Voucher specimen No = 225 Part used = Whole plant. Ethnomedicinal uses = The decoction of the whole plant mixed with sugar is administered for the control of monorrhagia. Extraction of the whole plant is given for Blood purification. The decoction of the plant is used for diabetes and also used as bath to check skin diseases. Dose Recommended = ½ cup (60ml) of drug decoction (at one time) is given 3-4 times per day for 2-3 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = It is some time used as firewood.

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93. Tribulus terrestris L

English Name = Caltrops (Puncture vine) Local Name = Bhakra Habit and Habitat = A noxious yellow flowered prostrate weed with sharp angled fruit. Commonly found in desert parts of the area. Distribution = In World; Tropical and subtropical countries in Asia, Africa, S. Europe, North Australia and introduced in new world tropics. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, KPK, Gilgit, Astore, Baltistan, Kashmir, Ladakh, Kala Bagh and Mianwali (Plate 57). Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = February-April Voucher Specimen No = 52 Ethnomedical Uses = It has cooling effect. It is diuretic, demulcent, astringent. It is used to cure heart diseases and back pain. It is also used for kidney stone. Dose Recommended = 2-teaspoonful (10-12 g), of powdered drug (at one time) is mixed in 2-cups of curd and is given 3-4 times per day for 5- 6 days. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Favourite fodder for camels.

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94. Peganum hermala L.

English Name = Syrian Due. Local Name = Hermal Habit and Habitat = A nnual herb with pretty white flowers. Very abundantly found in Nala and Sarwala ciricles of the area. Distribution = In World; India, Tibet, Pakistan westwards to North Africa, Europe and Russia. In Pakistan; Sind, Hyderabad, Baluchistan, Punjab, Salt Range, Multan, Chitral, Lower Swat, Gilgit, Baltistan, Ladakh, Hazara, Haripur, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali (Plate 33). Part used = Whole plant Flowering Period = May-June Voucher Specimen No = 85 Ethnomedical Uses = Plant have insecticidal properties. Whole palnt is used for various diseases of horses. Dose Recommended = 250 g of drug is burnt and its smoke is effective as insecticidal. Other Ethnobotanical uses = Plant is fired to remove in insects and bad evils from houses by local people of the area.

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3.2 INDIGENOUS PHYTOTHERAPIES BY LOCAL COMMUNITIES OF DISTRICT MIANWALI

Local people of the area especially old men, ladies and knowledgeable persons treat various diseases by using indigenous plant species as traditional phytotherapies. Some of these plants are utilized singly while other are used in admixture. Local people of the area classified these traditional phytotherapies on the basis of their method of use. Common diseases which are treated by using indigenous plant species are; Abdominal worms & pain, Asthma, cough bronchitis, cold, flue and influenza, Diabetes, Diarrhea and Dysentry, Digetive disorders, Ear infections, Eye complaints, Hair problems, Headache & fever, Hepatitis, Jaundice, Joints pain, Kidney problems, Piles, Sexual problems, Skin diseases and Snake & Scorpion Bite. The traditional phytotherapies were arranged alphabetically through disease followed by the botanical name, local name, part use and the method of preparation and use.

I. ABDOMINAL PAIN& WORMS:

Albizzia lebbek (L) Benth.

Local Name: Sirrien

Distribution: In World; W. Pakistan, widely cultivated; Tropical Asia; N. Australia and Tropical Africa. In Pakistan; Hazara, Swat, Sind, Baluchistan, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Seeds

Method of use: Seeds are dried and then ground to obtained powder (Safoof). About half teaspoon of this powder is taken with water at night for abdominal worms.

Punica granatum L.

Local Name: Anar

Distribution: In World; Mediterranean Europe, Africa, and Asia. In Pakistan; Salt Range, Baluchistan, Wazirristan, Kurram, KPK, Dir, Chitral, Hazara, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

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Part use: Seeds

Method of use: Seeds are dried in sunshine and ground to made powder. This powder about 1/4th teaspoon with water is prescribed twice time in a day, for killing the abdominal worms of children.

Ricinus communis L.

Local Name: Arund

Distribution: Sub-Himalayan tract and in the plains.

Part use: Leaves

Method of use: Fresh young leaves are fried in ghee. Then these are wrapped over abdomen. This traditional phytotherapy is prescribed for abdominal pain.

Trachyspermum copticum (L.) Link.

Local Name: Ajwain

Distribution: In World; Afghanistan, Middle East, USSR, North Africa, India, West Pakistan. In Pakistan; Kurram, KPK, Punjab, Hindu Kush, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Seeds

Method of use: Seeds are ground with loaf sugar (Gur) and made into small tablets. When these tablets are taken with hot water, it cures abdominal pain.

II. ASTHMA, COUGH & BRONCHITIS

Adhatoda vasica Nees

Local Name: Bhakker

Distribution: In World, Panama, Indonesia, Malaya, S.E. Asia, India and Pakistan. In Pakistan, Karachi and Sind, North Waziristan, Kohat, Khyber, Kurram, Dir, Swat, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

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Part use: Leaves

Method of use: The fresh juice extract obtained from leaves, is mixed with honey and ginger juice. One teaspoon thrice a day, is recommended to all types of cough, chronic bronchitis and asthma.

Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moeinch

Local name: Bhindi

Distribution: Cultivated as vegetable in most tropical countries. It is extensively cultivated in Pakistan.

Part use: Fruit

Method of use: Fresh fruits are cut into small pieces and then boiled in water, to obtaine mucilaginous decoction. This decoction is prescribed for cough, throat infection and bronchitis.

Psidium guajava L.

Local Name: Amrood

Distribution: Native of Mexico, widely cultivated in plain.

Part use: Fruit

Method of use: Green immature fresh fruit of the plant is fried and then crushed and mixed the teaspoon of honey. This is used for old cough, bronchitis and chronic whooping cough.

III. COLD, FLUE AND INFLUENZA

Ficus benghalensis L.

Local Name: Bohr

Distribution: In Pakistan; Sind, Balochistan, KPK, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Aerial adventitious roots (Prop).

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Method of use: Fresh prop roots are boiled in water for half an hour. Then this decoction is used for chronic flue and influenza. This decoction is used for 3-5 days regularly.

IV. DIABETES

Adhatoda vasica Nees Local Name: Bhekkar Distribution: In World, Panama, Indonesia, Malaya, S.E. Asia, India and Pakistan. In Pakistan, Karachi and Sind, North Waziristan, Kohat, Khyber, Kurram, Dir, Swat, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Leaves Method and use: Extract obtained from the fresh leaves of plant mixed with water. About 10ml of extract is use triplicate per day. It will shows symptomatic hypoglycemic action to lower blood glucose level of Diabetics.

Aloe vera L. Local Name: Kunwargandal Distribution: In World; It is Cultivated in the Mediterranean region, widely naturalized in Portugal, Turkey, China (S. Yunnan), Pakistan, India and Nepal, West Indies and Central America. In Pakistan; Sind, Punjab, Poonch, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Aerial parts Method and use:- Equal quantity of extract obtained from the fresh aerial parts of Fagonia indica, Fresh leaves and stem of Aloe vera and Fresh Branches of Tinosporia cordifolia. Then these three extracts are mix up and use small teaspoon thrice a day. According to the rural inhabitants of the area this formula is very old and 100% effective to lower the blood glucose level of Diabetics.

Ficus benghalensis Linn Local Name: Bohr

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Distribution: In Pakistan; Sind, Balochistan, KPK, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Aerial parts Method and use: The latex obtained from the aerial parts of the plants (leaves and young branches) and mixed with honey and use orally to control rise of blood sugar among Diabetics.

Momardica charantia L. Local Name: Karala Distribution: In World; Tropical and South Africa, South East and Far East Asia to Australia; naturalized in tropical and South America including W. Indies.

Part use: Fruit Method and use: The juice obtained from the fresh fruits of plant and use one small cup daily. This juice also exhibited anti-diabetic properties.

V. DIARRHEA AND DYSENTRY

Adiantum capillus veneris L.

Local Name: Thundi khui Booti

Distribution: In World; Mexico; West Indies; Central America; South America in Venezuela, Peru; tropical to warm temperate regions in Eurasia and Africa.

Part use: Aerial parts

Method of use: Juice is obtained from the fresh aerial part of plant and mix the loaf sugar (Gur) in this juice to obtained a sweet syrup (Sharbat). This syrup is used as one glass twice in a day. It is very effective phytotherapy prescribed for the control and treatment of chronic diarrhoea and dysentery.

Coriandrum sativum L.

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Distribution: A cosmopolitan cultivated in plains.

Part use: Fruit

Mthod of use: Dried fruits are ground to made powder. One teaspoon of this powder is taken with glass of water twice in a day for diarrhoea and dysentery.

Mangifera indica L.

Local Name: Amb

Distribution: Widely cultivated in the tropics.

Part use: Seed

Method of use: Seeds of the plant are dried in sunshine and then ground to obtained powder. One teaspoon of this powder with glass of water is taken twice in a day for chronic dysentery and diarrhoea.

Punica granatum L.

Local Name: Anar

Distribution: In World; Mediterranean Europe, Africa, and Asia. In Pakistan; Salt Range, Baluchistan, Wazirristan, Kurram, KPK, Dir, Chitral, Hazara, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Rind of Fruit

Method of use: Rind of the fruit is dried in sunshine and ground to make powder. Mix an equal quantity of sugar in with this provider. About ½ teaspoon and ¼ teaspoon with water is recommended to adult and children respectively for diarrhoea and dysentery.

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VI. DIGESTIVE DISORDERS

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Local Name: Sounf

Distribution: A cosmopolitan species.

Part use: Fruits

Method of use: About 250 gram dried fruits of plant is ground to obtaine powder, and mix with equal quantity of powder obtain from the seeds of pomegranate, 375 gm of sugar in with this provider and 4-6 seeds of Green cardamon in powder form. This powder (Safoof) is used one teaspoon thrice in a day before and after meal. This phytotherapy is recommended for indigestion, loss of appetite, chronic dyspepsia, Gastritis, Intestional colic, vomiting and heart burn.

Trachyspermum copticum L.

Local Name: Ajwain

Distribution: In World; Afghanistan, Middle East, USSR, North Africa, India, West Pakistan. In Pakistan; Kurram, KPK, Punjab, Hindu Kush, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Fruits

Method of use: About 125 gram of the dried fruits of the plant is ground to obtaine powder. Mix an equal quantity of powder form of the dried fruits of Foeuulum vulgare (Sounf), Phyllanthus emblica (Amla) fruit bark without seeds, Terminalia chebula (Hures) aried fruit, Terminalia bebrica (Behra) dried fruit bark without seeds, 10-15 gm of Black pepper seeds and 50 gm of Black salt. This mixed powder (Safoof) is used as one teaspoon after every meal. This very effective traditional phytotherapy recommended for Vaniting, Nausea, Gastritis, loss of appetite, Dyspepsia, flatulence, Anorexia, heart burn and gas trouble.

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Mentha sylvestris L.

Local name: Pehari/chitta podina

Distribution: In World; Europe and Asia (except Far East and SE Asia) southern Africa.

Part use: Aerial parts

Method of use: A tea is made from the dried aerial parts of the plant and fennel and green cardamon fruits. This tea is prescribed for gastric trouble, intestinal colic, vomiting and Nausea.

VII. EAR INFECTIONS:

Cucurbita pepo L.

Local Name: Kadoo

Distribution: In World; Native to North America; cultivated in tropical and temperate regions. In Pakistan; Punjab, Baltistan, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Fruit

Method of use: Juice obtained from the fresh fruit of the plant and then mix a Rose extract (Arq-e-Gulab). This is used as eardrops for removing Otitis.

Fagonia indica Burm. f.

Local Name: Dhumian

Distribution: In World; Indo-Pakistan subcontinent westwards to North and East tropical Africa in arid and semi-arid regions.

Part use: Aerial parts

Method of use: Aerial parts of the plant are dried undershade and then ground to obtained powder. 250 gm of this powder is mixed with equal quantity of the powder of fruits of Trachyspermum copticum (Ajwain) and Terminalia chebula (Hareer). Then this

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mixed powder is used orally as half teaspoon twice in a day with water for ear infection and other ear diseases.

Raphanus sativus L.

Local Name: Mooli

Distribution: A widely cultivated plant of doubtful origin and nowhere found wild. Centre of origin Mediterranean region.

Part use: Underground part

Method of use: Juice obtained from the underground part of the plant is cooked with sesanum oil (Til) until all the juice is mixed and oil is left behind. Then this oil is used as ear drops for the treatment of ear ailments.

Solanum nigrum L.

Local Name: Kuchmach

Distribution: Cosmopolitan

Part use: Leaves

Method of use: Fresh leaves are crushed and pure leaf extract is obtained. 3-4 drops of this extract is used as ear drops at night for one week. This traditional phytotherapy is prescribed to treat earache, bleeding of ears and boils of ear.

VIII. EYE COMPLAINTS

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile

Local Name: Kiker

Distribution: In Pakistan; Karachi, Punjab, Lahore, Jehlum, Kala Bagh and Mianwali (Plate 40).

Part use: Leaves

Method of use: Fresh leaves of the plant are plucked and mashed to obtaine paste. The paste is tied with cloth as a bandage on eyelids for night, and in morning it is opened.

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It is very old and effective traditional phytotherapy recommended to treat redness of eyes, pain and conjunctivitis.

Calendula arvensis L.

Local Name: Zergul mushki

Distribution: In World; Calif.; Eurasia; Africa; Atlantic Islands. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, Koshak , KPK; Lower Swat and Lower Hazara, Poonch, Kashmir, Baltistan, Ladak, Kala Bagh and Maianwali.

Part use: Aerial parts

Method of use: Aerial parts of the plant are dried undershade. After drying, water is mixed and eyes are washed with this mixture thrice in a day for conjunctivitis and painful eyes. Crushed form of fresh flowers is also useful for redness of eyes and conjunctivitis.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers

Local Name: Khabul gaaha

Distribution: Tropical and warm temperate regions throughout the world. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, Punjab, KPK. & Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Whole plant

Method of use: The paste of the whole fresh plant along with the root paste of Cyperus rotundus (Deela gaaha) is applied externally on eyelids. This is prescribed to reduced the swelling, redness of eyes and to relieve the eye pain.

Euphorbia hirta L.

Local Name: Dodhi

Distribution: A common weed; in grassy plots & by roadsides, and in flooded areas near cultivation, near sea-level.

Part use: Latex of Aerial parts

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Method of use: Milky latex obtained from the fresh aerial parts of the plant. The milky latex is then diluted by adding boiled but cooling clean water. 2-3 drops put in eyes thrice in a day for treatment of eye complaints such as redness of eyes and to remove foreign body from eyes.

Andrachne aspera Spreng

Local Name: Rumtotia

Distribution: In World; from the Cape VerdeIs & Morocco eastwards through N. Africa and the Middle East to Pakistan, northwards to S. Turkey & southwards to Cameroun, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Abdal- Kuri. In Pakistan; Karachi, Sind, Hyderabad, Baluchistan, Hub River, Punjab, Attock, Mauripur, Kala Bagh and Maianwali.

Part use: Root

Method of use: Fresh roots of the plant are collected and peeled off to remove the upper bark of roots. Then these roots are applied in eyes as needle (Surma Salai). This is done to remove the foreign body from the eyes as well as for painful eyes.

Phyllanthus emblica L.

Local Name: Amla

Distribution: In World; Pakistan, throughout India, Sri Lanka and east to S. China and W. Malesia. Wild in the foothills of the Himalayas and cultivated in the plains. In Pakistan; Hazara, Rawalpindi, Kala Bagh and Maianwali.

Part use: Fruit

Method of use: Fresh juice obtained from the fruit of plant and then mix a big teaspoon of honey in this juice. This is orally used for keen vision as an eye tonic, conjectivitis and other eye complaints.

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IX. HAIR PROBLEMS

Coriandrum sativum L.

Local Name: Dhania

Distribution: A cosmopolitan cultivated plant.

Part use: Leaves

Method of use: Paste obtained by crushing the fresh leaves of plant. This paste is applied on head for 15-25 minutes, then head is washed with cool water. This treatment is applying regularly for one month for Baldness, fungal infection and other hair problems.

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Local Name: Peeli Zil, Akashbail

Distribution: In World; Afghanistan, throughout northern India to Yunnan (China), Java and in Ceylon. In Pakistan; Karachi, Sind, Balochistan, KPK, Dir, Chitral, Swat, Gilgit, Punjab, Salt Range, Hazara, Abbotabad, Kala Pani, Kashmir, Islamabad, Murree, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Whole plant

Method of use: Whole plant is mashed to obtained mucilaginous paste. The paste is applied on head for 25-30 minutes, then head is washed with cool water. It is prescribed as very effective phytotherapy for Baldness and production of new soft and black hairs.

Zizyphus mauritiana Lam

Local Name: Ber

Distribution: In World; India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Ceylon, China, Australia, Trop. Africa. In Pakistan; KPK, Sind, Balochistan, Punjab, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Leaves

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Method of use: About ½ kg fresh leaves are boiled in water for one hour. Then mucilaginous paste is obtained and this is applied on head for 10-15 minutes. Head is then washed with cool water. This traditional phytotherapy is recommended for the removal of dandruff as well as for softening of hairs.

Eruca sativa Miller.

Local Name: Jumaha, Taramira

Distribution: In World; Europe, N. Africa, S. W. Asia, widely introduced elsewhere. In Pakistan; Sind, Balchistan, Waziristan, KPK, Punjab, Chitral, Lower Swat, Upper Hazara, Kashmir, Poonch, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Seed oil, Aerial parts

Method of use: Oil obtained by crushing the seeds in oil Mills (Ghani). Head is massage with this oil. This is prescribed for the removal of dandruff, and Scabies in head. Aerial parts o the plant are cooked and used as a vegetable (Saag) for ever blackening of hair throughout the life.

X. HEADACHE AND FEVER

Abutilon indicum G. Don

Local Name: Peeli Booti

Distribution: Tropics and subtropics of New and Old Worlds. In Pakistan; Sindh and Punjab, Lahore, Sialkot, Rawalpindi, Kashmir, rare in KPK, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Leaves

Method of use: Paste obtained by crushing the fresh leaves of plant. This paste is applied tied with cloth on forehead to treat severe fever and headache.

Cassia occidentalis L.

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Local Name: Jangli Amaltus, Kasonda

Distribution: In World; W. Pakistan (Punjab, Sind); a circumtropical weed, possibly of S. American origin. In Pakistan; Punjab, Sind, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Root

Method of use: The root is tied with thread and used as necklace for checking fever among children. It is also given to children for checking fever.

