Global governance models in history
Global Challenges Foundation 2017 Contents
Introduction 3 1. Early cosmopolitan ideas 4 2. Ideas about world government after two world wars 5 2.1 Draft of a World Constitution 5 2.2 Peace through law 7 2.3 A union of democracies 10 2.4 World federation 12 3. Global democracy 18 3.1 Democracy and world order 18 3.2 A global parliament outside of the UN 19 3.3 UN reform 22 References 22
2 Global governance models in history Introduction
n the 21st century mankind is facing a range of severe risks and challenges that call for effective global action. Politically motivated violence, weapons of mass destruction, climate change and other large scale environmental damage pose a threat to all people in all countries on earth, and exceed the capacity of any state to act effectively to Iprotect its own citizens. To manage these challenges, we need institutions that allow us to take and implement collective decisions on a global level, in a way that takes the interests of all into account. The current international system has unfortunately proved unable to cope with the most pressing global issues in an acceptable way. The Global Challenges Foundation wants to contribute to the amendment of this deficiency, and has therefore challenged participants from all over the world to formulate alternatives to the present state by designing new models of global governance for The Global Challenges Prize 2017: A New Shape. The idea that the world is one, that we are all part of a world community with shared interests and challenges, and a shared future, and that we therefore need a system of global decision making and governance, is not new. Throughout history, several writers have designed and proposed models of global governance. Some of them have been ambitious ideas about joining all of humankind under one single rule, and some have been more modest reform proposals intended to preserve but improve the existing system. Some were formulated in the aftermath of bloody wars that made the need for better world governance obvious. This short paper presents only a small sample of these ideas. Hopefully, some of them could serve as inspiration for readers who want to continue the endeavor to find new solutions to an issue that is old, but more urgent than ever.
Global governance models in history 3 1. Early cosmopolitan ideas
In the Western history of ideas, one permanent peace council consisting of the first to express an explicitly of ambassadors from all countries. cosmopolitan view of the world was This council would settle all conflicts the Greek cynic philosopher Diogenes between its members, and all (412 BC–332 BC). When asked where members would be obliged to obey he was from, Diogenes is said to have its decisions. The council would have answered1: at its disposal an international police force and have the mandate to use ”I am a citizen of the world.” force in order to enforce its decisions.
In the 14th century, Dante Alighieri A great source of inspiration for (1265–1321), the author of Divina many of today’s cosmopolitan Comedia and Inferno, argued for a thinkers is Immanuel Kant’s Zum world government as a protection ewigen Frieden4 from 1795. Kant does against war. In De Monarchia he not advocate world government, but wrote2: a confederation of free states under common law. A central idea for Kant ”World government must be is, that lasting peace can only be understood in the sense that it achieved if all states are well ordered, governs mankind on the basis of respect international laws and abstain what all have in common and that from aggression and interference in by a common law it leads all toward the governance of other states. peace.” The idea of a world government was rejected by Kant, for two reasons. An early attempt to construct an First, because he considered it elaborate model of supranational unrealistic. Second, because he organization is the French writer thought that there was a substantial Émeric Crucé’s Le Nouveau Cynée3, risk that a world government could published in 1623. Crucés proposed a develop into a global tyrant.
World government must be understood in the sense that it governs mankind on the basis of what all have in common and that by a common law it leads all toward peace.