Verbena officinalis L.

Local Name: Jangli Phuldupair

Distribution: In World; Most of Europe and Asia, N. Africa; introduced in N. America and S. Africa. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, Waziristan, KPK, Hazara, Punjab, Lower Swat, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Shoots and leaves

Method of use: Young shoots and leaves are dried undershade and ground to made powder. Then sugar is mixed in this powder and given one teaspoon thrice in a day with water to treat high fever and headache.

XI. HEPATITIS

Silybum marianum Gaertn.

Local Name: Chettri Kandiari

Distribution: Europe (Mediterranean region). In Pakistan; KPK, Peshawar, Kohat Hazara, Hawelian, Mansehra, Abbotabad, mirpur, jammu, Kashmir, Swat, Saidu, Poonch, Kotli, Lahore, Kala Bagh and Mianwali

Part use: Seeds

Method of use: Seeds are collected and roasted. Roasted seeds are ground to obtained powder. Half teaspoon with water is taken thrice in a day for twenty days. This

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phytotherapy is recommended for Hepatitis as well as other disorders of liver by local people of the areas.

XII. JAUNDICE

Alhagi maurorum Medic.

Local Name: Chhoj

Distribution: In World; Pakistan; Kashmir; Iran, Afghanistan; Russia, Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, N. Africa. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, Salt Range, Peshawar, Chitral, Gilgit, Punjab, Mirpur, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Roots

Method of use: Fresh roots are collected and washed with clean water. Then these roots are soaked in water for about 24 hours. Then this water is used for effective relief of Jaundice.

Boerhaavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb.

Local Name: Gulabi Itsit

Distribution: In World; S. Asia, India and Pakistan. In Pakistan; KPK, Baluchistan, Kurram, Peshawar, Sind, Punjab, Multan, Attock, Hazara, Kala Bagh and Mianwali (Plate 50).

Part use: Root

Method of use: A Qureshi family at village Kalu Khurd and Malvana family at village Penjvana are known for the healing of Jaundice by spiritual means for last three generations. They also use this plant for the treatment of Jaundice and prepare a garland from its fresh roots for putting it around the neck of the patient.

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Carthamus oxyacantha M.b.

Local Name: Poli

Distribution: In World; California, North America, Pakistan. In Pakistan; it is found in Baluch, KPK, Swat, Lower Hazara, Jammu, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Seeds

Method of use: The powder obtained by grinding the seeds of plant. This powder is prescribed for Jaundice and cooling effect. The oil obtained from the seeds of this plant is also recommended for Jaundice.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Local Name: Khubal gaaha

Distribution: Tropical and warm temperate regions throughout the world. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, Punjab, KPK. & Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Aerial parts

Method of use: A Malik family at village Pehti (Chhachh area) is known for the treatment of Jaundice by spiritual means for last two generations. Firstly the patient is checked by a traditional test of Jaundice. Aerial parts of this plant are dip in a cup containing mustard oil for three weeks. After this period of time, if color of oil is changed, its means that patient is suffered from Jaundice. Then after this test, patient is recommended to drink the fresh Juice of Pomegranate and eat the reddish for two weeks for effective relief of jaundice.

Zizyphus nummularia (Burm.f) Whight & Arn.

Local Name: Jehari Ber

Distribution: In World; Palestine, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, Kurram, KPK, Punjab, Lower Hazara, Sind, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

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Part use: Fruit

Method of use: The dried fruits are soaked in new earthen pot with equal quantity of Ficus carica L. fruit at night. In the following morning, this infusion is given to patient for effective relief in Jaundice.

XIII. JOINT PAIN (RHEUMATISM)

Tribulus terestris L.

Local Name: Bhukra

Distribution: In World; Tropical and subtropical countries in Asia, Africa, S. Europe, North Australia and introduced in new world tropics. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, KPK, Gilgit, Astore, Baltistan, Kashmir, Ladakh, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Aerial parts

Method of use: Aerial parts are dried undershade and then ground to make powder. Mix with equal quantity of sugar candy. This mixed powder (Safoof) is recommended for Joint’s pains of the body, and Back pain etc.

Triticum aestivum L.

Local Name: Kurank

Distribution: Cultivated in plains.

Part use: Seeds

Method of use: About 2½ kilogram of wheat seeds are put in a container. 2-3 fully matured fresh plants about 1½ kilogram of Solanum surattense (Mohakri) are cut into small pieces and put in that container. Half of the container is filled with water and boiled until water is completely absorbed by the material. Then wheat seeds are separated from Solanum surattense (Mohakri) and dried in sunshine. These wheat seeds are then ground and about 250 gram of the powder is mixed with equal quantity of loaf sugar (Gur/Shaker) and Animal ghee. This material is cooked to prepare a sweet dish (Halva) and used twice

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in a day for two weeks. This traditional phytotherapy is recommended for all joint’s pains of the body, Arthritic pain due to inflammation and degenerative joint diseases.

XIV. KIDNEY STONE (RENAL CALCULI)

Tribulus terestris L.

Local Name: Bhakra

Distribution: In World; Tropical and subtropical countries in Asia, Africa, S. Europe, North Australia and introduced in new world tropics. In Pakistan; Baluchistan, KPK, Gilgit, Astore, Baltistan, Kashmir, Ladakh, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Roots

Method of use: Fresh roots are crushed in morter and mixed with water. This extract used as half cup daily at bedtime for on week. It is very effective phytotherapy and prescribed for branched stone of kidneys.

XV. PILES

Mirabilis jalapa L.

Local Name: Gulbashi

Distribution: A native of S. America; widely cultivated and found as an escape in many tropical areas. In Pakistan; Swat, Rawalpindi, Poonch, Abbotabad, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Roots

Method of use: Roots are crushed and add little quantity of water regularly during crushing to obtain paste. This root paste is used both topically and internally to treat piles.

Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene

Local Name: Sawi Booti, Jal Nim

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Distribution: Throughout tropical and subtropical regions. In Pakistan; Sind, Karachi, Baluchistan, Waziristan, Kurram, Khyber, Kohat, Punjab, Lower Hazara, Poonch, Kashmir, Jammu, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Whole plant

Method of use: The whole plant is dried undershade and then ground to make powder. Mix little quantity of Black pepper in this powder. About half teaspoon of this powder is given to patient daily to treat piles. The fresh juice obtained from the aerial parts of this plant is also recommended for bleeding piles.

Raphanus sativus L.

Local Name: Mooli

Distribution: A widely cultivated plant of doubtful origin and nowhere found wild. Centre of origin Mediterranean region.

Part use: Underground part

Method of use: Underground part of the plant is cut into small pieces. These pieces are placed in new earthen pot in open air for over night. In the following morning, it is eaten with table salt for the treatment of piles.

XVI. SEXUAL TONIC

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile

Local Name: Kiker

Distribution: In World; W. Pakistan (Sind); Uganda, Kenya, Tanganyika, doubtfully also in Sudan. In Pakistan; Karachi, Punjab, Lahore, Jehlum, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Fruit

Method of use: Fresh fruits of the plant are dried undershade. After drying for 4-5 days, ground to made powder. Mixed equal quantity of Sugar candy (Kabli Misseri) in this powder. This powder is used with boiled milk of cow at bedtime. Sure substances are not used during this treatment. This treatment is very effective for male. ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 159

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Argyrolobium roseum Jaub & Spach

Local Name: Mukhni Beoti

Distribution: In World; Pakistan (Sind, Baluchistan); Persian Baluchistan; Arabia, Aden. In Pakistan; Sind, Murree, Baluchistan, Peshawar, Balakot, Punjab, Jhelum, Hazara, Quetta, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Whole plant

Methodof use: Whole plant is soaked in water in new earthen pot containing green gram seeds for 6-8 hours. Then mash this material and obtain mucilaginous paste. This mucilaginous paste is used with cold milk of cow. This is used for Male sexual tonic.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal.

Local Name: Axon, Asganth

Distribution: In World; Canary Islands, Mediterranean, Africa, Iraq, S. Iran, Syria, Turkey, Palestine, Arabia, Pakistan and India. In Pakistan; Karachi, Sind, Baluchistan, KPK, Lower Kurram, Swat, Hazara, Punjab, Salt Range, Multan, Jhelum, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Root

Method of use: Roots of the plant are cut into small pieces and dried undershade for 15 days. Then ground to make powder. Mix equal quantity of honey in this powder. About teaspoon used daily at night without milk, because using with milk cause the headache.

XVII. SKIN DISEASES

Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.

Local Name: Pokhat

Distribution: In World; North Africa, S. W. Europe, South West Asia, Pakistan and India. In Pakistan; Sind, Baluchistan, KPK, Punjab, Lower Swat, Hazara, Poonch, Mirpur, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Seeds

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Method of use: Fresh triangular seeds are mashed and paste is obtained. This paste is applied as poutlice on skin to treat eczema and scabies.

Calotropis procera (Willd.) R. Br.

Local Name: Aak

Distribution: In Pakistan; Kurram, Sind, Baluchistan, KPK, Punjab, Outer Himalaya, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Leaves

Method of use: Fresh leaves of the plant are plucked and about half kilogram of these leaves are fried with equal quantity of Mustard oil (Saro) for 1-2 hours, until the leaves are completely burned in oil. This oil is cooled and applied externally on skin to treat Eczema, scabies (Chumbal) and ringworms like infections. This traditional phytotherapy is applied for 2-weeks.

Chenopodium ambrosioides L.

Local Name: Muski Bathua

Distribution: In World; Tropical America, Pakistan In Pakistan; Baluchistan, Peshawar, Dir, Swat, Kohala, Kashmir, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Shoots & Leves

Distribution: Tropical America.

Method of use: Young shoots and leaves are crushed to make paste and mix the mustard oil (Saro) and powder of Black pepper seeds in this paste. Then this is applied as poultice to treat eczema and other skin diseases.

XVIII. SNAKE AND SCORPION BITE

Boerhaavia procumbens banks ex Roub.

Local Name: Jangli itsit

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Distribution: In World; S. Asia, India and Pakistan. In Pakistan; KPK, Baluchistan, Kurram, Peshawar, Sind, Punjab, Multan, Attock, Hazara, Kala Bagh and Mianwali.

Part use: Leaves

Method of use: 3-4 fresh leaves are recommended to eat for snake and scorpion bite.

Mangifera indica L.

Local Name: Amb

Distribution: Widely cultivated in the tropics.

Part use: Flowers

Method of use: Immature fresh flowers are collected, dried and then ground to obtain powder (Safoof). About half teaspoon of this powder is mixed in water and this mixture is used against snake and scorpion bite.

3.3 ETHNOVETERINARY MEDICINE

Indigenous medicinal plants are an integral component of ethnoveterinary medicines, farmers, pastoralists and livestock keepers in Mianwali who use medicinal plants in the maintenance and conservation of health care of livestock (Plate 115, 116 & 117). In total of 71 species belonging to 43 families are commonly used for several centuries as a primary source of prevention and control of cattle diseases in Mainwali of Northern Pakistan (Table 1). In fact, interest of such use in the veterinary sector has resulted primarily from the increasing cost of livestock maintenance and the introduction of new technology in the product of veterinary medicines and vaccines.

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Table 1. Check List of Medicinal Plants Used for Livestock diseases in District Mianwali

S. Botanical Name Family Flowering Voucher Live stock disease treated No. Period Specimen No. 01 Acacia nilotica(L.) Mimosaceae Mar-Sep 213 Digestive complaints Delile 02 Adiantum incisum Polipodiaceae 215 Abdominal diseases Forsk. -- 03 Justicia adhatoda. Acanthaceae Round the 214 Digestive problems, year fever and dehydration 04 Aerva javanica Amaranthaceae Round the 212 Skin infection and (Burm.f.) Juss year abdominal worms 05 Ajuga bracteosa Woll. Lamiaceae March- 208 Abdominal diseases ExBenth Aug 06 Aloe vera L. Liliaceae Summer 202 Atony of Rumen 07 Allium jacquemontii Liliaceae April-July 210 Mammary glands Kunth. 08 Allium cepa Liliaceae Feb-Mar 218 Milk Deficiency 09 Amaranthus viridus L. Amaranthaceae Round the 222 Vitality year 10 Anethum sowa L Apiaceae Feb-Mar 224 Milk deficiency & digestive problems 11 Asphodelus Liliaceae May 230 Impaction tennuifolius Cavi 12 Brassica campestris L. Brassicaceae Nov- 226 Opacity, Stomach April infection 13 Calatropis procera Asclepiadaceae Round the 242 Eyes, mouth diseases, (Wild.) R.Br. year colic, inflammation 14 Camelia sinensis L. Theaceae Winter to 244 Fever late spring 15 Cannabis sativa L. Canabinaceae April-Oct 248 Appetizer, Digestive problem 16 Capparis decidua Caparidaceae May-Aug 250 Digestive disorders (Forssk) Edgew 17 Carrisa opaca L. Apocynaceae Feb-April 256 Throat diseases 18 Cassia fistula L Caesalpinaceae May-Aug 260 Phorky in hen 19 Cicer arietinum L. Papilionaceae Feb-Mar 262 Piles 20 Citrullus colocynthis Cucurbitaceae July –Aug 261 Abdominal worms, (L.) Schrad. digestion and constipation 21 Citrus limon Roxb. Rutaceae Round the 266 Infected mammary Year glands 22 Citrullus vulgaris Cucurbitaceae April-July 268 Appetite, milk Schrader production 23 Chenopodium album Chenopodiaceae Feb-Mar 271 Injury, wound healing L. 24 Convolvulus arvensis Convolvulaceae Jan-Mar 275 Constipation L.

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25 Cordia obliqua Boraginaceae Feb-Mar 272 Throat infection, stomach Willed. ulcer 26 Cucumis melo Cucurbitaceae July-Sep 273 Indigestion agrestis. (Naud.) Grebensc 27 Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Round the 278 Wound healing Burm.F.White. year 28 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Cuscutaceae Aug-Sep 287 Mammary gland swelling, indigestion 29 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Poaceae June-Oct 290 Wound healing Pers. 30 Dalbergia sisso Roxb Papilionaceae Mar- May 285 Impaction 31 Datura innoxia Miller Solanaceae Mar-July 288 Lice 32 Erigeron Asteraceae Summer 286 Fever, stomach disorder, conzyzanthus L. dehydration 33 Eruca sativa Miller. Brasicaceae Feb-April 293 Dysentery 34 Euclalyptus Myrtaceae Mar-Aug 291 Cold camaldulensis Dehn. 35 Fagonia indica Zygophylaceae Round the 301 Appetite, indigestion Burm.f. Year 36 Foeniculum vulgare Apiaceae Round the 307 Digestive problem, Mill. Year Diarrhea 37 Ficus palmata L. Moraceae June- Aug 305 Indigestion 38 Fumaria indica Fumariaceae March- 308 Diarrhea Hussk. Pugsely April 39 Launea procumbens Asteraceae Feb-Mar 311 Worm infestation (L.) Hk.F. 40 Mallotus philipensis Euphorbiaceae Jun-Aug 315 Abdominal diseases Muell-Arg 41 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Jan-Mar 316 Watering of mouth 42 Melia azadrach L. Meliaceae Feb-Mar 318 Carminative, skin diseases 43 Olea ferruginea L. Oleaceae June-Aug 322 Digestive disorder 44 Oryza sativa.L. Poaceae Sep-Oct 321 Stomach and lung infection 45 Peganum hermala L. Zygophylaceae May-June 326 Mastitis gastric trouble 46 Periploca aphylla L. Asclepiadaceae April-Sep 329 Skin infection 47 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantigenaceae April-June 340 Neck rashes 48 Plantago major L. Plantigenaceae May-June 341 Infected hooks 49 Polygonum plebejum Polygonaceae April-June 345 Neries and scorpion bite R.Br 50 Prunus persica L. Rosaceae April-may 349 Wounds and dysentery 51 Punica granatum L. Punicaceae Summer 362 Dysentery 52 Pyrus pashia L Rosacaeae April-May 351 Chronic dysentery and diarrhea 53 Rhazia stricta Dcne. Apocynaeae Dec-Mar 360 Skin infection, blood purification & abdominal diseases

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54 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Round the 368 Constipation year 55 Rosa indica L. Rosaceae Round the 370 Uterus diseases Year 56 Rumex dentatis L Polygonaceae Mar-May 365 Food and mouth diseases 57 Saccharum Poaceae Jul-Oct 361 Appetite, abdominal benghalensis Retz. worms 58 Sassurea heteromala Asteraceae Feb-April 378 Odema & blood L. purification 59 Solanum surratense Solanaceae June-Nov 382 Wounds and general Brum.F debility 60 Syzygium cumini (L.) Myrtaceae April-June 389 Diarrhea Skeel. 61 Trahyspermum Apiaceae Mar-April 383 Appetite, milk capticum L. production and reproduction 62 Tamarix aphylla (L.) Tamaricaceae Mar-April 393 Skin infection, nasal Karsten. worms 63 Tribulus terristris L. Zygophylaceae April-Sep 397 Rheumatism, gastric trouble 64 Trigonella foenatum- Papilionaceae Nov-Jan 394 Urethera, diarrhea graceum L. 65 Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae Feb-Mar 395 Milk reduction, mouth sores, dysentery 66 Tylophora hirsuta L. Asclepiadaceae Sep-Nov 401 Flu 67 Vrebascum thapsus L. Scrophulariaceae April-June 390 Diarrhea

68 Vitis trifolea L. Vitaceae June-July 407 Hemoglobinura 69 Whithenia somnifera Solanaceae Round the 409 Swelling of mammary (L.) Dunal. year glands 70 Zea mays L. Poaceae July-Nov 412 Urinary diseases, milk production 71 Zizyphus nummularia Rhamnaceae Mar-June 519 Placental diseases (Burm.F) wight and Arn

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3.4 FUEL WOOD SPECIES IN DISTRICT MIANWALI

A total of 40 species belonging to 34 genera and 23 families of trees, shrubs and herbs are commonly used as fuelwood in the area by local people (Table 2). Except these, some of the commonly cultivated trees are also used as fire wood. The fuel wood is collected locally and freely by men, women and children or some time purchased from local farmers at comparatively low prices than the actual market price. About 83% of the people in the area used plant species as fuel wood and other cheaper fuel that is crop residues. Only 17% of the people were found using the efficient commercial fuels such as Kerosene oil, gas cylinders, LPG etc. About 22% families of total population of the area getting their earnings from wood selling. The major places for fuel wood collection are Kala bagh, musa khail hills and surroundings of Indus river (Plate 1, 2 & 4).

The commonest wild trees and shrubs species are Acacia modesta (Phulai), Acacia nilotica (Kiker), Acacia catechu (Khair), Carissa opaca (Gungair), Dodonaea viscosa (Sanatha), Dalbergia sissoo (Tali), Maytenus royleanus (Pattaki), Olea ferruginea (Kao), Prosopis cinerarea (Jand) (Plate 49), Prosopis juliflora (Kabli Kiker) and Zizyphus nummularia (Jehari Ber).

For the transportation of fuel wood species the Camels, Donkeys, Ox-carrot, Pick ups and even men and women carries away the fuel wood.

Table 2. Fuel Wood Species of District Mianwali

S.No. Botanical Name Local Name Family

1. Phulai Mimosaceae Acacia modesta Wall. 2. Kiker Mimosaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile 3. Bekkar Acanthaceae Adhatoda vasica Nees 4. Chitti Buhi Amaranthaceae Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. 5. Sarien Mimosaceae Albizzia lebbek (L.) Benth. 6. Chhoj. Papilionaceae Alhaigi marorum Medik. 7. Cahhu. Asteraceae Artemisia scoparia Walds t. & Kit. 8. Nari. Poaceae Arundo donax L.

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9. Shahtoot Moraceae Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Herit ex Vent 10. Shamshad Buxaceae Buxus papillosa C.K. Schneid. 11. Karien Capparidaceae Capparis aphylla Roth. 12. Gungair Apocynaceae Carissa opaca Stapf ex Haines 13. Kasunda Caeselpinaceae Cassia occidentalis L. 14. Tali Papilionaceae Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 15. Dub gaaha Poaceae Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf 16. Sanatha Sapindaceae. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 17. Lachi Myrtaceae Eucalyptus camadulensis Dehn. 18. Lachi Myrtaceae Eucalyptus globulus 19. Khabara Moraceae Ficus palmata Forssk. 20. Kakoha Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia indica (Burm.) Merr. 21. Dhaman Tiliaceae Grewia opposotifolia Roxb. 22. Punchpulai Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. 23. Pattaki Celastraceae Maytenus royleanus Wall. ex. Lawson 24. Dherak Meliaceae. Melia azedarach L. 25. Chitta Toot Moraceae Morus alba L. 26. Kala Toot Moraceae Morus nigra L. 27. Kao Oleaceae Olea ferruginea Royle 28. Kandari Buhi Lamiaceae Ottostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss. 29. Sufaida Salicaceae Populus ciliata L. 30. Jand. Mimosaceae Prospois cinerarea (L.) Druce 31. Kabli Kiker Mimosaceae Prosopis juliflora (Swartz.) DC. 32. Sawa Veirno Apocynaceae Rhazya stricta Dcne. 33. Kana Poaceae Saccharum benghalensis Retz.

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34. Kahi Poaceae Saccharum spontaneum 35. Bant Salicaceae Salix acmophylla Boiss. 36. Wada ghuz Tamaricaceae Tamarix dioca (L.) Kurst. 37. Nika ghuz Tamaricaceae Tamarix dioca Roxb. 38. Nirgundi Verbenaceae Vitex negundo L. 39. Makki Tanday Poaceae Zea mays L. 40. Jehari Ber Rhamnaceae Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) White & Arn.

3.4.1 Some findings about the fuel wood species

The Questionnaire was devised to receive a response from primary field data. Majority of the respondents (66%) had family size between 4-8 members only 23% respondents has a family size of upto 4 while the lowest percentage (11%) of household size was above 8 members (Table 3). The large portion of household population has closer household figure to the national average.

Table 3. Distribution of the sample household according to their size.

No. of Family members Frequency Percentage Upto 4 21 23 4-8 59 66 Above 8 10 11 Total 90 100

About 32% respondents were landless. Majority (58%) had landholding between 1-40 kanals. A small portion (45) had land area between 40-80 and only 6% of these had land size above 80 kanals (1 kanal is equal to 505.85 sq. meters) (Table 4). The data clearly indicate that the study area had low landholding size per household.

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Table 4. Distribution of the sample household according to land holding size. Land in Kanals Frequency Percentage (1 kanal is equal to 505.85 sq. meters) 0 29 32 1-4 52 58 40-80 4 4 Above 88 5 6 Total 90 100

The wood sources were classified into two groups, those who purchase from the market and others who do not. Most of the respondents (68%) had their own wood sources. About one third of the population (32%) purchased fuelwood from the market. The data clearly depicts that people have enough tree sources to meet their domestic needs (Table 5)

Table. 5 Distribution of sample household by fuelwood sources. Wood Source Frequency Percentage Purchase 29 32 Do not purchase 61 68 90 100 Total

Table 6. Mechanism of fuelwood supply. Source Frequency Percentage Govt. Forest 3 8.6 Farmland 15 42.8 5 14.3 Contractor

10 28.6 Farmland + Contractor

2 5.7 Farmland + Govt. Forest

35 100 Total

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The data (Table 6) reveal that in order to run their fuelwood business majority (42%) of the traders get fuelwood from the farmlands whereas the Govt. forest provides only 9% of the firewood, in addition to this about 6% of fuelwood is supplied to the market from farmland and Govt. forest. However, the ban on scrub forests do not permit commercial felling because of deteriorated conditions. It is concluded that farmlands have more potential for fuelwood production. More attention be paid towards farmer to encourage and create awareness for planting more trees on their farmlands.

Thirty five (35) respondents dealing with fuelwood business were interviewed to know the kind of species purchased by the people. They had stock of many species such as Eucalyptus sp., Dalbergia sissoo, Morus sp., Acacia modesta, Tamarix sp. and Olea ferruginea etc. Being interested in individual species that used commonly by local people for fire wood were Acacia modesta (Phulai) and Olea ferrugina (Kao). The other normally used species were Eucalyptus glabulus (lachi), Dodenea viscosa (Sanatha), Dalbergia sissoo (Tali) and Morus nigra (Kala Toot).

3.4.2 Description of Some Fuelwood and Timber species

(i) Acanthaceae. 1- Adhatoda vasica. Nees. (Bhekkar ) An ever green gregarious shrub 1.5-3 meter high. Flowers white (December – April), capsule 3cm long, seeds 4. Ascending up to 1350 meter in Kala Bagh hills. It is common as an undergrowth in most of the forests but occurs chiefly on flat or gently slopping grounds or on clay soils. Specially used as hedges and fuel wood.

(ii) Apocynaceae 2- Nerium oleander L. ( Ganira ) An erect glabrous ever green shrub with milky juice. Ascending up to 1600 meter in Sub-Himalayan tract but not extending far into the plain areas of salt range including Kala Bagh hills. Flowers red, pink or white, fragrant in terminal panicles. The plant is very poisonous and is not eaten by cattle or goats. Often used as fuel wood and is frequently grown in gardens.

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3- Carissa opaca L. (Garanda) A spreading ever green shrub up to 4 meter high, armed where the stem branches with opposite straight or forked thorns which arise from between the petioles up to 2cm long. Flowers (April–June) white often tinged with pink, very sweet scented. Berry ellipsoid, 1 cm long, dull dark-purple, full of milky juice, edible. Ascending up to 1300 meter, commonest plant in the scrub forest where it is much browsed by sheep and goats, also used as fuel wood.

(iii) Capparidacaeae 4- Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. (Karir) A glabrous straggling shrub or small tree 5-7 meter leafless or nearly so. Flowers (March– April) red, rarely yellow. Berry 1.5 – 2.5 cm in diameter, red or pink, on a slender stalk. Found throughout the dry parts of the Punjab including Kala Bagh hills. The wood is hard and compact and is not eaten by white ants. It is found associated with Kao but prefers the flatter places with deep soils. Ruined by cutting and browsing, being little in demand for firewood and giving bad Charcoal. The wood is hard and compact used for small beams, rafters and posts.

(iv) Gramineae (Poaceae) 5- Saccharum bengalensis L. ( Kanna ) Perennial tufted, stem 3-6 meter high. Throughout the plains of Punjab especially on islands and banks of rivers.springs up after the fellings in flooded and irrigated plantations often in dense masses but dies out as soon as it is overtopped by the coppice shoots. Found in low sandy plains along canals and rivers subjected to inundation. Used as fuel wood ,in Chick manufacturing and as fodder for buffaloes. Stem along with the top fiber is also used as an ornamental piece in dried form.

(v) Mimosaceae 6- Acacia modesta Wall. ( Phulai ) A small or medium size deciduous tree, young shoots glabrous or nearly so. The flowers (March – May) are pale white to pale yellow fragrant growing in bunches. Prickles

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pseudostipular, in pairs below petioles, Pod 2-3 by 3-4 cm thin, flat, seed 3-5. The tree is found in sub Himalayan and salt range tract ascending to 1300 meter. The phulai reaches a height of 8-12 m and a girth of 25-36cm in 6 to 8 years. Mainly use in agricultural implements, as fodder , as a fuel, in apiculture and also grown as hedges. It is a slow growing specie found naturally on loamy soils. The sapwood is large, heartwood dark brown with black streaks extremely hard and durable. 7- Acacia nilotica Wall.( Kikar ) A moderate sized ever green tree about 12 meter tall, dark brown or blackish with longitudinal fissure. The flowers are fragrant, yellow to bright yellow growing in bunches and mature year around depnding upon subsp and geographic location. Spines stipular, in pairs below the petioles.The pods are variable 4-22 cm long. Planted throughout the plains of Punjab, severely damaged by the frost in the initial years. Attains the girth of 85 cm in 12 years and 170 cm in about 30 years. The wood is hard, mottled with dark streaks used in many agricultural and domestic purposes. The Kikar prefers a lose porous soil but can stand on saline soils too. Very much used as fuel wood and fodder for goats and camels. 8- Albizzia lebbek L. ( Kala Sirin ) A fast growing deciduous tree 12–30 meter tall. The crown is open, flat and umbrella like. The fragrant flowers are yellow or white, appearing between April and May. The pods are broad, flat and yellowish brown when ripe. A moderately intolerant species that grows on a variety of moist sites, planted throughout the plains of Sindh and Punjab. Sapwood is yellowish-white, heartwood is dark grayish-brown. It is important for fodder, fuelwood, poles, agricultural implements and apiculture. 9- Albizzia procera L. (Sufed Sirin) A fast growing deciduous tree 12 – 30 meter tall. The crown is open, flat and umbrella like. The fragrant flowers are yellowor greenish-yellowappearing between June and August. The pods are narrow flat, about 15 cm long, dark red brown whn ripe. A moderately intolerant species that grows on a variety of moist sites. Sapwood is whitish, heartwood is brown with streaks of daker and lighter colour. It is important for fodder, fuelwood, poles, agricultural implements and apiculture. 10- Prosopis cineraria L. (Jand) A small or medium sized evergreen tree 12 meter tall, branches selender, glabrous, armed with short nearly straight somewhat compressed prickles. The crown is open and spreading. The flowers (December–May) are small, creamy to pale yellow. The pods are

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flat, 12- 25 mm long containing 10-15 seeds averagely, oblong and compressed found in the plains of salt range where the rainfall is less. Heart wood is rather scanty purplish brown, very hard but not durable. Preferred for fuel wood in the region. The pods used for the fodder and the sweetish pulp round the seed is eaten green or dry. 11- Prosopis juliflora Torr. (Kabli Kiker) A small or medium sized evergreen tree up to 10 meter tall, branches long with open croiwn. The flowers (March–June) are small, greenish–yellow. The pods are fleshy, flat, 16-23 cm long, containing 10-18 seeds averagely. The bark on old stem is dark reddish brown with longitudinal furrows. Largely used as an excellent firewood and makes good charcoal. It is also used for fodder, in agricultural implements and construction. Stem is too crooked to be used as timber. The plant can survive well in low rainfall areas and has good growth rate.

(vi) Meliaceae 12- Melia azedarach L. ( Dhrek ) A moderate sized deciduous tree 6-12 meter tall. The crown is spreading and bark dark gray with long shallow vertical fissures. The flowers (March – May) are small, lilac coloured and fragrant. The fruit is a drupe containing 4-5 seeds. Sapwood is yellowish- white, heartwood is reddish brown. It is often used as a roadside tree. Timber is not good but lopped for fodder and fuel wood purposes. It is used in boxes and packing crates, sports equipment, veneer and plywood, and medicinal (flowers and leaves as poultice for headache etc.).

(viii) Moraceae 13- Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. (Kaghzi Tut ) A fairly large deciduous tree 3 – 12 meter tall, bark smooth gray. The crown is round and spreading.The reddish yellow male flowers are in small catkins, the reddish to orange red female flowersare in solitary rounded heads occurs in March – August. The fruit is a berry containing 5-15 small seeds which ripen between May and September. The sapwood is grayish-white, heartwood is light brown. The growth rate is good probably useful tree for villagers to grow for fodder and fuel wood purposes. It also serves the industries of furniture, veneer and plywood, and boxes and packing crates.

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14- Morus alba L. (Toot ) A medium sized deciduous tree 9–12 meter tall. The crown is spreading and rounded. Bark of large stems browned, rough, fissure mostly vertical. It is monoecious. The flowers (February – April ) are greenish. The fruit is a berry containing 5-15 small seeds .The berries are white to pinkish to purple to red to black. Very common in adjoining areas of Kala Bagh hills specially in plains. A fast growing species heaving good fodder value as silkworm food and fodder, fruits are also edible. Timber is used in sports industry and as a fuel wood. Bark is medicinal. Also used as shelterbelts.

(ix) Myrtaceae 15- Eucalyptus camaldulensis Labill. (Lachi ) A large evergreen tree up to 40 meter tall. The crown is spreading and irregular. The bark is whitish, pale gray with mottle reddish patches. The flowers which occurs in groups of fives and tens, bloom usually between May and June.The fruit is a capsule containing many small seeds. Sapwood is light gray, heartwood is reddish brown. It is chiefly used as fuelwood, in furniture, oil (leaves) and apiculture industry.

(x) Oleaceae. 16- Olea ferruginea Royle ( Kao ) A medium sized evergreen tree 9 – 12 meter tall, bark smooth when young, ex- foliating when old in long narrow irregular stripes. The whitish flowers are arranged in bunches, bloom between March and September.The fruit is a drupe about 8 mm long. The tree is characteristics of the dry hill of salt range. Wood very hard and heavy, heartwood large, from light brown to nearly black, clouded and marbled. It is used for turning ploughs, construction and firewood. Growth is slow and mostly regenerated from coppice. It is also a very important plant for watershed protection, and in fruit and oil production.

(xi) Papilionaceae 17- Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (Tali) A medium sized to large deciduous tree about 30 meter tall, bark rough, furrows mainly longitudinal. The flowers (March – May) occurs in groups and are small, dull white to yellowish white to pinkish. The pods are small, 5-8 cm long and papery with 1-4

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seeds per pod. Found in excessive moisture and does best on well drained sandy to sandy loam soils but can tolerate saline soils. Planted everywhere along the road side, canals and on the edges of fields. The heartwood is browned mottled with darker veins, hard heavy and durable. It is much in demand for fodder, furniture, wheels, boats, carts etc. It is also used as a fuel wood and charcoal, in medicines (roots and bark) and in sporting goods.

(xii) Rhamnaceae 18- Zizyphus nummularia Wall. (Jangli Beri) A tomentose, bushy shrub, branches flexuous, divericate at right angles. The fruit is a drupe, red or black when ripe. Common in dry parts of the Punjab and often gregarious. Flowers blooms between March and June. Branches used for fencing, leaves as fodder and fruits are edible.

(xiii) Salicaceae 19- Salix acmophylla Boiss. (Sufaida) A small deciduous tree up to 9 meter tall. The trunk is straight and the crown is rounded It is dioecious. Flowering and seed production between February and April, bark rough with irregular mainly vertical cracks. An intolerant species that can grow on a variety of well drained soils along water courses. Usually met with as a planted tree on roadsides and near water miles used for fuel wood. Also used in pulp industry and for fodder. 20- Populus alba L. (Chitta Sufaida) A medium or large deciduous tree 12-20 meter tall. Flowering and seed production occurs between March and May, bark light gray or whitish smooth on young stems, dark and very rough on old stems. Wood is white. Grown in farmlands, on Khals, used in match industry and as a fuel wood. It is a handsome roadside plant.

(xiv) Sapindaceae. 21- Dodonaea viscosa L. ( Sanatha ) An evergreen shrub, sometimes becoming a small tree branches erect, twiggy and angular. Fruit a membranous septicidal capsule, 2-4 valved about 2cm long. Seeds ½ cm long, dark brown. Found in salt range up to 1500 meter, usually attains a height of 4 – 5

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meter. It is used as an excellent fuel wood throughout the salt range. Wood very hard, dark brown with black markings. It is very little damaged by browsing and is usually only eaten by goat in the absence of other food.

(xv) Tamaricaceae. 22- Tamarix dioca (L.) Kurst. (Wada Ghuz) A medium to large sized evergreen tree about 10-18 meter tall, with erect trunk and rough bark.the white minute flowers are born in spikes and arrange in panicles, occurs between April and September. A strongly intolerant tree that grows well on well drained soils and can tolerate highly sodic/saline sites. Fast growing species used for ploughs and as a fuel wood. Serve the purposes of sand dune stabilization and shelter belts.

3.5 TIMBER YIELDING SPEICES In total 16 species belonging to 12 genera of 10 familites of Angiosperms (Table 7) were used as timber by the local people of the area. These species were also used for Thatching, sheltering and roofing by local people. Among these species, the Acacia modesta (Phulai), Dalbergia sissoo (Tali), Melia azedarach (Dherak) and Olea ferruginea (Kao) were considered to be very strong and durable according to the local people of the area. These four species were planted as major tree species throughout area for timber purposes. Local people are also using Non timber forest products (NTFPs) to make baskets, chairs, ropes, boxes, shelfs and other fency items ets (Plate 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 & 97).

Table 7. Timber Yielding Species of District Mianwali S.No. Botanical Name Local Name Family 1. Phulai Mimosaceae Acacia modesta Wall. 2. Khair Mimosaceae Acacia catechu (L.f.) Wild. 3. Kiker Mimosaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile 4. Sarien Mimosaceae Albizzia lebbek (L.) Benth. 5. Tali. Papilionaceae Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

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6. Lachi. Myrtaceae Eucalyptus camodulensis Dehn. 7. Lachi Myrtaceae Eucalyptus globulus 8. Dherak Meliaceae Melia azedarach L. 9. Chitta Toot Moraceae Morus alba L. 10. Kala Toot Moraceae Morus nigra L. 11. Kao Oleaceae Olea ferruginea Royle 12. Sufaida Salicaceae Populus ciliata L. 13. Kana Poaceae Saccharum benghalensis Retz. 14. Bant Salicaceae Salix acmophylla Boiss. 15. Wada ghuz Tamaricaceae Tamarix aphylla (L.) Kurst 16. Jehari Ber Rhamnaceae Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) White & Arn.