4 Global governance models in history 2. Ideas about world government after two world wars
Experiences from two very bloody of atomic weapons would hopefully world wars in the first half of the 20th be frightening enough to make century led to a boom for the idea of humanity create such a world order. world government. After the use of After the radio programme, some of atomic bombs against the Japanese the University’s researchers contacted cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Hutchins and suggested he should many influential politicians as well initiate a working group to draw up as prominent intellectuals began to a draft for what such a new world think of a world federation as the only order might look like. Hutchins was protection against a new war that positive to the idea and appointed a might destroy the world completely. group, called the Committee to Frame Respected scientists, such as a World Constitution, with eleven Albert Einstein, argued that world prominent researchers as delegates, government was a necessity in the led by himself and the professor in light of the new weapons of mass literature, Giuseppe Antonio Borgese, destruction. Einstein advocated world as head secretary. government based on a constitution, The result was a draft of a approved by all states, with monopoly constitution for a proposed world on armed force and mandate to solve federation, Preliminary draft of a conflicts between states. The role world constitution6, published in 1948. of existing states would thereby be The draft presents the organisation of reduced to regulating internal affairs a federal world republic tasked with with no implications for international maintaining peace, guaranteeing security5. human rights and instituting and enforcing world law. 2.1 DRAFT OF A WORLD In the introduction, Borgese says CONSTITUTION that the working group was initially An ambitious attempt to construct split in its view on the extent of the a constitution for a future world state mandate a federal world republic was made by a group of researchers at ought to have. There were two the University of Chicago soon after main approaches in the group: the the Second World War. minimalists who believed that the The University of Chicago had world government’s powers should be played a key role in the research limited to measures that were directly that led to the first atom bombs, necessary to prevent war, and the and the week after the bombing maximalists who wanted to include of Hiroshima in August 1945, the economic justice, prohibition of racial president of the university, Robert discrimination and colonialism, M. Hutchins, was invited to a radio etc. in the world government’s debate on the consequences of the assignment. new weapon. On the show, Hutchins The maximalists won and when predicted that the end of humanity the final text was written, all was imminent unless future wars the members of the group were could be prevented by forming a convinced maximalists. The final world organisation with a monopoly proposal recommended a common on nuclear weapons. On the issue of currency, common fiscal and whether such an organisation was financial policies and a federal completely unrealistic, he said that capital. the realisation of the terrible power
Global governance models in history 5 Limiting powers million inhabitants (rounded up). The constitutional proposal starts Countries with more than one with a declaration of human rights hundred thousand but fewer than and responsibilities, which includes one million inhabitants choose classic negative freedoms such as one delegate each, while countries freedom of assembly and thought, with fewer than one hundred and prohibition of torture and thousand inhabitants belong to the slavery, as well as the right to avoid same election constituency as a poverty and the right to education. neighbouring country. The Popular Then follows a list of the powers Assembly meets for 30 days in May that a world authority ought to have, every three years. The delegates including: vote individually, not based on • maintaining peace national borders. • instituting laws that are binding for • A World Council, which is the everyone and that can be applied legislative assembly, with 99 to societies as well as directly to delegates elected for three years individuals by the Federal Popular Assembly, • mediating and judging conflicts similarly to the president. • monitoring, and the final right of • A president who is elected for six decision on, border changes, new years by a two-thirds majority states, etc. in the Popular Assembly, after • intervention in violent conflicts candidates have been appointed • access to federal armed forces and by the member countries, divided federal police forces into nine electoral groups based • power of taxation on cultural affinity, so that there • administration of certain are candidates from all cultural territories regions. • the right to set up the authorities • A Cabinet appointed by the needed to develop and administer president. the world’s resources • A number of special bodies under • control of a world bank that issues the World Council with the task money of representing different special • regulating international trade interests and handling special • regulating transport issues. Within these bodies, • regulating and monitoring which are appointed by the World migration Council, there is a chamber All powers that are not expressly with representation from all delegated to the federal government states and nationalities, which in the constitution remain in the should protect the autonomy hands of national governments. of states and minorities. There is also a chamber representing Decision-making structure different trade unions and labour In the constitutional proposal, groups, an institute for science the federal power is organisationally and education, and a special divided between: planning committee with 21 • A Federal Convention, elected representatives, appointed by the every three years directly by president. The Council, whose the people in all states. Each responsibilities include the country elects one delegate per budget, has veto right.