3.6 FODDER AND FORAGE SPECIES In total 66 species belonging to 55 genera of 17 angiospermic families are found to be used as fodder and frage for cattle by the local people of district mianwali.(Table 8) The maximum contribution of fodder and forage is the grasses which belong to the family Poaceae. However, Avena sativa (Joundra), Cichorium intybus (Kasni), Hordeum vulgare (Jao), Pennisetum typhoideum (Bajra), Sorghum vulgaris (Jawar), Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (Goura), Trifolium alexandrianum (Lusan) and Trifolium repens (Shountal) are extensively cultivated by the local farmers in respective seasons for the fodder and forage for cattles. Grazing is the usual practice for sheep, goats, cows and buffaloes. These domestic animals fulfil the dairy requirements of the local people as well as to improve their micro-economy. The Camels, sheep and goats browse the leaves and young twigs of Albizzia lebbek (Sarien), Acacia modesta (Phulai), Acacia nilotica (Kiker), Melia azedarach (Dherak), Morus alba (Chitta Toot), Morus nigra (Kala toot) and Rhazya stricta (Sawa veirno) (Plate 99, 100).

These fodder and forage species are found everywhere throughout the area. Mostly males collect the fodder, however females and children also participate upto some extent.

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The table 8 includes the fodder and forage species of the area while Fig. 14 shows the availability period of fodder and forage species throughout the area. Table 14 & 15 shows the market value of medicinal plants and vegetabls in the study area.

Table 8. Fodder and Forage species of District Mianwali

S. No. Botanical Name Local Name Part used Occurance Flowering Family period 1. Acacia modesta Wall. Phulai Leaves Very common May-Aug. Mimosaceae 2. Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Kiker Leaves Common May-Oct. Mimosaceae 3. Apluda aristata L. Chhat Aerial parts Common Aug-Oct. Poaceae 4. Aristida depressa Retz. Lumb. “ “ Jul-Aug. “ 5. Avena fatua L. Choti Joundri “ “ Mar-Apr. “ 6. Avena sativa L. Joundra “ “ Mar-Apr. “ 7. Brassica alba L. Chitti Saro “ “ Oct-Mar. Brassicaceae 8. Brassica campestris L. Saro “ “ Oct-Mar. “ 9. Brassica rapa L. Thapper “ “ Jan-Feb. “ 10. Cajanus cajan (L.) Mill. Arar Ke Dal. “ Rare. Jul-Sep. Papilionaceae 11. Cenchrus pennisteformis Sitti gaaha “ Common May-Jun. Poaceae Hoscht. & Steud. 12. Chrysopogon aucheri Khar “ “ Mar-May “ (Boiss) Stapf. 13. Chenopodium album L. Bathueya “ “ Feb-Mar. Chenopodiaceae 14. Chenopodium ambrosioides Muski “ Rare Feb-Mar. “ L. Bathueya 15. Chenopodium murale L. Sawa “ Common Feb-Mar. “ Bathueya 16. Cichorium intybus L. Kasni “ “ Mar-Apr. Asteraceae 17. Cnicus benedictus L. Trali Booti “ Uncommon Mar-Apr. “ 18. Convolvulus arvensis L. Lali Poli “ Common Jan-Mar. Convolvulaceae 19. Cymbopogon jwarancusa Khavi. “ Common Aug-Sep. Poaceae (Jones) Schult. 20. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Khabul gaaha “ Abandant. Mar-Sep. “ 21. Cyperus rotundus L. Deela gaaha “ “ Mar-Jul. Cyperaceae 22. Dactyloctenium aegyptium Kangi gaaha. “ Common May-Sep. Poaceae (L.) P.Beauv. 23. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Tali Leaves “ Mar-Apr. Papilionaceae 24. Daucus carota L. Gager Aerial parts Common Feb-Mar. Apiaceae

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25. Desmostachya bipinnata Dabgaaha “ Very Common Apr-Aug. Poaceae (L.) Stapf 26. Dicanthium annulatum Palwan “ Common Mar-Oct. “ (Forssk) Stapf. 27. Digitaria nodosa Perl. Tracona “ “ Jun-Oct. “ gaaha. 28. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Sanatha Leaves “ Feb-Mar. Sapindaceae 29. Echinochloa colonum (L.) Swank Aerial Parts “ Jul-Aug. Poaceae Link 30. Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Bara Swank “ “ Jun-Aug. Poaceae P. Beauv. 31. Eleusine flagellifera Nees. Chhimbar “ “ Jun-Aug. “ 32. Fumaria indica (Haussb) Papra/Shatera “ Very Common Jan-Feb. Fumariaceae Pugsely. 33. Heteropogon contortus (L.) Sariala/Sarwa “ “ Apr-Sep. Poaceae P. Beauv. la 34. Hordeum vulgare L. Jao “ Common Mar-Apr. “ 35. Lathyrus aphaca L. Jangli Matter “ Uncommon Jan-Mar. Papilionaceae 36. Medicago polymorpha L. Pusheralla “ Common Mar-May “ 37. Melia azedarach L. Dherak “ “ Mar-Apr. Meliaceae 38. Melilotus alba Lamk. Chitta Sinja “ “ Mar-May Papilionaceae 39. Melilotus indica (L.) All. Sinja. “ “ Mar-May “ 40. Morus alba L. Chitta Toot Leaves “ Jul-Oct. Moraceae 41. Morus nigra L. Kala Toot Leaves “ Jul-Oct. “ 42. Olea ferruginea Royle Kao/Kuva. Leaves Very Common Apr-May Oleaceae 43. Paspalidium flavidum Sawa gaaha Aerial parts Common Jun-Aug. Poaceae (Retz.) A. Cam. 44. Pennisetum typhoideum L. Bajra “ “ Jun-Aug. “ 45. Phalaris minor Retz. Dumbi Sitti “ “ Mar-Apr. “ 46. Poa annua L. Chota gaaha “ “ Mar-Apr. “ 47. Polypogon monspeliensis Chitti Rui “ “ Mar-Apr. “ (L.) Desif. 48. Raphanus sativus L. Mooli Whole Plant “ Feb-Mar. Brassicaceae 49. Rhazya stricta Deene Sawa Veirno Leaves “ Feb-Mar. Apocytnaceae 50. Saccharum officinarum L. Kau ganna Aerial parts “ Feb-Apr. Poaceae 51. Saccharum spontaneum L. Kahi “ “ Aug-Oct. “ 52. Saussurea heteromala D. Kandiara “ Very Common Mar-Apr. Asteraceae Don) Hand- Mazz. 53. Silene conoidea L. Gulahi Booti “ Uncommon Feb-Mar. Caryophyllaceae

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54. Sorghum halepense (L.) Bara Barua “ Common Jul-Aug. Poaceae Pers. 55. Sorghum nitidum (Vahl) Chota Barua “ “ Jul-Aug. “ Pers. 56. Sorghum vulgaris L. Jawar “ “ Jun-Aug. “ 57. Stellaria media (L.) Cyr. Chitta Aerial parts Common Dec-Mar. Caryophyllace Cheridana ae 58. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Goura “ Common Jul-Aug. Papilionaceae (L.) Taub. 59. Trifolium alexandrianum L. Lusan “ “ Mar-Apr. Papilionaceae 60. Vicia sativa L. Rewari/Matri “ Common Jan-Mar. “ 61. Vigna aconotifolius (J.) Massor “ Uncommon Jul-Sep. “ Marchal 62. Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper Moong “ Common Jul-Sep. “ 63. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczeb. Mash “ Uncommon Jul-Sep. “ 64. Zea mays L. Makki “ Abundant Jul-Oct. Poaceae 65. Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Ber. Leaves Common Jul-Oct. Rhamnaceae 66. Zizyphus nummularia Jehari Ber Leaves Common Mar-Jun. “ (Burm. f.) Whight & Arn.

3.7 PLANT SPECIES USED IN MAKING AGRICULTURAL

IMPLEMENTS

In total 14 species belonging to 11 genera of 10 Angiospermic families of Trees and Shrubs (Table 9) are commonly used in making agricultural implements by the local people of the area (Plate 101, 102). Practically 83% population resident in the villages and a large proportion of the urban population is either engaged in or dependent in Agriculture. The proportion of the population which is actually engaged in cultivation is approximately two-thirds. Due to high dependency on agriculture with traditional approaches has resulted in low socio-economic conditions of the masses in remote villages of the Area. As a result people in the villages can not afford to buy mechanical tools which are expensive for the their agricultural purposes. So the people utilized different plant species for these purposes. Agricultural implements are of usual types and made from the wood of different trees and shrubs.

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1. Axe (Kulhara):

It is used for cutting the trees and shrubs for making agricultural implements and for fuel wood. The handle of Axe is made up of from the wood of Acacia modesta and Olea ferruginea.

2. Basket (Tokra):

It is used for carrying vegetables and manures. It is formed from the fresh young branches of Morus alba and Morus nigra.

3. Chaper (Toka):

It is used to stack fodder for cattles (Animals). The handle of chaper is made from the wood of Acacia modesta, Dalbergia sissoo and Morus alba.

4. Earth Board (Karrach):

It is large flat board with teeth at the lower end. Drawn by Bullocks for leveling fields by dragging earth from higher portions on to lower. It is form from the wood of Acacia catechu, Acacia modesta and Olea ferruginea.

5. Flate Spade (Phio):

It is used for throwing the grain into the air, after it has been already sifted by the Pitch-fork to further divide off the actual grain from the chaff and dust. The blade is usually made up of Dalbergia sissoo carefully planed; the handle is made up of Dendrocalamus strictus and Salix acmophylla.

6. Harrow (Maira):

This is a flat Board of wood, ten inches broad and eight feet long. A pair of Oxen is yoked to this and driver stands on the board and drives them over the field to level it before sowing after ploughing. This is made from the wood of Acacia modesta, Carissa opaca, Morus nigra and Melia azedarach.

7. Oil Mills (Ghani):

These are used to press the oil seeds to obtained oil. These are usually made up from the wood of Acacia modesta, Dalbergia sisso, Morus alba, Morus nigra and Tamarix aphylla.

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8. Pitch fork (Sangi):

It is used for throwing up the mixed grain and chaff into air to separate them. It is usually made from the wood of Acacia modesta and Olea ferruginea.

9. Ploughs (Hal) and Ploughshare (Kur):

The ploughs are light and similar to those used in other parts of the Punjab. The ploughshare is a strong flat piece of wood, broad at the back and center but gradually tapering to a point called “Phala”. Into the middle of this, fits the shaft (hal) from which it takes its name. The wood used for the plough and ploughshare is usually of Acacia catechu, Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Dalbergia sissoo and Olea ferruginea.

10. Seed Pipe (Nali):

A pipe heated by a cup, attached to the back of the plough, through which the seeds are allowed to fall for sowing. It is formed from the wood of Dendrocalamus strictus and Melia azedarach.

11. Sickle (Dantri):

It is used for cutting crops and fodder. The handle of sickle is made from the wood of Dalbergia sissoo & Olea ferruginea.

12. Small Earth Board (Jandra):

It is similar to Earth board but smaller and drawn by hands instead of Bullocks. It requires two men to work it, one to hold it down, the other to drag it. Its handle is made up of the wood of Dendrocalamus strictus, where as lower end is made from the wood of Acacia catechu & Acacia modesta.

13. Spade (Kahi):

It is used for digging holes. A spade with blade at right angles to handle which is made up of Acacia modesta and Olea ferrugina.

14. Trowel (Rumba):

It is small trowel or hoe used for tillage. It has short handle made up of Dalbergia sissoo, Olea ferruginea and Zizyphus mauritiana.

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15. Well Wheel (Dhol-gandi):

It is driven by Ox to expell water from well. It is made from the wood of Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Dalbergia sissoo and Zizyphus mauritiana.

16. Winnowing Basket (Chhaj):

It is shoved-shaped basket, the smaller kind is used for winnowing grain. It is formed from the upper most inflorescence bearing portion of stem of Saccharum bengalensis.

17. Yoke (Panjali/Jopol):

It is used for yoking oxen to the plough or harrow. It is made usually of light wood of Dendrocalamus strictus.

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Table 9. Plants of District Mianwali used in Making Agricultural Implements (Tools)

S. No. Botanical Name Local Name Family 1. Khair Mimosaceae Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. 2. Phulai Mimosaceae Acacia modesta Wall. 3. Kiker Mimosaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile 4. Gungair Apocynaceae Carissa opaca Stapf ex. Haines 5. Tali Papilionaceae Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 6. Bans. Poaceae Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees 7. Dherak Meliaceae Melia azedarach L. 8. Chitta Toot Moraceae Morus alba L. 9. Kala Toot Moraceae Morus nigra L. 10. Kao Oleaceae Olea ferruginea Royle 11. Kana Poaceae Saccharum bengalensis Retz. 12. Bant Salicaceae Salix acmophylla Boiss. 13. Ghuz Tamaricaceae Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. 14. Berri Rhamnaceae Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.

Table 10: Key To Ethnobotanical Description

1 Medicine 9 Miswak 17 Ornamental 2 Fodder 10 Hedge plant 18 Shade tree 3 Fuel wood 11 Utensils 19 Spice/flavoring agent 4 Timber 12 Fence 20 Packing/roping 5 Agricultural tools 13 Soil binder 21 Bee attractants 6 Construction 14 Sticks/handle 22 Granary/Basketry 7 Fruits 15 Pot herb 23 Wood carving 8 Furniture 16 Beads

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3.8 VEGETABLES/POT HERBS, OF DISTRICT MIANWALI In total 45 species belonging to 28 genera of 12 Angiospermic families were locally used as vegetables and pot herbs by the people of the area. (Table 11). Out of the 55 species, only 12 species grow as wild while rest of the species are cultivated by the local farmers of the area (Plate 103 & 104). A large area is cultivated under Onion, Garlic, Cauliflower, Cabbage, and other green vegetables. Other vegetables includes the Gourds, Carrot, Turnips Raddish, Potatoes, Peppers and Coriander etc, which are also cultivated seasonally in the area. Table 11. Plants species of District Mianwali used as vegetables and Pot herbs S. No. Botanical Name Local Name English Name Part Used Family 1. Bhendi Lady’s finger Fruit Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench. 2. Piaz Onion Corm Alliaceae Allium cepa L. 3. Thoom Garlic Bulb Alliaceae Allium sativa L. 4. Khardar chaulari Prickly Leaves Amaranthaceae Amaranthus spinosus L. Feather 5. Chaulari Prince feather Leaves Amaranthaceae Amaranthus viridis L. 6. Kachnar Kaliar Fresh Pods Caeselpinaceae Bauhinia variagata L. 7. Petha White gourd Fruit Cucurbitaceae Benincasa hispida 8. Chitti Saro. White Mustard Aerial parts Brassicacae Brassica alba L. 9. Saro Mustard Aerial parts Brassicaceae Brassica campestris L. 10. Kali Saro Black Mustard Aerial parts Brassicaceae Brassia nigra L. 11. Thapper Turnip Underground Brassicaceae Brassica rapa L. part 12. Sabz Murch Red Pepper Fruit Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. 13. Shimla Murch Green Pepper Fruit Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens L. 14. Chounga Stem Asclepiadaceae Caralluma edulis Edgew. 15. Chitta Bathueya Aerial parts Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album L. 16. Sawa Bathueya Aerial parts Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium murale L. 17. Channa Gram Seeds Papilionaceae Cicer arietinum L.

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18. Dhania Coriander Aerial parts Apiaceae Coriandrum sativum L. and seeds 19. Raindi Wild Melon. Fruit Cucurbitaceae Cucumis melo var. agrestis Naudin. 20. Tar Fruit Cucurbitaceae Cucumis melo var. utilissima 21. Kheera Cucumber Fruit Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativus L. 22. Mitha Kadoo Sweet Marrow Fruit Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita maxima Duchesne 23. Halva Kadoo Marrow Fruit Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita moschata Duch ex Poir. 24. Kadoo Vegetable Fruit Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita pepo L. Marrow 25. Gager Carrot Underground Apiaceae Daucus carrota L. 26. Gumaha Rocket Aerial parts Brassicaceae Eruca stiva Miller 27. Sounf Fennel Aerial parts Apiaceae Foeniculum vulgare Miller. and fruits 28. Tori Bottle gourd Fruit Cucurbitaceae Luffa cylindria (L.) Roem. (Sponge). 29. Kali Tori Black Bottle Fruit Cucurbitaceae Luffa acutangula (L.) Roem. ground 30. Tamater Tomato Fruit Solanaceae Lycopersicon esculentum Miller 31. Kotri Saag Leaves Malvaceae Malva parviflora L. 32. Pushrella Aerial parts Papilionaceae Medicago polymorpha L. 33. Chitta Sinja Aerial parts Papilionaceae Melilotus alba Lamk. 34. Podina Mint. Aerial parts Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis L. 35. Pehari Podina Wild Mint Aerial parts Lamiaceae Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson 36. Karella Bitter gourd Fruit Cucurbitaceae Momardica charantia L. 37. Mooli Reddish. Underground Brassicaceae Raphanus sativus L. & immature fruits 38. Vanger Egg Plant Fruit Solanaceae Solanum melongena L. 39. Kachmach Black Aerial Parts Solanaceae Solanum nigrum L. Nightshade 40. Alu Potato Tuber Solanaceae Solanum tuberosum L.

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41. Palik Spinach Aerial parts Chenopodiaceae Spinacea oleracea L. 42. Methri Fenugreek Aerial parts Papilionaceae Trigonella foenum-graecum L. 43. Moth Mat Bean Seeds Papilionaceae Vigna aconotifolius (Jacq) Marechal. 44. Mung Green gram Seeds Papilionaceae Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper. 45. Mash Black gram Seeds Papilionaceae Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek..

3.9. BEEFLORA OF DISTRICT MIANWALI

The beeflora comprises 31 species belonging to 29 genera of 20 Angiospermic families (Table 12) (Plate 20, 107, 108, 109 & 110). Among these species the major sources of necter and pollen are Acacia modesta, Eriobotrya japonica, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Olea ferruginea, Zea mays and Zizyphus mauritiana. It is also observed that three forest tree species of major source, bloom for longer period providing nectar and pollen to honeybees. Blooming perod of Eucalyptus camaldulensis is 4 months followed by Zizyphus mauritiana 3 months and Acacia modesta 2 months. A major source of fruit tree, Eribotrya japonica also bloom for 4 months, hence very important for honey bees. Among the minor sources Helianthus annuus, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis and Nerium oleander which bloom for 5-6 months. These plant species together with other minor sources fill the flowering gaps between the major sources in various parts of the year and help in continuous supply of food to honey bees.

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Table 12. Beeflora of District Mianwali providing the Nectar and Pollen to honey bees

S. No. Plant Name Local Name Family Flowering period 1. Bhendi Malvaceae June-August Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench. 2. Phulai Mimosaceae March-May Acacia modesta Wall. 3. Kiker Mimosaceae March-November Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile. 4. Bekkar Acanthaceae February-April Adhatoda vasica Nees. 5. Chitti Buhi Amaranthaceae May-November Aerva javanica Juss. 6. Chaulari Amaranthaceae November-December Annaranthus viridis L. 7. Chitti Sarson Brassicaceae October-March Brassica alba L. 8. Sarson Brassicaceae December-March Brassica campestris L. 9. Peeli Muski Asteraceae January-February Calendula arvensis L. Booti 10. Painda Cucurbitaceae June-September Citrullus vulgaris Schrad 11. Kadoo Cucurbitaceae June-August Cucurbita pepo L. 12. Sanatha Sapindaceae February-April Dodonaea viscose (L.) Jacq. 13. Lokat Rosaceae November-February Eriobotrya japonica Thumb. 14. Lachi Myrtaceae January-April Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn. 15. Papra Fumariaceae February-April Fumaria indica (Hussk.) Pugsely 16. Surajmukki Asteraceae May-September Helianthus annuus L. 17. Ghural Shar Malvaceae January-November Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. 18. Jangli Matter Papilionaceae February-March Lathyrus aphaca L. 19. Tori Cucurbitaceae August-September Luffa cylindrica Roxb. 20. Karela Cucurbitaceae July-September Momardica charantia L. 21. Chitta Toot Moraceae April-May Morus alba L. 22. Gunera Apocynaceae April-October Nerium oleander L. 23. Kao Oleaceae April-June Olea ferruginea Royle.

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24. Kulfa Portulacaceae August-September Portulaca oleracea L. 25. Kabli Kiker Mimosaceae July-August Prosopus juliflora DC. 26. Alibukhara Rosaceae February-April Prunus bokhariensis Royle ex. Schn. 27. Vanger Solanaceae June-September Solanum melongena L. 28. Peeli Dodaki Asteraceae February-April Taraxacum officinale Weber 29. Marvand Verbenaceae June-September Vitex negundo L. 30. Makkai Poaceae July-October Zea mays L. 31. Berri Rhamnaceae July-October Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.

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3.10. FRUIT YIELDING SPECIES

In total of 15 species belonging to 12 genera of 09 Angiospermic families (Table 13) are used as fruit by the local people of the area (Plate 51). All these fruit yielding species are to be found as cultivated in houses gardens as well as in Well’s lands. Only two species that is Carissa opaca (Gungair), and Zizyphus nummularia (Jehari Ber) are found as wild very abundantly in Kala Bagh and Mianwali hills.

Table 13. Fruit yielding Species of District Mianwali

S. No. Botanical Name Local Name English Name Family Fruiting season 1. Gungair Apocynaceae Spring & Early Carissa opaca Stapf & Haines summer 2. Malta Orange Rutaceae Winter & early Citrus sinensis Osbeck Spring 3. Nimboo Lemon Rutaceae Spring & Early Citrus limon Roxb. Summer 4. Rainda Water Melon Cucurbitaceae Summer Citrullus vulgaris Schrader 5. Khakri Musk Melon Cucurbitaceae Summer Cucumis melo L. 6. Khabara Fig Moraceae Summer Ficus palmata Forssk. 7. Amb Mango Anacardiaceae Summer Mangifera indica L. 8. Chitti lail White Moraceae Summer Morus alba L. Mulberry 9. Kali lail Black Moraceae Summer Morus nigra L. Mulberry 10. Amrood. Guava Myrtaceae Autumn & Psidium guajava L. early winter 11. Anar Pomegrenate Punicaceae Autumn & Punica granatum L. early Winter 12. Jamnoo Black Plum Myrtaceae Summer Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. 13. Angoor Grape Vitaceae Summer Vitis vinifera L. 14. Ber Jujube Rhamnaceae Autumn & Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. early Winter 15. Jehri Ber Wild Jujube Rhamnaceae Summer & Zizyphus nummularia early Autumn. (Burm.f.) White & Arn.

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Table 14. Market Value of Medicinal Plants in District Mianwali S. No. Botanical Name Part used Drug Name Average price Rs*:/Kg

1. Acacia modesta Wall. Gum. Cheer 180-110 2. Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Pod. Kiker de Phuli 30-40 3. Adhatoda vasica Nees. Leaves & 15-25 flowers 4. Anagallis arvensis L. Whole Chickni Booti 35-50 Palnt 5. Anethum sowa Kurz. Seeds Tukhum-e-Soay 45-60 6. Brassica campestris L. Seeds Tukhum-e-Saro 55-62 7. Cannabis sativa L. Aerial Tukhum-e- 25-30 parts. Bhung. 8. Cassia fistula L. Pod Amaltas ke Phuli 50-60 9. Citrullus colocynthus Schrad. Fruit Tumba 30-35 10. Coriandrum sativum L. Seeds Khushnir 45-50 11. Eruca sativa Millergard. Seeds Tukhum-e-Tara 35-40 Mira 12. Fagonia indica L. Whole Dhaman 25-35 Plant 13. Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Seeds Badian 60-65 14. Fumaria indica (Hussk.) Whole Papra 15-25 Pugsely. plant 15. Mentha sylvestris L. Whole Rehari Podina 20-25 Plant 16. Peganum harmala L. Aerial Hurmal. 15-25 parts 17. Rhazya stricta Decne. Leaves Veirno 15-25 18. Rosa indica L. Flowers Gulab. 200-250 19. Sesamum indicum L. Seeds Tukhum-e-Til. 25-35 20. Solanum surratense Burm. f. Fruits Mohakri 20-30 21. Trachyspermum copticm L. Seeds Ajwuin 80-100 22. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Seeds Tukhum-e- 50-60 Methray 23. Withania coagulens (L.) Seeds Panir Dodi 40-45 Dunal. *One dollar ($) is equal to 100 Rupees (Rs.)

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Table: 15. A market value of some important vegetables in local markets

S. No. Vegetable/Pot herb Local Name Part used Price in Rs/Kg* 1. Bhendi Rruit 100 Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench 2. Piaz Corm 50 Allium cepa L. 3. Thoom Bulb 200 Allium sativa L. 4. Thepper Underground part 40 Brassica rapa L. 5. Ghobi Inflorescence 50 B. oleracea var botrytis L. 6. Bundghobi Leaves & flowers 50 B. olerdcea var capitata L. 7. Sawi Murch Fruit 90 Capsicum annuum L. 8. Shimla Murch Fruit 120 Capsicum frutisens L. 9. Dhania Aerial parts 80 Coriandrum sativum L. 10. Kadoo Fruit 60 Cucurbita pepo L. 11. Gager Underground part 40 Daucus carrota L. 12. Tori Fruit 50 Luffa cylindrical (L.) Roem. 13. Tamatar Fruit 50 Lycopersicon esculentum 14. Salad Leaves 210 Lactuca sativa L. 15. Karella Fruit 80 Momardica charantia L. 16. Tenda Fruit 60 Praecitrullus fistulosus (Stocks.) Pangalo 17. Mooli Underground part 30 Raphanus sativus L. 18. Vanger Fruit 60 Solanum melongena L. 19. Alu Tuber 40 Solanum tuberosum L. 20. Palik Leaves 60 Spinacea oleracea Linn. 21. Methri Aerial parts 90 Trigonella foenum-graecum L. *One dollar ($) is equal to 100 Rupees (Rs.)

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Fig. 6. PLANTS USED IN DIFFERENT FIELDS OF LIFE

100 90 80 70 60 NUMBER 50 40 30 20 10 0 Medicinal Fuel Wood Wild Fruit Timber wood Miscellaneous Fodder and Forage and Fodder Fencing and Hedges and Fencing Vegetables and Potherbs and Vegetables Agricultural Impliments

FIELDS OF LIFE Roofing and Sheltering Thatching,

Medicinal Vegetables and Potherbs Fuel Wood Fodder and Forage Agricultural Impliments Thatching, Sheltering and Roofing Fencing and Hedges Timber wood Wild Fruit Miscellaneous

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Fig. 7. MODE OF ADMINSTRATION OF RECIPES

30

25

20

Number 15

10

5

0 Decoction Extract Powder (Extraction by Paste Ash/Smoke Tablets boiling)

Mode of Adminstration

Decoction (Extraction by boiling) Extract Powder Paste Ash/Smoke Tablets

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3.11 EFFECTIVENESS OF THE TREATMENT

The species Justicia adhatoda is used to make Gulkand (sugar + petals stored in glass container placed in sun light till it is ready for use). It is effective for cough and bronchitis. Its recommended dosage is mentioned in initial results. An indigenous industry is established in this area and adjoining area. In a slightly remote area of Chakwal, Kalar Kahar Gulkand is prepared on large scale and widely sold in this place. Its honey is also used by folks for cough and asthma. It is used as a lung tonic, and it is effective remedy for tuberculosis. Ayurvedic believe that as long as Justicia adhatoda exists, the patients of tuberculosis should not worry. Trianthema partulacastum is widely used by local people for Jaundice. Powder of whole plant is taken as one tea spoon in the morning and one in the evening. However a famous treatment i.e. a garland mode of its root pieces cured jaundice probably its smell is effective for this disease. Achyranthus aspera is famous for its use for cough and asthma. Its decoction (as herbal tea) is very effective for this purpose. The species need conservation for future use. Trachyspermum ammi is in practiced for the treatment of gastric troubles and abdominal pain. Curalluma eduus is effectively used for the treatment of diabeties; juice of fresh plant is useful for this purpose. Cichorium intybus is famous in this area to be used for the treatment of Jaundice as a liver tonic. It`s extract is used in this area. Ocimum americanum is a popular medicine for the treatment of fever in this area and adjoining Salt Range. Carthamus oxycantha is found as a weed in wheat field. Local people use it for fuel and seeds are consumed for jaundice. Calendula arvensis is under utilized species in this area however currently it is being popular to cure cuts and injuries. It is excellent remedy for this purpose. People of the area use decoction of this plant for fever. Sassurea heteromala is widely distributed as a spring weed and is found in waste places and in cultivated wheat field associated with grasses.

Fumaria indica, Medicago species and Verbascum Thapsus etc. It has been used as effective remedy for liver complaints and as an aphrodisiac tonic. Eruca sativa is eaten as a vegetable. If it is eaten as salad / vegetable for a long time, is effective as a hair tonic. The hairs remain black and healthy for a long time. Few people know the effective use of Sonchus asper, Sonchus oleraceous for treatment of cough and asthma. It is very effective expectorant. Sasurea heteromala may be promoted in this area for good fodder. It is also useful as an aphrodisiac tonic. Rhyzia stricta is wide spread in the hilly area in Mianwali. It is very successful species in this area and environmental conditions are the best suited for its survival. It is used as a good ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 195

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ingredient for compound medicine for digestive problems. Local people use it effectively as blood purifier and to treat skin problem. The presence in the area may be protected and conserved for posterity. Cassia fistula is practiced to treat constipation in children. Its fruit is used for this purpose. Calotropis procera is used as an ingredient for compound medicine for cough and asthma and rheumatic pain. Flowers corona is used for relief of cough. Cuscuta reflexa is a common parasite on Zizyphus jujube, Acacia nilotica and many other fruits plants. It is practiced as a useful remedy in digestive problems of goat and sheep and in human as well.

3.12 DISTRIBUTION AND PLANT ASSOCIATION

Tricholepis chaetolepis (Baram Dandi) a much reputed medicinal plant of the area used for fever and for women to normalize the menstrual cycle. It is found in Kloor Koat, Chak 31, Hatowala an area of Mianwali of sandy loam arid habitat. Other species in this area are Echinops echinatus, Xanthium stromanium, Soalnum incanum, Opuntia dillini. Carthamus oxycantha is widely distributed in wheat field and associated with Fumaria indica, Medicago polymorpha and other species in the field. Taraxacum officinale is commonly distributed and used in early spring. It is mostly associated with grass and other species of field, road side and uncultivated grounds etc. It is famous species of the area, commonly distributed in the waste places, field margin and foot hill areas. It is associated with weedy species and grasses. Solanum incanum and Ocimum americanuma are commonly utilized medicinal plant of the area. At present these species are restricted on waste places, field margins and foot hills areas. Environmental factor, sandy loam soil and foot hill areas favor their growth in this area of Pakistan.

Calendula arvensis has sporadic distribution in the area, yet due to weedy nature it has thick population, it is generally found in protective land or waste places near cultivated land or graveyards. It is spring plant and has association with other wheat field weeds such as Anagalis arvensis, Poa sp., Cyanodon dactylon, Fumaria indica, Aesphodelis sp and Medicago species. Cassia fistula is distributed in foot hill area usually in scrub forest. Peganum hermala is common herb in plains and foot hills areas. It is used as an essential ingredient in compound medicine. The plant population is depleting and needs further propagation in the area. Silene conoidea is a spring weed in wheat and other cultivated fields. It is used as a fodder for goats, sheep and cows. Chenopodium album is common

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weed in cultivated fields used as a vegetable and fodder in summer season. It is practiced as a good remedy for jaundice.

3.13 KEY SPECIES FOR FUTURE USE

It is quite natural that certain species are specific or dominant for certain areas due to overall climatic and environmental conditions. For instance date palm (Phoenix dactylefera) is dominant fruit tree in Sindh province of Pakistan. However in Mianwali the following species are favorable for domestication and cultivation as key species for future use as a part to increase country`s economy. These are Rhazya stricta, Caralluma edulus, Capparis deciduas. The species like Justacia adhatoda, Caralluma edulus, Caralluma spp, Solanum nigrum, Solanum xanthocarpum are broad spectrum medicines and in different geographical area similar and different uses have been reported.

Solanum incanum and Ocimum americanum are famous key speices for future use for medicine and the fruit of Solanum as vegetable by local communities. Although their population is gradually depleting in the area, they need in situ conservation and further promotion in this area for their treatment benefits the folks in future. Sassurea hetromala may be further cultivated, promoted and conserved as useful fodder species for future use. Bauhinia varigata`s flower buds are used as a popular vegetable in the area. The speices may be further cultivated for seasonal vegetable in the area.

Capparis deciduas is a dominant specieS of foot hill and plain area. Since its fruits are used as a vegetable, medicine and as pickles. The species may be conserved and further propagated into the area of Mianwali. Citrullus colosynthes is a famous medicinal plant of the area. It is used as a broad spectrum medicine and is also used as an essential ingredient in compound medicine. It is found in sandy places in wide spread area in Mianwali. It may be conserved further propagated for future generation. Cucumis melo var. agrestis is a useful plant but under utilized in the area. The speices has a famous use for flavoring agent in vegetables and meat. Its population is depleting in the area. The species may be further propagated and conserved in the area. Mamordica charantia is a famous vegetable and medicinal plant. Since the plant is cultivated its existence is not a problem in the area. However, a wild species of this genus i.e. M. dioca is very popular

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medicinal plant for diabetes. Its rhizome is used for diabetes, rheumatic pain and snake bite. It is diocious plant and rhizome of male plant is used to treat snake bite. The fruit of plant is used as a vegetable. Its population is depleting in the area. It may be propagated and conserved in the area. Ottostegia limbata is one of the few species which are used in eye diseases. The powder of leaves is used for eye ailments especially ophthalmic. Although its population is widespread but it is decreasing rapidly. The species needs cure for protection and conservation for future.

Asparagus adscendens is one of the most famous species among medicinal plants. Although some people in the area use it for Jaundice but the plant is used as a tonic and an important ingredient in compound drug use as aphrodisiac.

There are famous Hakeems and herbalists. They have established indigenous industry for the preparation of indigenous drugs from the plants of the area and elsewhere as well. Local and modern industries are present which is unique in this area of Mianwali. There are different communities which have been visited in district Mianwali. They have different customs and habits. Some nomadic population is sporadically settled in this area with various habits of food and living style. However clinical trials are required to assess the occurrence of abdominal worms in the community.

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Plate 21: Withania coagulans

Plate 22: Echinops echinatus

Plate 23: Tecumela undulata

Plate 24: Argemone mexicana

Plate 25: Solanum incanum

Plate 26: Ocimum americanum

Plate 27: Opuntia dillini

Plate 28: Salvadaro persica

Plate 29: Overgrazing by goats

Plate 30: Stunted growth by overgrazing

Plate 31: Use of Plant in thatching

Plate 32: Traditional house made of plants

Plate 33: People meeting place (Jirga) made up of plants

Plate 34: Shelter by the Dandrocalamus strictus

Plate 35: Use of plants in making home

Plate 36: Storage of Wheat husk

Plate 37: Interviews in the filed by the author

Plate 38: Interview from local herb seller

Plate 39: Trichodesma indicum

Plate 40: Acassia nilotica

Plate 41: Punica granatum

Plate 42: Uromastic (A type of Lizard) in the area

Plate 43: Seagull at the bank of River Indus

Plate 44: Way of transportation by Camel

Plate 45 Herbal Market Survey

Plate 46 Herbal Products display Plate 47 Traditional well (for drinking and irrigation purposes)

Plate 48 Local hand pump for drinking purpose Plate 49: Prosopus ciniraria

Plate 50: Boerhaavia procumbense

Plate 51: Zizyphus jujuba (wild fruit)

Plate 52: Typha ungustifolia

Plate 53: Periploca aphylla

Plate 54: Ceropegia bulbosa

Plate 55: Ottostegia limbata

Plate 56: Ajuga bracteosa

Plate 57: Silybum marianum

Plate 58: View of Dense Vegetation

Plate 59: Grasses on hills

Plate 60: A View of River Indus passing through Kalabagh

Plate 61: Over grazing of domestic goats : A serious threat to plant biodiversity

Plate 62: Overgrazing view

Plate 63: Overgrazing by Cattles

Plate 64: Overgrazing in cultivated lands

Plate 65: Hibiscus wild species

Plate 66: Heliotropium strigosum

Plate 67: Industrialization : A serious threat to biodiversity

Plate 68: Newly established industries in the area

Plate 69 Collection of fuel wood by children

Plate 70 A female member carrying fuel wood

Plate 71 Wood cutter doing his job

Plate 72 Huge storage of fuel wood Plate 73 Deforestation in area

Plate 74 Fuel wood cutting and transportation Plate 75 Collection of Grass fodder

Plate 76 Collection and drying of medicinal plants Plate 77 Transportation of timber wood

Plate 78 A View of Fuel Wood Transportation in remote village (Mari Indus)

Plate 79 Dried cow dung (an alternative fuel source)

Plate 80 Tea prepration through the use of dried cow dung

Plate 81: Labour making sheets

Plate 82: Sheets overview in the market

Plate 83 Bamboo for sale

Plate 84 Different kinds of sheets

Plate 85 Sheet preparation on machine

Plate 86 Display of sheets and other things

Plate 87 Some plant based products

Plate 88 Fancy and other items

Plate 89 Shelves and baskets etc.