6 Global governance models in history Judicial system thereby becomes the chairperson World law is upheld by a system of of several of the most powerful courts headed by a supreme court executive bodies, and the chief judge and the Grand Tribunal. The Grand of the body with final control over Tribunal is the highest judiciary body, these bodies so that they not abuse with 60 delegates and the president their powers. as chief judge and chairperson. The The Popular Tribunal is appointed Grand Tribunal has five divisions, by voting in the Federal Convention, responsible for different issues. The but the candidate given the job is not divisions appoint a supreme court the one with most votes but the one with seven members who lead and with the second highest number of monitor the work of the Tribunal, votes. The idea behind this rather odd allocate cases to the different principle is explained in an afterword: divisions and have the power to revise the Popular Tribunal should or quash the divisions’ judgements. primarily represent the interests of the minorities, not the majorities, Armed forces and the random element of the voting According to the proposal, the makes it difficult for the majority to World Federation should have access control the results. This particular to its own military forces, which point, however, was one on which the should be under the control of the committee was not unanimous. Chamber of Guardians, with six members appointed by the World Capital, language and currency Council from its own delegates, The world republic should also set headed by the president. In addition, up a capital city, like the American it includes a former president with capital, located in a special federal a right of free speech but no right to district that is not controlled by vote. As well as being responsible any individual member state. for its own forces, the Chamber of Furthermore, the republic should Guardians should decide on the have a common official language and upper limit for every member state’s currency. armed forces, both in terms of numbers and technical ability. 2.2 PEACE THROUGH LAW Hans Kelsen (1881–1973) was a jurist The Popular Tribunal and eminent legal theorist. He was A special position called the originally from Austria but from the Popular Tribunal is instituted start of the Second World War he with the task of monitoring and worked in the USA at the universities defending individuals’ and groups’ of Harvard and Berkeley. Kelsen’s rights against injustice by the world legal positivist view has greatly government and to monitor that all influenced the modern view of what decisions are made in accordance law is and how the legal system with the constitution. In practice, works. In his book, Peace through the Popular Tribunal serves as a kind law7, Kelsen reflects on international of ombudsman and has the power law. The book was written in 1944, to transfer any suspected violations against the background of the Second to the Grand Tribunal. The Tribunal World War and the experiences of has the final decision in these cases. failure to maintain peace through It can be noted that the president the League of Nations. The question
Global governance models in history 7 in the book is how strengthening legislative assembly, or to the drawing international law could prevent a up of a global executive body with new world war. During this time, centralised means of power that work was underway to create what are sufficient to implement global was to become the United Nations, so decisions, is probably greater than the book could possibly be seen as a their resistance to the setting up of a contribution to the ongoing political legal body with the task of applying debate at the time. existing international law. Kelsen Kelsen pleads for, among other points to historic examples showing things, the principle of individual that in international bodies in which responsibility for war crimes, and political decisions should be made, puts forward a proposal for charters the states, not least the most powerful for a permanent world organisation ones, have been unwilling to give up with mandatory handover of all their national veto right in favour of disputes between member countries majority decisions – which has made to an international court. these bodies less effective. Kelsen has a fundamental idea In the permanent international that separates him from all the other courts set up in 1902 and 1923, proposals studied within the frame majority decisions by the court’s of this report, namely that it is not members have led the way. According legislative power or executive power to Kelsen, the biggest problem with that is at the centre of a global legal these courts was, that referring order but a court with mandatory international disputes to them was jurisdiction over all states. According not mandatory. to Kelsen, the international court On the question of which law the should therefore form the core of a international court should apply new world organisation, and even when there is no international though his proposals for charters also legislature, Kelsen argues partly that contain a general assembly, council, valid international law already exists, secretariat and secretary-general, which the court can apply, and partly like the United Nations, which was that it is the court’s duty not just to finally formed, the role of these interpret existing laws to the letter institutions is strongly toned down but also to develop international in comparison. It is the court, not the law. New laws are formed through assembly or council, that forms the precedential judgements. That core, and it is there that the important is, according to Kelsen, how decisions are made. According to international law has always worked, Kelsen, the key to peace is to handle and how national legislation has long all conflicts between states as legal worked in many countries. matters. Kelsen also downplays the Kelsen’s arguments are based partly importance of having a centralised on a political analysis of what the body to implement decisions. main obstacles to a global legal order This can be left to the member are and partly on a legal theoretical states by making it mandatory for analysis of what is required to every member state to take part in institute working international law. implementing the court’s decisions. Kelsen believes that the nation A country that does not meet states’ resistance to waiving this obligation can be put on trial their legislative power to a global and suffer sanctions. Given that