Plate 90 Decoration pieces

Plate 91 Baskets and sweeping products

Plate 92 Different types of sweeping products Plate 93 Kitchen used items and some other products

Plate 94 Products made by Arundo donax

Plate 95 Kitchen accessories

Plate 96 The use of wooden handles

Plate 97 Pestle made of wood

Plate 98 Display of ropes

Plate 99 Fodder collection at home level

Plate 100 Mechanical cutting of fodder

Plate 101 Agricultural implements

Plate 102 Shovel (Belcha) Plate 103 Vegetables display in the market

Plate 104 Fresh vegetables

Plate 105 Fruits and aerial parts of some herbs

Plate 106 Herbal products

Plate 107: Honey Bee keeping boxes

Plate 108: Brassica campestris (Honey bee visiting plant) Plate 109: Helianthus annus (Honey bee visiting plant)

Plate 110: Rosa alba (Honey bee visiting plant) Plate 111 Flowers and bucket display

Plate 112 Rose petals for ceremonies Plate: 113 Aquatic Flora of the area

Plate: 114 Nelumbo nucifera

Plate 115 A local healer administrating the goats Plate 116 Plate Treading dog

Plate 117 Licking Salt and powdered herbs

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4.1 CONSERVATION OF ETHNOBOTANICAL RESOURCES IN DISTRICT MIANWALI

The District Mianwali is mainly in the region of Salt Range and arid parts of Punjab Province of Pakistan has a lot of natural resources. The vast area and varied agro- climatic conditions of this region make it possible for almost all different kinds of medicinal and other useful plants to grow. Rich biodiversity of plants in the area demand extensive research. The interaction between the local people and the natural system through history, has helped in maintaining the richness of species, communities and genetic materials in both productive system, wild lands of hills and cultivated lands of area. As knowledge improves, new bioresources to increase human welfare will be discovered and developed. There is a clear relationship between the conservation of natural resources and discovery of new biological resources. The documentation of indigenous people use of plants is often the source for ideas on developing plant species for wider use and economic benefit and there is a large number as yet undiscovered plant species which could prove useful. The local people of the area have a good knowledge of species in their own area which could prove useful in generation of income to help the local community. This knowledge is going to be lost because of the interference of modern cultural changes. Continuity of this practice will result in the loss of such knowledge. Therefore, efforts should be made to understand the indigenous knowledge of the local people in relation to biodiversity resource management through Ethnobotany is very important issue for sustainable development of the Mianwali particularly and adjoining Salt Range. Ethnobotany is the most important approach to study natural resource management of indigenous people. Because Ethnobotany is the study of how people of a particular culture and region make use of indigenous plants, while Ethnobotanists explore how plants are used for such things as food, shelter (Plate 31,32, 33, 34 & 35), clothing, medicine and religious ceremonies etc. (Ambara, 2010). As ethnobotany is interaction between people and plants, local people are always well aware of the plant species stability, population, distribution and conservation status in the area. Human existence (and that of most other organisms) is heavily dependent in what biologist call Primary producers, mainly plants. Five thousand plants species have been used as food by humans, but less than twenty now feed the majority of the worlds’ population and just three or four carbohydrates are staples for a vast majority. Indigenous people also keep the ancient

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races / cultivars of the existing crop plants, which always plays a vital role in crop improvement. Hence the plants form the basis of life. They provide us with many services for health maintenance, Timber and lumber for construction and fuel, fodder for cattle and many other useful items.

The short and long term values of these resources are enormous and most improvement in Agriculture, Silviculture, Biotechnology and Pharmacology depends on their conservation. Because one of the important benefit of conservation of biodiversity is the wild plant gene pool which is available to augment the narrow genetic base of these established food crops, providing disease resistance, improve productivity and different environmental tolerances. In Mianwali and adjoining area of Salt range wild fruit species of Punica granata, Morus species, Ficus and Zizyphus species etc. are good examples of important genetic resources of plants for improvement of such relevant cultivated fruit species. People of Mianwali has a strong cultural based society of the tribes Maliks and Niazi in the area. These tribes are devoted to use and conserve natural resources. There is a well represented herbal industry and herbal clinics (Dawa Khana and Matabs) and some important recipes are prepared form Citrulus vulgare (Tumba), Withania coagulans (Panir Dodi) Fagonia indica (Dhamasa), Rhyzia stricta (Virian), Acacia modesta, Acacia nilotica, Capparus aphylla, Tribulus terristis etc are used for many ailments such as stomach / digestive systems problems as aphrodisiac tonic, piles and backache problems are some examples in this category or description. The cultural value of biological diversity (Natural Resources) conservation for present and future generations and important reason for conserving it today. Human cultures coevolve with their environment, and the conservation of these natural resources can be important for cultural identity. The natural environment provides for many of the inspirational, aesthetic, spiritual, recreational and educational needs of people of all cultures, now and in the future (Pei, 1994).

Good management of the environment, whether in protected areas or not, cannot be achieved without support of local people. In truth, everywhere people are part of the environment. The issue today is to find ways of encouraging local practices which promote conservation, whether through mechanisms entirely within communities on their own lands or through agreements with the state authorities, giving clear understanding of

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the rights and responsibilities of local people within Mianwali tehsil and forest lands of Kala Bagh hills.

Such work is complex and demanding. To be realistic, it must depend on the availability of good quality information on traditional system of land tenure and resource ownership, perceived by the communities, the types of plants and animals in which people have an interest, established system of management and deficiency in these system which act to diminish the supply of resources. That is why the subject of ethnobotany is so important (Shinwari et al., 1996). All aspects of ethnobotany between local people of the area and indigenous plants of the area are studied, focusing on critical issues as these become apparent.

4.2 IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON PLANT RESOURCES IN DISTRICT MIANWALI

The District of Mianwali faced several problems in achieving the objectives of conservation of natural environment. For instance an ancient lake between Mianwali City and Kalabagh has been destroyed due to industrial set up in this area. A lot of useful aquatic flora has been destroyed along with the destruction of the lake. Now the area is deprived of numerous species of Nymphiaceae; particulary Nymphia lotus and Nelumbo spp (Plate 113 & 114). Natural flora of the area is continuously decline due to biotic pressure of population fast growth, urban encroachment, intensive agricultural practices, unfair means of deforestation, salinity and water logging and general misuse of the available natural resources. Almost 25000 acres of the land of the area is affected by water logging and salinity and is unfit for agriculture. If appropriate measures are not adopted to check water logging and salinity, the land will lose its fertility and become arid and barren (Sultan, 1987).

Each and every person has no hesitation in cutting down trees and shrubs for their uses of fuelwood and timber. Due to this there is a great reduction in the density of scrub forests of Olea ferruginea (Kao), Acacia modesta (Phulai) and Dodonaea viscosa (Sanatha) etc. The area also facing the pressure of extensive grazing and browsing. Live stock of all kinds grazed heavily because people have no other options for cheaper fodder. ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 201

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Tariq, (1999) stated that there is a need for urgent preferential probe of plant resources because with rapid growth of population and urbanization of forest lands and hills, the rich herbal wealth of the area is fast dwindling. It appears that these are, by and large, ruthlessly crudely exploited by the unauthorized wood cutters, and drug collectors (Hakims and Pansars of own area and other areas of the district Mianwali) and as a result of which existence of indigenous species has been threatened (Tariq, 1999). Moreover, it has been observed that the total forest area, where from these drug plants and other useful plants are obtained in recent years, has been reduced greatly. Such ecological disturbance has also contributed in losing the drug yielding plants. It has also been reported that large number of medicinal plants occur scattered over the entire area, but all the species are, however not procured for commercial purposes particularly on account of following difficulties: i) Indiscriminate collection which ultimately leads to extermination of the plants. ii) Ignorance of the collectors to recognize authentic species iii) Difficulty of access and high cost of transportation and iv) Sparse distribution.

In view of economic importance and constant demand of these medicinal and useful plants. It is desirable to overcome the threatening problems in relation to conservation of these species and to cultivate such plants in suitable localities of the area. Thereby the plants growing wild could be brought under systematic cultivation and the exotic medicinal may also be cultivated if the climatic conditions are favorable.

4.3 DOCUMENTATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN DISTRICT MIANWALI

The indigenous traditional knowledge of herbal plants of communities where it has been transmitted orally for many years is fast disappearing from the face of world due to transformation of traditional culture. The collection of information about natural flora, classification, management and use of plants by the people holds importance among the Ethnobotanists. The local people and researcher face the challenging task of not only recording knowledge of the indigenous plants, but also applying the results of their studies ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 202

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to biodiversity conservation and community development with the passing of each generation, more and more knowledge of medicinal plants is being lost despite the continuing importance of the relevance of the knowledge, for the traditional local communities. As we have seen and we know this knowledge forms the basis of health care (Martin, 1995, Ahmad et al., 2012, Ahmad et al., 2011, Zafar et al., 2012, Sultana et al., 2012). The major loss of indigenous knowledge in the rural population of district Mianwali is the disruption of traditional channel of oral communication due to shift to written exchange of communications. This made it difficult for the older generation to pass their knowledge on to younger generation. This is especially true for women in rural areas of Mianwali who are largely illiterate and have less access to education. The other reason for the loss of indigenous knowledge of plants is the lack of interest of younger generation to herbal medicines due to easy access to allopathic medicine. However because of numerous side effects of allopathic medicines, people are again being inclined to herbal drugs due to their beneficial effects for human metabolism and overall good health.

The increasing interest in understanding indigenous knowledge and resource management system is, in part geared by the need to address conflict in the resource use under the conditions of increasing human demands for the land and resources. The local inhabitants of the Mianwali have empirical knowledge of the utilization of natural resources in the area. This knowledge is going to be lost because of the interference of modern cultural changes. To make the participatory planning more sustainable, adoptable and acceptable by the rural people of the area, the real benefactor of the medicinal resources demands consideration. Hence there is an urgent need to document traditional knowledge of medicinal and other useful plants which could act as supportive tool for communities participation to natural resource management on sustainable basis.

4.4 ETHNOMEDICINAL CULTURE OF PLANT UTALIZATION IN DISTRICT MIANWALI

Since disease, decay and death have always co-existed with life; the study of diseases and their treatment must have been contemporaneous with the dawn of the human intellect. The primitive man must have used those things, which he was able to procure most easily as therapeutically agents and to employ remedial measures. The relationship ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 203

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between man, plants and drugs derived from vegetable and other natural sources describes the history of mankind. Plants are important source of natural drugs. Primitive man started to distinguish nutritional and pharmacologically active plants for his survival, (Ali & Azhar, 2000). In Mianwali ethnomedicinal culture is well establish. People of the area are firmly attached with some of the commonly used medical plants in the area. For instance the two major tribes of the area Niazi and Maliks commonly use Rhyzya stricta, Withania coagulans, Fagonia indica and Polygonum plebejum are used for digestive system ailment. Decoction of Polygonum plebejum is an excellent remedy for diarrhea and cholera. Achyranthes aspera is used for cough and asthma and Calotropis procera as a broad spectrum medicines used in combined recipes as essential ingredient. Tinospora cordifolia for fever. Ficus bengalensis, Viola stocksii, Argyrolobgium roseum and Withania somnifera is used as aphrodisiac medicines very successfully. Decoction of the leaves of modified plant Olea ferrugenia is uses as heart tonic. Triantheam protulacastrum and Solanum nigrum for Jaundice. Similarly Ficus palmata, Abutelon indicum, Cymbopogon jawarancosa, Datura inoxia are utilized for many ailments and are part of the ethnomedicial culture of Mianwali.

In a developing country like Pakistan, the benefits of modern medicine and health care reach only to a small percentage of the population. These hardly ever reach the messes living in the rural and remote hilly areas. Moreover, in remote areas where per capita income of people is very low, it becomes much difficult to buy complicated and expensive prescriptions. Hence there is a need for the inclusion of herbal medicines at primary health care level, since their long standing use as plant drugs reasonably guarantee their medicinal efficacy and safety (Goodman, 1992).

The local people of district Mianwali have also used medicinal plants for the treatments of various diseases and have for a long time been dependent on surrounding plant wealth for their other requirements of life. However, due to modern cultural changes and advancement in every field of life style, the use of plants for medicinal purposes is decreasing.

Apart from the areas which are under the influence of urban effect, it is a common knowledge that large section of rural people of the area still depends on traditional

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phytotherapies and folk medicines. These plant-based remedies are often tested effected prescriptions based on simple inexpensive and usually available indigenous plants and plant products. These indigenous medicinal plants are growing naturally in different seasons of the year in this area. According to local people, it is believed that traditional phytotherapies are more adoptable and acceptable. It is also observed that these plant- based remedies are considered to be better permanent cure of their diseases and cheaper and easily available than the commercial prescription which are very expensive, complicated and have adverse effects. Much of these information about these remedies are personal knowledge and experience.

The necessity for exploitation of such Ethnobotanical knowledge has long been felt with the increasing need of drugs, medicines and other useful products. In this way, the Ethnobotanical approach can be adopted in which to record the ethnobotanical knowledge, collection of indigenous plant material based on their indigenous use for particular disease or purpose, identification and processing etc. Hence the present study of Ethnobotancial aspects of the plants is the first logical step in direction towards the ultimate goal of the development of natural plant based on industries in the area for future prosperity in particular and in general for country (Ahmad et al., 2007, Ahmad et al., 2008, Abbasi et al., 2010)

4.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNITY AND MEDICINAL PLANTS IN DISTRICT MIANWALI

Due to the fact that both men and women interviewed in this study were known users of medicinal plants. It may appear from the results of this study that all members of the communities that were visited relied to considerable degree on traditional medicines. The standard reasons for using Orthodox medicines rather than herbal medicine were accidents, births, surgery, major illness and even for trivial complaints e.g. headaches. The availability of medicinal plants and their efficacy also influenced the decision regarding orthodox intervention. It was difficult to establish how effective traditional treatments of diseases really were. In the majority of cases, the plants were described as being 100% successful, and yet it was apparent that easily curable diseases were still prevalent. On observation, it was found that the older men and women of the community were found to

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be more knowledgeable than their younger counterparts. This is possibly due to the fact that the pharmaceutical industry; popularity has grown dramatically over the years to the extent that approximately 90% of the average households’ health budget in Pakistan is spent on these drugs (Citizens; Report, 1995). It is apparent that if positive action is not taken on the near future towards rekindling the interest and faith in traditional medicine, then the indigenous traditional knowledge may die out (Zafar et al., 2011, Ahmad et al., 2008, Ahmad et al., 2009, Abbassi et al., 2010). It was found that, the number of medicinal plants actually known by the men were more than were known by the women. Both groups, however, were not aware of the vast array of plants with medicinal properties that exist in their locality. Common knowledge, that generally possessed by all, thus usually related to the common plants in the locality, where as specialist knowledge tended to span beyond the surrounding locality, and plants from beyond the area were often cited by Herbs’ doctors (Hakims).

Occasionally local medicinal plants were supplemented by those bought from the Markets (Herbs’ Shops). Hakims (herbs’ doctors) etc. This was not a particularly common practice, but it does demonstrate the confidence bestowed in medicinal plants and also highlights the need for local cultivation. It was found that diagnostic techniques were often very primitive. Diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, skin infections, bites, dysmenorrhoea (Period pain), Rheumatism etc, were obviously easily diagnosed by the old men and ladies. However, an understanding of the causative factors was not apparent, leading to symptomatic treatments. The color of the tongue as well as the colour of the eyes were also used as indicators to the cause of patients’ problem. The general physical condition of the patient was also an indicator of the afficiting diseases. The concept of cold and hot (Sard and garmi) were a common feature in the explanation of patients’ illness. Prescriptions that were given for various diseases encompassed changes in diet, specific diets and a variety of social prescriptions along with medicinal plants remedies (Ahamd et al., 2010).

It can be established from this study that both adults and children were treated using medicinal plants. Some plants were specific to men (e.g. for male infertility, sexual debility etc) and certain plants were only given to women (e.g. Gynaecological

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conditions). The elderly and children also received particular plants suited to their specific age limiting ailments. It was very concerning that possible dangers and adverse effects of employing certain medicinal plants in health care to be either unknown or ignored by the women and some time men respondents (Ahmad et al., 2010). For example, Cannabis sativa (Bhang) and Papaver somniferum (Afune) were found to be used in certain villages near Kala Chitta hills. However these are potent herbs and can lead to complications such as hallucinations, sedative action and addiction and should therefore be used with extreme care.

4.6. MEDICINAL PLANTS COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND STORAGE

Medicinal Plants gathering is done by all members of the community including men (mostly), sometime women and children also play an important role in the collection of medicinal plants. Collectors are mainly low income people. Shephards men, women and Nomad ethnic groups, settled in or migrating to and from the more remote villages of the area also collect the medicinal plants.

The part of a plant used can lead to different end results in treatment (Shazia et al., 2011, Ahmad et al., 2008, Ahmad et al., 2009, Khan et al., 2011) For example, the, root of Taraxacum officinale (Dodal) has a hepatic and mildly laxative action and also act as a pancreatic agent. The leaves of the same species have different primary action to the roots by being strongly diuretic. Identification of the correct timing for collecting plant species is crucial. Optimal timing has a direct link with the part of plant used.

Fresh and dried plants were both used. Processing techniques were found to be same throughout the study area. Various techniques were observed but the most popular proved to be sun drying and shade drying. According to the specialists (Hakims & Elder people) of the area, shade drying is considered to be better than sun drying because during sun drying the volatile oil like contents of the plants were destroyed.