8 Global governance models in history a sufficient number of countries nominate suitable persons. Each expect that a sufficient number of institution nominates one person other countries will comply with the from its own country and one from court’s decisions – and be prepared another country. Those nominated to implement them – it is rational by institutions in other countries for each country to comply with than their own are put on one list the decisions and agree to their and those nominated by their own implementation. country on another. Based on the Other central elements of Kelsen’s number of nominations, nine persons proposal are a prohibition against are appointed from the first list, while member countries waging war against the General Assembly chooses eight other member countries regardless of persons from the second list. New reason, and permanent membership lists are drawn up every four years, with no possibility of exit. and if any judge leaves or retires, a When it comes to the General new delegate is appointed from the Assembly, the mandate and tasks list from which the departing judge of which are fairly unclear, the was chosen. member countries each appoint a According to the proposal, the representative, and decisions are Council should have delegates from made according to the majority four permanent members – the USA, principle with one vote for each the Soviet Union, China and Great member. It is the job of the General Britain – and a further unspecified Assembly to appoint the delegates of number of delegates elected by the the council and decide on changes General Assembly. The mandate to the charter with a three-quarter period is not specified. majority, but it otherwise appears Kelsen is basically positive to a to have a mainly advisory role. The more far-reaching global political proposed charter establishes that the organisation, and he does not rule General Assembly may express its out a world state in the distant view on anything, through majority future. However, he believes that it decisions, but that binding decisions is completely unrealistic to set one may not be made about anything that up in the short term. He sees a global is not in the charter. legal order based on an international The court, with 17 judges, does court as a realistic solution and a way make decisions that are binding forward towards a possible future for members. In order to guarantee world state. that the judges are impartial and Kelsen’s proposal puts the law do not work for any country, they first, which means that the proposal are appointed for life – or rather circumvents quite a few problems until they retire, normally assumed that other proposals struggle to happen at the age of 70. They with, such as representativity and renounce their citizenship and are rules on decision-making in a given a special diplomatic passport legislative assembly, how sufficient for the time they serve in the court. power resources can be built up They are not allowed to have any without threatening the countries’ form of commercial interests. independence and without the risk of The judges are appointed through being abused, and so on. At the same a process in which courts and legal time, the proposal is strongly targeted institutions in all member countries at peace and conflict resolution,
Global governance models in history 9 and it is doubtful whether there is world catastrophe. United in a a strictly legal solution to global political union, he meant that these environmental problems. countries could amass such an enormous economic, political and 2.3 A UNION OF DEMOCRACIES military might that they simply Clarence K Streit (1896–1986) was would deter any potential aggressor, an American journalist, working including Hitler and Mussolini. as a foreign correspondent for the The book was written with focus New York Times. During the 1930’s, on the then urgent threat of an Streit covered the League of Nations imminent world war. Once the war in Geneva, and thus got an up-close had started, Streit argued on behalf of view of the world’s complacency a union between the UK and the USA, in the face of Germany’s, Italy’s and after the war a new edition of the and Japan’s military build-up, and book was published, with the same the League’s inability to prevent arguments for a union between the aggression and preserve the peace. world’s democracies, but based on the Streit came to the conclusion that new political situation. the problem was the design of the Shortly after the publication League of Nations. Instead of an of Union Now Streit founded association of sovereign states, without an organisation called Federal any power to make and implement Union, which is still active under binding joint decisions, a stronger the name The Streit Council for political union was needed – a federal a Union of Democracies. He was democratic world government – with also a co-founder of the Atlantic both binding common legislation and Union Committee, working towards military might. transforming NATO into a political A great source of inspiration for union. Streit was the transformation of the A central theme in the book is fairly weak American Confederation, the difference between a league of founded by thirteen sovereign states independent states and a union. Streit after the Declaration of Independence puts a lot of effort into explaining why in 1776, into a federal union of a league cannot preserve world peace, states with common laws and a and why the formation of a union much stronger central government, between the world’s democratic states through the adoption of the American solves this problem immediately, and Constitution in 1789. also a number of other large human The book Union Now8 was problems. published in 1939, on the brink of According to Streit, a league is an World War II. In the book, Streit organisation of governments, by advocates for a political union governments and for governments. consisting of the world’s, at that Its members are states, it is the time, fifteen stable democracies: states that are represented in the the USA, the UK, Canada, Australia, decision-making body, whose laws New Zealand, South Africa, France, are applied at the state level and not Ireland, Belgium, the Netherlands, at the individual level. Individuals Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, are citizens of separate sovereign Sweden and Finland. states and the league’s decisions and According to Streit, such a union laws must be converted to national was the only way to avoid impending legislation in order to apply to them.