The optimal method for drying herbs according to Bartram (1995) is to spread the unwashed, dust-free, organic plants out on racks in a well ventilated room away from sun lights, and excessive heat. Turning or agitation should occur daily, and the herb should not ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 207

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undergo further preparation until the procedure has been successfully completed. Further processing for internal use included decoctions, fresh juices, infusions, syrups and cooking the herb. However, these alternative preparations do provide substantial medicinal benefits. In fact, some plants are thought to have a greater efficacy when used in there ways. For example, Tribulus terestris (Caltrops, Bhakra) roots’ decoction is most commonly used for kidney stone, kidney disorders and backache. Fresh leaf juice of Adhatoda vasica (Vasaka, Bekkar) is given to reduced blood glucose level of diabetic patient. Similarly juice obtained from fresh leaves of Solanum nigrum (Night shade, Kuchmach) 2-3 drops of this juice is used in night for ear infection and ear bleeding. Grinding of dried and fresh herbs is also common technique (Abbasi et al., 2012 ; Hassan et al, 2007).

Dried herbs should be stored in an air-tight container in a cool, dry, dark environment to prevent the loss of volatile oils and possible spoilage. Storage conditions includes the use of cloth bags (not air-tight), clear glass bottles and plastic bags. On some occasions the plants were stored in direct sunlight, but were usually kept either inside a dark room or outside on the verandah. Further preparation of dried herbs were rarely stored. These preparations that is decoctions, infusion, can only be stored for a few days before their quality deteriorates.

The marketing of medicinal plants by the local people interviewed were minimal throughout the area. The market for herbal medicine is growing, along with the therapys’ popularity. For example, in United Kingdom (U.K.) the number of qualified Medical Herbalists is beginning to escalate, as there are now 5 institutions where Phytotherapy is taught. These newly qualified Herbalists are likely to put a strain on the reserves of the natural products retail industry therefore a niche market exist for supplies from other sources.

Sale prices for the reported marketed plants (Table 13) were very low when compared with specialist companies in other countries. One reputable company in UK for instance was selling a litre of Withania somnifera (Asganth) tincture for pound 19.50 + tax in 1997. This plant was reported during the survey as being used as a tonic by local people of the area (Chevallier, 1998). ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 208

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During the survey, it was noted that certain commonly occurring plant species were unknown medicinally by local people. Medicinal herbs popular with European Medical Herbalists such as Urtica pilulifera (Nettle), Heliotropium europaeum (Hathisund), Chorozophora heirosolymiotna (Bunti Booti) etc. were recording during study but were either not known at all to the local people or were not known to be medicinally active.

Even plant that were being used medicinally were under-utilized, as has been mentioned in previous sections, regarding knowledge, collection, processing, storage, cultivation, and marketing. Also it was clear that species with a wide spread distribution and therefore high usage potential were being overlooked.

For instance, Cannabis sativa (Bhang) was found growing almost everywhere, but its use was surprisingly not extensive. This plant is powerful analgesic and is used extensively throughout the world as a medicinal aid for a variety of ‘conditions, including multiple sclerosis and cancer. Certain medicinal plants in the area are threatened and are rare, vulnerable or endangered. It can easily be hypothesized that the collection of these species for medicinal use and for marketing (along with an increasing population and deforestation) is contributing to this current worrying issue.

4.7 ETHNOVETERINARY KNOWLEDGE IN MIANWALI

Ethnoveterinary knowledge continues to be recognized at a global level as a resource that reflects people's total commitment and experience in life, from origin through evolutionary stages to current situation. These experiences, stem from people's ingenuity, credulity and above all, perhaps, their insatiable curiosity that over many centuries, they accumulated the current rich and resourceful traditional knowledge that has been passed on from generation to generation through oral contact, traditional songs, poems, drawings, paintings, stories, legends, dreams, visions and initiation ceremonies (Kokwaro, 1993; Backes, 1998; Patricia, 2001 and Mweseli, 2004). This knowledge is sketchily recorded in books (Abegaz and Demissew, 1998) and is stored in the same fashion as it is transmitted by means of practice or in the form of artifacts handed from

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father to son or from mother to daughter. The storage of the knowledge is solely depended on the collective memory of just a few entrusted persons within communities for it is just not common 'knowledge' for everybody. The knowledge is believed to be collectively and communally owned by ancestors and kept under the custody of living old men and women, depending on the community, ethnicity, sex, age, caste etc. There is a danger however that this method of vesting knowledge in human custodians can be undermined by mortality, thereby losing important information to the future generations.

Ethnoknowledge focusing on ethnoveterinary animal health care has existed alongside human evolutionary history, taking many different forms. In Mianwali it comprises all ethno practical approaches and traditional knowledge applied by local people with a view to alleviating health constraints afflicting their livestock and hence, improves their production and performance. Like any other knowledge systems, ethnoveterinary knowledge is very dynamic in its evolution, management and practice throughout the region of Mianwali. Because of this dynamism, many ethno practitioners find themselves in a situation where they complement ethnoveterinary knowledge with modern veterinary medicine, especially in cases where ethnoveterinary knowledge is limited and cannot work (Martin et al., 2001; Mathias 2004). Enhancement of this approach is most likely to super research and development of ethnoveterinary knowledge and undoubtedly enable it to make immense strides in the development of livestock industry, more particularly in developing countries where modern veterinary services and resources are really limited in supply and availability. Due to the use of machinery and modern practices in agriculture the use of some animals has remained for production of meat and dairy products. Consequently selected farmers possess herds of animals and some useful recipes are being vanished from the folks. Hence the documentation of ethnoveterinary knowledge is extremely vital at this stage of cultural evolution in Mianwali. Various countries can be benefited from each other experiences through exchange of such plant based recipes for animal health.

4.7.1 POTENTIAL OF ETHNOVETERINARY MEDICINE (EVM) IN MIANWALI

Mianwali has a wealth of biological resources and is home to a large number of different ethnic and cultural groups, many of which have developed their own distinct ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 210

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health care systems. Old stories on healing have been transferred from generation to generation and have been practiced for hundreds of years using the available medicinal plants. As a result, the Mianwali is rich both in biological resources and indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants. Moreover it is believed that the situation of traditional medicine in Mianwali is more or less characteristic for that in several other areas in the region of South Asia.

A total of 71 plant species belonging to 43 families for their ethnopharmacological application against veterinary aliments have been gathered and documented (Table 1). The plant species of veterinary importance were arranged alphabetically along with botanical name, family, part used preparation, application, indication and number of respondents. The family Poaceae had the highest number of species (6) than the others families. The next highest families in term of number of species was Asteraceae with 4 species, Liliaceae and Papilionaceae 4 species, Apiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rosaceae, Solanaceae and Zygophylaceae with 3 species, Amaranthaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepidaceae, Boraginaceae, Myrtaceae, Plantigenaceae, with 2 species and the remaining families were represented by one species each. Frequently applied plant species against veterinary ailments included: Adhatoda vasica, Melia azaderach, each used against six different veterinary ailments; Calotropis procera, Canabis sativa, Solanum surratense each to cure five veterinary diseases; Allium cepa, Citrullus colocynthis, Peganum hermala for four problems and Anethum sowa, Brassica campestris, Carissa opaca, Cuscuta reflexa, Rhayza stricta, Tribulus teristris, Trachyspermum copticum and Triticum aestivum each was used against three veterinary ailments (Table 4).

Leaves, fruits, seeds, whole plant, roots, aerial parts, flowers, rhizome, bark, branches, bulb, stem, twig and wood were frequently utilized plant parts against different veterinary ailments in decreasing order. The method of drug preparation in many cases varied from individual to individual. The same plant material for the same ailment may be prepared in different ways. It varied depending on how the traditional veterinary healers acquired that knowledge and how they got “good” results (Dilshad et al., 2008). Data presented in Table 4, indicates that one hundred and twenty eight medications were used by local inhabitants to cure different veterinary ailments. Among these medications (70 %)

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were prepared from single plant and (30 %) from more than one plant species. As most of the prescriptions documented, were based on combination of different plants. It was believed that synergistic effect of different plant species improves the cure rates with a note of high degree of variation and originality (Bonet and Valles 2007). This variation may be result of qualitative and quantitative differences in chemical content of the plants like alkaloids, phenols, terpenoids, essential oils, lactins and polypeptides etc (Cown, 1999).

In majority cases these medications were prepared by using water as a medium. Materials other than plants included: table salt, sugar, milk, oil, eggs and ghee. The commonly used methods of preparation fall into sixteen categories were, plant parts applied as paste (41); fresh plant part (20); decoction (18); powder (17); extract (09); juice (06); mixture (4); bread, infusion, latex (2); ash, oil, pickle, porridge, poultice and smoke (1). The commonly used modes of application were; oral administration, drinking and topical application; however sprinkling, bandage, nasal smoking, wrapping and feeding were also used. In regard to the animal condition the preparation were applied more than two times daily until ailment was recovered. The commonly used vehicles for administration were water, grass, husk, flour, milk, oil, egg, ghee, yogurt, pepper and sulphur. It has been proposed that use of such vehicles may dilute or reduce the relative potency of the drug (Jabbar et al., 2006).

The respondents identified fifty different veterinary aliments include: stomach problems like pain, dysentery, diarrhea, indigestion, gas trouble, swelling, inflammation, gripping, constipation, colic, worms, appetite, ulcer, rumen and vomiting; skin infection such as wounds, raches, scabies, allergy, worms, sores, leech, lice, tics, mites; infections of mouth, throat, lungs, foot, hooves; fever, dehydration, cough, lactation, unequal memory glands, vitality, fracture, eye ache, piles, cold, weakness, mastitis, blood purification, uterus cleaning, oedema, arthritis, fracture, earache, urethra prolepsis, hemoglobinura and placental problem, which were treated through various plant species.

The most frequent veterinary applications (76) were recorded for the management of gastrointestinal disorders like dysentery, diarrhea, indigestion, stomach pain, dehydration, gas trouble, intestinal worms, inflammation, gripping, constipation, ulcer,

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vomiting, stomach collapse and swelling; (36) for infectious problems as skin, mouth, throat and lung infection, sores, allergy, scabies, infected foot and hooves and rashes; (10) to cure fever and common cold; (06) for each to increase milk production and as anti- parasitic; (05) in the case of abdominal pain; (04) for each bones problems, weakness and to cure memory glands; (03) each to cure reproductive disorder and cough; (02) for each eye diseases and to purify blood.

Forty-one plant species were documented for their application to treat more than two veterinary conditions. For example, Adhatoda vesica for stomach pain, fever, dehydration, dysentery, indigestion, diarrhea and gas trouble; Melia azesarach for skin, foot and mouth infections, rashes, gas trouble and indigestion; Calotropis procera to cure mouth and eye watering, colic, indigestion, pain and inflammation; Cannabis sativa for abdominal swelling, indigestion, as anti lice and leech and appetizer; Solanum surratense for fever, indigestion, cough, as tonic and to heal wounds; Allium cepa to increase milk production, indigestion, stomach pain and fever; Citrullus colocynthis for indigestion, gas trouble, abdominal worms and constipation; Peganum hermala for mastitis, gastric problem and against tics and mites; Anethum sowa to increasemilk production, abdominal pain and swelling; Brassica campestris for skin infection, eye sight and stomach infection; Carissa opaca to cure throat infection, infected sores and wound healing; Cordia oblique for throat infection, common cold and ulcer; Cuscuta reflexa for swelling, indigestion and short memory glands; Rhazya stricta for abdominal pain, skin infection and to purify blood; Triticum aestivum for sore mouth, dysentery and milk production.

Indigenous medicinal plants are an integral component of ethnoveterinary medicines, farmers, pastoralists and livestock keepers in Mianwali who use medicinal plants in the maintenance and conservation of health care of livestock. It is estimated from this study, that is in total of 71 species belonging to 43 families are commonly used as a primary source of prevention and control of cattle diseases in Mianwali. In fact, interest of such use in the veterinary sector has resulted primarily from the increasing cost of livestock maintenance and the introduction of new technology in the product of veterinary medicines and vaccines.

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The potential of ethnoveterinary knowledge of population of Pakistan in general and Mianwali communities and pastoralist in particular is unknown. No past references exist on the documentation of ethnoveterinary knowledge in Pakistan. Yet society faces the loss of traditional strategies and ethnoveterinary knowledge of medicinal plant materials by the herders, local farmers, shepherds and other associated with animals as their ways of life disappear due to population shifts and economic insecurity of remote societies (Farooque, 2000). Most of the rural communities in Asia depends on herbals remedies for maintaining the health of their domestic livestock because their treatments are easily available and often less expressive than manufactured veterinary pharmaceuticals (Ahmad et al., 2008).

In addition these plant based medications are believed to have few adverse side effects to leave no harmful residues in milk or meat and not to contaminate the environment (Beigh et al., 2003). In Mianwali region there is large sections of rural population depends and used tradition herbal remedies for diseases of their livestock. The necessity for exploration of such knowledge has long been felt with the increasing need of livestock drugs, medicines and their conservation. In this context, present study is considered to be the first logical and applicable step in direction towards ultimate goal of development of natural plant based drug industries in area with special reference to cultivation, propagation and conservation of medicinal plants for future prosperity.

Most of these communities live in rural and marginal areas affected with endemic pathogens, vectors and diseases. These areas are not easily accessible to modern veterinary information and services and people are less economically endowed and face enormous animal health problems. The survival mechanisms and strategies are simply based on people's own local and inherent centuries' old knowledge that has withstood the test of time in all aspects of human evolutionary life. Any attempts to improve the lives of these people through livestock industry, must therefore begin by understanding and recognizing the evolution, application and management of ethnoveterinary medicine in their cultural lifestyle. This approach offers sustainable strategies directed towards developing sound and appropriate animal health care systems suitable and relevant to rural communities in improving livestock performance and production and hence, livelihood. In addition, there would be environmental conservation and management strategies for achieving

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sustainability, availability, accessibility and affordability of existing ethnoremedies and ethnopractitioners. Strategizing community development programmes by building on ethnoknowledge concepts as known and practiced by people, it is by no doubt that feasible and sustainable development programmes will be successfully planned, developed, implemented and managed without external input. To effect and maintain a community- based sustainable livestock production system, it is crucial to learn, evaluate and without being biased and ethnocentric, promote and integrate the beneficial facets of traditional animal health care practices into current primary livestock health care delivery services.

4.7.2 THREATS TO ETHNOVETERINARY KNOWLEDGE

Modernization coupled with poor storage format of ethnoveterinary knowledge based on individuals' remembrance abilities and its transmission from generation to generation through oral contact, has greatly endangered its survival and sustainability in the future. The resultant effect of which has been the realization of a great loss of very vital information. The rapid socio-economic, ecological and technological changes in peoples' lifestyles, has greatly led to the disuse or total loss of traditional knowledge (Principe 1989; Mathias and McCorckle 1989; McCorckle 1989; Kokwaro 1993; Martin 1996; Longuefosse and Nossin 1996). It is further anticipated that the rate of this knowledge's decay and disappearance is alarming worldwide and, if precautions are not taken, it may continue becoming worse with time. This loss is due particularly to the kind of life style the generations expected to inherit the knowledge, lead. Many young people have lost interest in learning from their parents and great-grand-parents is probably due to changes in life style and the effects of urbanization. As indicated in Table 1, that 86 medicinal plants comprises the basis for several recipes used for the health care of domestic animals in Mianwali. Some of these medicinal plants are also found in various other countries of South Asia and else where, hence the ethnoveterinary knowledge form Mianwali will be shared by other communities. For instance Curcuma longa, Canabis sativa and Calotropis sp. are utilized in North Punjab are also used as a medicinal plants for domestic animals in Darjeeling and Sikkim areas of India (Chettri, et al., 1992).

The ethnoveterinary recipes as discovered from Mianwali Region of Northern Pakistan provide the treatment for almost all the major ailments of domestic animals.

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There is a need to facilitate a multilateral dialogue between local communities, NGO`s, private sector, researchers from medical sciences for the development and application of ethnoveterinary knowledge. There is also a need at the international forum societies and similar efforts for the promotion and development herbal medicine for the domestic animals.

4.8 PRESSURE ON FUELWOOD AND TIMBER YIELDING SPECIES

Pakistan like any other under developing country is facing serious energy shortages. This is primarily due to poor energy resource base, both traditional and commercial. The gap between supply and demand is increasing because of fast growing population and expansion in various sectors of the economy. The use of wood as a fuel and timber purposes, warrants a critical study on all its technical and economic aspects. The entire population of the rural areas in district Mianwali depends for its energy requirements and timber on wood yielding species. The forest resources of the area are under depletion at a very fast rate and people of the area facing serious timber and fuel wood shortages (Saqib, 2000). The reason is same like other places of the country, because the growth of human population and deforestation is much higher than the numbers and growth rate of timber and fuel wood species. So a lot of pressure has been found on Acacia modesta (Phulai), Acacia catechu (Khair), Acacia nilotica (Kiker), Dalbergia sissoo (Tali), Melia azedarach (Dherak), Morus alba (Chitta Toot), Morus nigra (Kala Toot) Olea ferruginea (Kao), Tamarix dioica (Ghuz) and shrubs like Dodonaea viscosa (Sanatha) and Adhatoda vasica (Bekkar).

Reforestation trend of these species is lacking among the local people of the area. It is found that the choice of fuel in rural areas is greatly influenced by the easy access to fuel wood and agricultural residue resources. Majority of the house-holds (83%) were using only fuel wood and crop residue were as only 17% of the households were found using efficient commercial fuels (LPG, Kerosine etc.) along with fuelwood. Except family size none of the socio-economic factors has influence on wood consumption of the household. The average annual per capita fuel wood consumption of the same population was 2500 Kg. Against this the consumption of Kerosine oil was only 3 liter and LPG was 57 Kg (about 5-cylinders) (Ahmad et al., 2010). It was found that there is a direct ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 216

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relationship between the quantity of fuelwood consumed and household size (Aeverage household size was 6). The fuelwood consumption was increasing with increase of household size. It was also observed that crop residues and cow dung were the traditional and easily available source of energy. In fact crop residues and cow-dung have various other uses (Manur) in addition to fuel. The local people prefer fuel collection fully and freely without monetary cost. Due to extreme poverty in remote villages specially in surrounding the Kala Bagh hills and Mianwali hills, the local people earned some income by selling the wood. So if we want to save and protect our forest wealth, it is duty of forest department to provide the cheap alternatives of timber and fuel wood to native people of the area. Illegal cutting and smuggling should be controlled and discouraged by vigilant patrolling of the personnel of the Forest Department. Heavy penalties in terms of money and imprisonment should be imposed on smugglers.