10 Global governance models in history A union is an organisation of including all states, democracies individuals, by individuals and for as well as dictatorships, by default individuals. Individuals are citizens of would be weaker and less cohesive, both the union and the member state and that it was more important that where they reside. The union alone the organisation had enough power has the right to decide on citizenship. and stability than that all countries The decision-making body represents are members. He describes how the citizens, not the member states, he was previously in favour of an and the laws are applied directly association, if yet stronger than to the citizens, without the detour the League of Nations, because via the member states’ legislation. he assumed that the whole world The ultimate purpose of a federal would be organized at the same democratic world government was, time. It was only when he realized for Streit, to protect the individual’s that the problem could be limited freedom and interests, while the by organizing a fewer number of purpose of a league, like the League of democracies, that the union solution Nations, was to protect the sovereignty seemed possible. of the states. In the long run Streit envisioned It is central for Streit that the union’s that the union would be expanded common legislation applies directly to include more members – simply to its individual citizens. He had because of membership appearing witnessed, for instance, during Italy’s attractive – in order to eventually, invasion of Ethiopia in violation of the at a pace that best served human League of Nations’ laws, how toothless freedom, develop into a universal sanctions against states could be. The world government. The fifteen union must therefore have its own founding nations would constitute independent legal system which can the core, but the union must be open enforce common laws without the to membership for all democracies, approval of states. guarantee their citizens the rights This does not prevent the states stated in the union’s joint declaration from having their own laws and of rights. legal systems for issues that are The World’s United Democracies, as outside of the union’s authority. The Streit calls this union, would be built model comes from the USA, with a around five common concerns: separation between state laws and state legal systems, and federal law 1. citizenship and the federal legal system. In the 2. defence same manner, the union would be 3. currency entitled to tax individual citizens 4. trade directly, and not depend on the 5. communication member states for its tax revenue. Unlike many other world An appendix contains a proposed federalists, both before and after text for a constitution, heavily him, Streit did not advocate for influenced by the American a union that included all of the Constitution. But Streit emphasizes world’s nations. The membership that this draft is not intended as a should instead be limited to stable fixed and final plan, but only as a democracies. One reason for this was possible model. that he believed that an organisation The union would be based on
Global governance models in history 11 a written constitution and the defence council, consisting of the legislative body – the Congress – officers who currently have command would be divided into two chambers. over the democracies’ armed forces. One chamber – the House of Deputies The member states would be – would be completely proportional allowed to have their own police and to the population in the member militia, but not to go to war on their states. The other – the Senate – own, except in emergency situations. would not follow the proportionality principle, but afford states with fewer 2.4 WORLD FEDERATION inhabitants a larger influence than Grenville Clark was an influential motivated by population. American lawyer who worked as Concerning executive power, an adviser to president Franklin Streit proposes an executive Board D. Roosevelt during the 1930’s. In consisting of five people, three of 1958, Clark, together with fellow which are directly elected by the lawyer and Harvard Professor Louis people, and the two legislative B. Sohn, published the book World chambers appoints one each. The peace through world law9, which purpose of this is on the one hand to contains a detailed proposal of a emphasize that the power emanates constitution for a hypothetical world from the people, and also to divide the federation. Sohn arrived in the power, which would reduce the risk USA from Poland in 1939, and was a that any one individual gets too much leading expert in international law power. The Board’s members are who worked for the UN. elected for a five year term, according The proposal is based on the to a schedule where one member fundamental idea that real and lasting is replaced each year. The council peace requires complete disarmament members would take turns as the of all national military forces as well union’s president, one year at a time. as a system of binding international The Board then appoints a Premier laws backed up by an effective legal who performs the daily executive system with international courts and governance, with the aid of a cabinet international police. that he or she appoints themselves. This world law must have a The union would also have a constitutional basis that clearly limits common federal legal system, with the mandate of the world authority a Supreme Court, and a common and is applied to all states as well as defence. Streit makes a big deal of all individuals in the world. the financial savings this would In addition to disarmament and entail. Overall the union should be international rule of law, Clark and able to disarm, once its member Sohn believe effective measures states’ military forces are joined, and are required to reduce the world’s yet retain total military superiority economic divides, as these lead to against any potential aggressor. destabilisation and conflicts. The union would simply assume The book uses as its starting point all the military resources, including the (then) existing UN charter and fortifications, harbours, military sites shows how it could be revised in order and buildings that the member states to create an effective international possess at the time of the union’s authority. The reformed world founding, and the command of the organisation also retains the name defence would be transferred to a high United Nations.
12 Global governance models in history In the introduction to the book, body, with delegates appointed in Clark stresses that this is only one general elections in the different possible approach and that there are member countries in proportion to practical advantages to starting with their populations. According to the a basis in existing institutions. But he authors, the transition to popularly doesn’t oppose the idea of starting a elected delegates must however completely new organisation if, for be gradual. In the first stage, they whatever reason, it would prove to be would be appointed to the General a better solution. The result is more Assembly by the states’ governments important than the method by which or parliaments. In the second stage, at it is achieved. least half of the delegates from every The aim of the proposal was to country would be appointed through make the road to real peace easier general elections, and not until the with the help of a tangible and process had reached the third stage detailed proposal for an organisation would all delegates be appointed that could be decided on and through elections. Clark and Sohn discussed around the world. envision a total transition period of 24 years before the general elections Membership and consent would be fully implemented. Clark and Sohn emphasise that Decisions in the General Assembly world law must apply to all states are normally made with a simple and individuals. Thereby, all, or majority, and the assembly is a almost all, countries must choose quorum when a majority of the to become members of the new members are present. For particularly world organisation. A few countries important issues, special voting rules choosing to remain outside could are stipulated: for some issues, a perhaps be acceptable, but these majority of all delegates is required countries would still need to be (i.e. not just those in attendance), and bound by the law and decisions made for others a majority of three-quarters by the world organisation. of all delegates and a majority of at Furthermore, they establish that least two-thirds of the delegates from membership must be voluntary, at the twelve biggest countries. least initially. Consent would thus be The seats in the General Assembly required by practically all countries would be allocated according to – five-sixths of all states, including the size of the countries, but not at least five-sixths of the world’s strictly proportionally. The four population and all twelve of the biggest nations are envisioned countries with the largest populations to have 30 representatives each, – for the new world organisation to while the three smallest would have be realised. Once a country becomes one representative each and the a member it would not be allowed to remaining 92 independent nations, leave or be excluded. at the time the book was written, between 2 and 15. The total number of The General Assembly representatives would be 551. According to the proposal, In a comment, Clark and Sohn write an important change to the UN that they grappled with the problem charter would be to reform the of representation for several years, General Assembly into a supreme examining different models, and decision-making and legislative finally decided that this model was
Global governance models in history 13 a reasonable compromise between dismissed by the General Assembly. consideration for the different sizes Unlike many national systems in of countries and their positions as which the parliament appoints a independent states. The authors prime minister who then appoints prefer a system with only one his or her government, every member chamber, as they feel that decision- of the Executive Council would be making in such a system is easier appointed by the General Assembly. and more efficient than with a two chamber system, and they reject Secretariat different kinds of double voting Like the current UN, Clark and Sohn procedures – which require a majority believe that a Secretary General, of both delegates and countries. appointed by the General Assembly, Other factors, such as economic is needed as well as a secretariat that resources and level of education, can support the decision-making were considered as a basis for bodies and implement decisions in mandate allocation but were practice. The Secretary General is the rejected, according to the authors, world organisation’s highest official. on the grounds that they created unnecessary complications without Courts contributing to making the system One international supreme fairer. court, formed by reorganising and strengthening the powers of the The Executive Council current International Court of Justice, The current Security Council would be responsible for applying would be abolished and replaced the binding laws legislated by the by an Executive Council with 17 General Assembly. The court would members appointed by the General have 15 members, appointed for Assembly. The members would be life. Under the International Court, appointed based on a system that a system of between 20 and 40 would guarantee a certain allocation regional courts would be instituted of members between the states: the that would sentence people violating four biggest states would always have international laws. The judges of these one representative each, and the next courts would be appointed by the eight would share four mandates in Executive Council, and their verdicts turn, of which two would always be could be appealed against in the from Europe and two from countries International Court, which would then outside Europe. have the function of a supreme court. According to the proposal, the Clark and Sohn also propose a Executive Council would also have kind of complementary court, a special voting rules, including a World Mediation Court, whose task requirement of at least 12 out of would be to mediate and resolve 17 votes on particularly important disputes of political rather than legal issues, and these 12 votes must also nature. They propose that the World include a certain number of the Mediation Court also consists of 15 representatives from the largest members appointed for life by the countries. General Assembly. The Executive Council would The decisions of the World function as a kind of government. It Mediation Court would generally would be accountable to and could be be advisory, unlike those of the