4.9 POVERTY ALLEVIATION & NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS (NTFPs)

The specialized persons are available in local community who are very expert in making baskets, shelves, fancy items, boxes and other general use items. It is a good sources to alleviate the poverty in the area. The plant material was provided by the client. They choose only those plants whose branches are flexible and strong. Fiber from the bark or leaves of various plants was also used for many purposes in Mianwali such as cordage (rope), baskets, clothing, boxes, shelves and other fancy items. Plants such as Nannorophs and Phoenix spp. are an important source of fiber and construction material for shelters. Other fiber sources included grasses such as Typha angustifolia and bark of trees is used. Hussain and Sher (1998) reported 87 species of ethnobotanical importance from five villages of District Buner. There were classified as medicinal (85spp.) wild fruit (9spp), vegetable (13spp), fuel wood (21spp), timber wood (6spp), roof thatching (7spp) (Plate 31, 32, 33, 34 & 35), agricultural tools making (8spp), fencing (4spp), mud supporter (2spp) brmoming (3spp) and Holly religious plants (6spp). Most of the people depend on agriculture, forest and mountain resources. They collect a lot of medicinal plants, fodder, fuel wood, timber wood as well as Non timber forest products (NTFPs) from the area. Human existence grazing and cultivation exerts enormous stress on the vegetation and results in environmental degradation. Some other causes included ignorance, poverty, joblessness and lack of scientific knowledge for the collection of medicinal plants.

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4.10 IMPACT OF FODDER SPECIES

Cattle rearing is one of the most important occupations of local people to the economy of the area. Animals such as Buffaloes, sheep, goats, donkeys, horses, cows, camels and oxen etc were domesticated for various purposes. Grazing and browsing by all kinds of domesticated live stock is common throughout the area. Most of the fodder species (Table 8) grow wild throughout the area as well as some major fodder crops were cultivated very extensively, particularly in Musa Khail region and in generally throughout the area. Mianwali and Kalabagh hills facing the pressures of grazing and browsing because in these hills live stock of all kinds grazed and browsed heavily. Since the area is hilly and plain type of land, overgrazing in more damaging in plains then in hilly areas. In hilly areas access in difficult for the animals except goats. The species such as Desmostachya bipinnata, Cynodon dactylon, Dichanthium anulatum, Medicago polymorpha, Astrgalus species are the dominant species by grazers. People in these hills have no cheaper fodder options for them. So local people should be encourage to grow fodder crops where possible to reduced pressure on these hills. It was observed that Grewia oppositifolia (Dhaman) emerges as the most sustainable species of these hills and it grows quickly and regenerate within a year. This plant plays a vital role in maintaining the fodder supply through leaves during the off season of December-Feburary. In past its cultivation was very common for fodder and fiber of stem bark for making ropes and beds, and wood for making axe-handles oars and banghy-poles. But now a day’s its cultivation is very much reduced and is going to be finished, so it is recommended to encourage the local people to recultivate this plant species for reducing the pressure of existing fodder species. It was also found that after the rainy season of Monson, during the month of Mid July-Mid September, the fodder species are abundant and commonly grow as wild throughout the area. Grasses and legumes are generally considered as the most widely used fodder group of angiosperms. However grasses of family Poaceae which were the major fodder species were very abundant during these months. Similarly, vegetative growth (Leaves & Young twigs) that is also utilized as fodder of trees and shrubs are at peak throughout the area in these months. The major fodder and forage species cultivated ______Studies on Floral Biodiversity of District Mianwali and Allied Areas with Emphasis on Ethnobotanical Uses 218

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for domesticated animals were Avena sativa (Joundra), Cichorium intybus (Kasni), Hordeum vulgare (Jao), Sorghum vulgare (Jowar), Pennisetum typhoideum (Bajra), Cyamopsis tetragonolaba (Goura), Trifolium repens (Shountal) and Medicago species (Leguminoseae) Zea mays (Makkai) etc. These species were cultivated in various seasons of the year throughout the area.

Grasses and legumes constitute the major portion of fodder species in the area. Among grasses (Poaceae) Desmostachya bipinnata, Cynodon dactylon, Imperata cylendrica, Dichanthium annulatum, Setaria glauca and others constitute the main portion for fodder species. The grasses can be used as fresh form and in dry farm for winter. Grasses also play a vital role in grazing legumes such as Medicago polymorpha and other species of Medicago, the species of Trifolium, Astregalus and many members of Papilionaceae are used as fodder, mostly in fresh form. Some tree species such as Morus spp. Melia azadarich, Zizyphus jujube, Grevia optiva and some shrubs such as Zizyphus numularia, Cassia opaque etc are also utilized as fodder species in the area.

Sassura hetromala is uses as a good nutritive fodder species for goats, cows and buffallows, it increases milk production. Sonchus asper is utilized as fodder and grazed by goats, donkeys and cows. Setlaria media is early spring plants in cultivated fileds and waste places. It is used as fodder for goats, cows and buffallows. Convolvulus arvensis is a weed in wheat fields and waste places. It is used as a common fodder for goats.

4.11 VEGETABLES AND POT HERBS OF THE AREA

A large portion of area is cultivated by various vegetables throughout the year. Because vegetables are grown on a large scale, an abundant yield is obtained. Most of the local farmers were related to the business of vegetables and their economy was mainly based on the business of these vegetables. Vegetables such as Solanum tuberosum (Alu), Allium sativum (Thoom), Coriandrum sativum (Dhania), Lycopersicon esculentum (Tumater). The taxa of the family Cucurbitaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Malvaceae and Crucifereae and widely cultivated as vegetables in the area of Mianwali. However Cucumis sativa (Kheera) were considered as Dollar vegetables, because according to the local. Farmers of the area, they earned more money from these vegetables in their

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respective season. From this money they fulfill their common day requirements and consumption of cultivation of other agricultural crops and vegetables. Production of agricultural products is much in this area but the main problems of the area is water logging and salinity. The Government provides many facilities to the farmers to increase the production. But it is very difficult for a farmer to get full advantage from these facilities. For instance, the Government gives loans for buying tractors, pesticides and seeds but the process is so complicated that it is difficult for a farmer to avail of it. Similarly the agricultural loans from different banks and cooperative societies are not in reach of the deserving persons. If Government makes this process easier and direct to the field, its efforts will be on the right way and the deserving people will make the most of them.

4.12 BEEKEEPING IS USEFUL INCENTIVE Beekeeping is very useful for high production of crops and it is small scale non- land based off-farm activity that can facilitate use of land resources without degrading them. Because crop pollination is the most important economic outcome of honeybee activities. Fruits, vegetables and other useful plants are mostly dependent on honeybee pollination. Honeybee are the most effective and easily provide pollinators for majority of these crops, fruits and vegetables (Muzaffar, 1998). The flora of Mianwali has a great potential for Honey beekeeping. The major sources of nectar and pollen yielding surplus are Acacia modesta (Phulai), Eriobotrya japonica (Lokat), Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Lachi), Olea ferruginea (Kao), Zea mays (Makkai), Zizyphus mauritiana (Beri), Brassica compestris (Sarsoon) and many species of the family Asteraceae, Laamiaceae and Leguminoseae. The species bloom for longer period providing nectar and pollen to honeybees. Mass planting of these tree species on the sites of roads and gardens is recommended to develop apiculture industry in the area. Local people are involved to keep the flora alive and encouraged to people to reduced the activity of deforestation of these species. Because beekeeping in this way act as useful for both conservation and commercial point of view which would ultimately increase the prosperity and economy of the area.

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4.13 USE OF FRUITS YIELDING SPECIES Fruits yielding species are mostly found to be as cultivated only on a small scale. It is observed that local people are not actively involved in the cultivation of fruit yielding species. They mostly preferred the fruits imported from the markets of Peshawar, Abbotabad and Islamabad. These imported fruits have high prices in the local markets of the area. The area has rich potential for the cultivation of fruit yielding species like Citrus sp., Prunus sp., Psidium guajava (Amrood) and Eriobotrya japonica (Loquat), Punica granata (Anar) and Morus species (Mulberries). However effects may be made for the conseration and domestication of wild fruits of the area such as Zizyphus nimularia, Z. jujube, Morus alba, wild Punica granata etc. These species are very abundantly found nearer areas of Kala Bagh and adjoining areas of Chakwal. Local people and farmers are encourage to cultivate these fruit yielding species on their agricultural lands with other crops to save their money from imported fruits.

4.14 CURRENT THINKING AND CONSERVATION STRATEGY OF BIODIVERSITY IN THE AREA

Conservation is about keeping plant and animal resources for future generation. Good management of environment cannot be achieved without local inhabitants support (Shinwari et al., 1996). Biodiversity conservation is a vital issue of nation for posterity. Effective strategy for in situ and ex situ conservation is essential for communities of an area. According to Allen Hamilton, conservationists believe that by the end of 2050 the one fifth of the world`s flora will either be extinct or severely genetically eroded, however in the areas of Mianwali and Pothar (Punjab province) and Khyber Pakhtonkhwa (KPK) Techomela undulata (Bignoniaceae) is vulnerable. This plant is distributed on marginal land of arid and semi arid zone and on foot hill areas. It is shrub or tree in stony, sandy or loam soil. Its bark is especially used to cure skin diseases and yellowish red flowers are used for the treatment of diabetes. It is a rare and vulnerable to endangered plant in district Mianwali. Its area may be urgently protected as in situ conservation strategy.

Justicia adhatoda, Achyranthes aspera, Calotropis procera, Helianthus annuus, Conchus asper and Capparis deciduas are used for respiratory diseases such as cough, bronchitis and asthma. Local people and Hakims (Herbalists) utilize Calotropis flower especially corona of the flowers are also used as an ingredient in many compound recipes.

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The flowers of Justicia adhatoda are used to make gulkand (flower petal + sugar are mixed in a glass container and placed in sun shine for one week to prepare gulkand). There is a well established local industry in an adjoining area of Kalar Kahar to prepare gulkand on large scale production. One spoon of gulkand is used in the morning and one spoon in the evening for respiratory diseases. Different parts of the same plant species were reported against jaundice, cough, asthma, dysentery, vomiting, nose bleeding, cold, fever and skin infections and to cure gastrointestinal disorders in cattle (Abbasi et al., 2010 & 2009; Hussain et al., 2008; Ahmad et al., 2007; Muthu et al., 2006; Sajem and Gosai, 2006; Haq and Hussain, 1993).

Jaundice is not a disease but rather a symptom that can occur in many different diseases. It is the yellowish staining of the skin and sclera (the whites of the eyes) which is caused by high levels in blood of the chemical bilirubin. The color of the skin and sclera vary depending on the level of bilirubin. When the bilirubin level is mildly elevated, they are yellowish. bilirubin level is high, they tend to be brown (Wahab et val., 2004). Jaundice is one of the major ailment in Mianwali and elsewhere in various areas of Pakistan. Local people of the area utilized Trianthema portulacastrum (mostly roots), Carthamus oxycantha (seeds), Cichorium intybus, Sasurea heteromala (roots), Chenopodium album, Asparagus adescendens, Abutilon indicum, Mirabilis jalapa, Solanum nigrum, Silybum marianum are used for the treatment of Jaundice in the area of Mianwali. Trianthema partulacastrum (itsit) is commonly and successfully used for liver complaints. Its roots are cut into small pieces and a garment is made. The patients wear the garland around his neck to cure jaundice. The mode of action is probably similar to the action of pheromones. Present applications of Cichorium intybus, Chenopodium album, Solanum nigrum were found in agreement to Abbasi et al., (2013, 2010 and 2009), Awan et al., (2011), Qureshi et al, (2009), Ahmad et al, (2007), Ali et al., (1998), Haq and Hussain (1995).

Cichorium intybus is a famous medicine used as a tonic for liver complaints. Its extract is sold on large scale in many herbal shops in Mianwali area and elsewhere in Pakistan. Same species were found effective against fever, vomiting, jaundice and diabetes (Abbasi et al., 2010; Haq and Hussain 1993). Chenopodium album is used as a neutraceutical in this area. It is used as a vegetable and also as a medicine for liver

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complaints. Present uses of C. album were found in agreement to (Abbasi et al., 2013, Awan et al., 2011). Diabetes is a common ailment all over the world. Certain herbs are available in Mianwali which are used for the treatment of diabetes. For instance Justicia adhatoda, Caralluma edulus, Taraxacum officinale, Momordica charantia, Aloe vera, Tinosporia cordifolia, Ficus bengalensis, Solanum nigrum, Withania coagulens, Fagonia indica are uses against diabetes. In case of Ficus bengalenesis, the bark, aerial roots and latex is used to strengthen the reproductive system in male. It is also used as an ingredient in many compound medicine used as tonic and also useful for the treatment of diabetes. Further pharmacological study is required to know the efficacy of the species used against diabetes. People of the area are well aware of the plant species used against kidney. Aerva javanica, Saussueia hetromalla, Bryophyllum pinnatum, Salvia officinalis, Ficus palmate, Anagallis arvensis, Zea mays, Rumex dentatus, Tribulus terrestris are used against kidney diseases in the Mianwali. For heart diseases Calendula arvensis, Aloe vera, Olea ferruginea, Solanum nigrum and Tribulus terrestris are used.

According to Abbasi et al., (2010), Sharma et al., (2005) and Shinwari and Khan (2000) Taraxacum officinale was found effective against diabetes, jaundice, snake bite and rheumatism. The famous/commonly used species such as Fagonia indica (for cancer) Rhyzia stricta (stomach problems), Justicia adhatoda (cough and asthma), Plectranthus rugosus (blood purification), Fumaria indica (blood purifier and spandexes) are precious species require conservation for future.

4.15 CONCLUSION

It is stated from the present project that the indigenous communities have a rich knowledge of native plant resources and with strong cultural relationship with ethnobotanically important plants. In this study in total of 448 species were found to be utilized for various purposes such as medicinal, ethnoveterinary, fuel wood, fodder, timber, NTFP, bee keeping, vegetables and fruits. However during the surveys it was found that most of the regions are under severe threats for biodiversity loss due to extensive deforestation, population pressure, habitat degradation agricultural extension and unscientific collection for trade. The study will provide knowledge for practical

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measures regarding the conservation of plant resources with indigenous knowledge for sustainable development for future generation.

4.16 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of the present study on the ethnobotanical exploration within the district Mianwali and surrounding areas the author suggests the following recommendations for sustainable utilization and development in future:

Usage: To obtain increasingly successful results when treating a person with an illness, the full potential and actions of each medicinal plant, together with the benefits gained by combining plants, needs to be known and understood. With the increase in knowledge of the uses of particular species, treatment will be more effective and numerous types of medical complaints could be addressed.

Collection: Time of collection and parts collected are vital to the effectiveness of herbal medicine. By gathering plants at the wrong time of year, the concentration of desired active constituents is depleted. Each plant part contains different chemical compounds, therefore the collection of the incorrect part for a specific illness will result in a less than optimal outcome for the patient.

Processing: Processing should facilitate principal constituents to be present in a preparation that can be stored. Sun drying results in a loss of the medicinally active volatiles oils that many plants contain.

Storage:

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Storage needs to be out of direct sunlight to prevent oxidation of an extract, which would reduce the effectiveness of that preparation. Any preparation should be stored in an airtight container and in a relatively cool environment.

Marketing: Awareness for the proper marketing of medicinal plants and other useful plants is critical. On an international and domestic level, it is essential to identify marketable species with their current value and demand.

Community Awareness: Education is vital. By educating people about the usage, collection, processing, storage and marketing of medicinal and other useful plants, they can begin to comprehend what an advantageous venture they could embark upon. By improving these steps, a superior quality plant with increased efficacy would be obtained, thus providing both economic and domestic health and other benefits. From an environmental aspect, awareness should be created amongst the community on the actual numbers of medicinal plant species growing in their area. This would decrease the risk of depleting the number of locally known medicinal plants, and would also expand their own family’s medicine cabinet whilst extending their range of marketable plants.

Medicinal Plants Nurseries: Implementation of projects for establishment of nurseries of medicinal plants and demonstration plots in the farmers’ fields for popularization.

Training Courses: Short training courses to the collectors, farmers and traders on proper identification, collection and cultivation of medicinal plants and to improve processing and post harvest treatment of crude drugs. Similarly introduced new research techniques for productivity enhancement of medicinal plants.

Conservation:

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Discussion Chapter 4

Conservation of medicinal and other useful plants should be given priority. In this regard local school teachers, farmers, collectors, traders and religious leaders must be taken into confidence. Plants on the public tract should be tagged or labelled by their names and important uses. This will not only teach the visitors but also create enthusiasm about their conservation.

Plant-based local Industries: People should be encouraged for developing local plant-based industries like Apiculture, Sericulture, gardening and handicraft making etc. Mass planting of trees species such as Acacia modesta (Phulai), Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Lachi), Eriobotrya japonica (Loquat) and Zizyphus jujuba (Bari) on the sites of roads, canals, around Agriculture fields and in gardens is recommended to develop apiculture industries.

Reforestation: Government should encourage local people and farmers to plant trees on their farm lands by providing seedlings. The seedlings should be prepared in Forest department or with the consultation of Forest Department. Fast growing trees species for timber and fuelwood purposes such as Acacia sp., Melia sp., Tamarix sp. and Morus sp. should be planted on lands, roadsides and in waste places. These will not only provide the fuelwood and timber wood but also enhance the scenic beauty of the area and density of the vegetation.

Wood Markets: Timber and fuelwood markets are centrally located in towns or city, so that people could purchase the required quantity of timber and fuelwood conveniently. This will also make it easy for those who desire to sell timber and fuelwood in the open markets. Vigilant watch and ward measures should be taken to discourage illicit cutting and smuggling of the vegetation of the area.

Ethnobotanical knowledge:

Ethnobotanical knowledge and information should be circulated locally for enhancing the interest amongst the community for the utility of indigenous plants.

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Discussion Chapter 4

Similarly transparency about the Ethnobotanical information gathered is needed. Value adding processes should be carefully handled, in particular utilization of local knowledge and biological resources should be fully compensated by an outside body which engage into the commercialization of product from the area. This will generate an interest amongst the local people about the indigenous plants and they will start caring about the conservation of these resources. In conclusion my feeling and perception is that all efforts become less successful unless we initiate cultivation and domestication of the plants in the area and maintain sustainable use of natural resources. Conservationists believe that by the 2050, it seems that one fifth of the flora of the world will either be extinct as severely genetically eroded.

Further Research: Further research should be carried out especially in the field of conservation and cultivation of the vegetation of area through in situ and ex situ conservation. To carry out phytochemical, pharmacological and Biotechnological work of such useful plants for wider circulation throughout the world.

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