14 Global governance models in history International Court. Only if the police should be led by a staff of five, General Assembly voted on a decision appointed by the Executive Council, with a three-quarter majority would and recruited from small nations. the verdict of the World Mediation Court become binding. Other authorities In addition, Clark and Sohn As well as legislative, executive proposed instituting a lower-level and judicial bodies, a world police World Mediation Bureau, which could force and a permanent secretariat assist states in solving simple disputes. led by the Secretary General, Clark and Sohn envision the reformed and Armed world police strengthened UN having a number of To implement the world authority’s specialist bodies for different subject decisions and guarantee the security fields: of all member states in the absence • An Economic and Social Council of national defence, Clark and Sohn with the task of investigating and propose setting up a relatively presenting proposals for measures powerful and well-armed world that could promote economic and police force. This force would consist social development. The council of between 200,000 and 600,000 would have 24 members, elected by professional soldiers – the exact the General Assembly from among number would be determined by the the General Assembly’s members. General Assembly. Of these members, 12 should To counteract dominance by strong come from the 12 countries with states, the proposal stipulates that the the highest GNP. The countries force mainly be recruited from small themselves would not appoint nations, and with no nation having their representatives: the General more than three per cent of the total Assembly would. number of troops. • The World Development Authority, In addition, there would be a under the leadership of the World reserve force of between 600,000 and Development Commission, 1,200,000 troops, recruited according appointed and controlled by the to the same principles as the regular Economic and Social Council. force. The main task of the authority The world police would have access would be to combat poverty and to the most modern weaponry, but provide help with economic and no weapons of mass destruction. social conditions that threaten There would be a complete ban on peace. Clark and Sohn envision chemical and biological weapons. that a considerable share of the Nuclear weapons held in reserve UN’s budget would be used for this would be placed under the control purpose. of a special authority and would not • An Administrative Council with be part of the world police’s arsenal. the task of administering former Nuclear weapons would only be used colonies and other non-independent after a special decision in the General areas, with the aim of promoting Assembly, on the prerequisite that economic and social progress, and another state had used or threatened developing political institutions. to use nuclear weapons that they had • An inspection body to monitor the produced in secret or hidden away. carrying out of total disarmament According to the proposal, the world in all states. Like the world police,
Global governance models in history 15 Clark and Sohn envision this body for every country by the Executive being led by a staff of five persons, Council. which must all come from small Clark and Sohn provide a detailed states. plan on how such disarmament could • A nuclear authority with the task work. The idea is that it must be done of controlling elements that can be gradually and at the same pace in all used to produce nuclear weapons, countries. There must also be reliable promote peaceful use of nuclear control mechanisms and it should power, and store and control the be done in parallel with building up nuclear weapons that the UN a common global military capacity chooses to keep, and, if there is that could take over responsibility for a need, to produce new ones, security in a credible way from the and at the request of the General national governments. Otherwise, Assembly to equip the UN’s the authors reason, no country would military forces with these weapons. dare to disarm. • A space agency The disarmament plan covers • A number of the specialist bodies twelve years, of which the first two that already exist in the UN, such constitute a preparation phase as UNESCO, FAO, etc. and other when the required new institutions such bodies that the General in the UN are built up, including a Assembly considered necessary to special inspection body to monitor carry out its assignment. that the countries comply with their undertakings of actual disarmament. Taxation During these preparatory years, an To finance thisrevised and inventory would also be made of the strengthened UN activity, the General levels of the countries’ armaments Assembly would be given the right as a basis for determining the pace of to decide on the budget and taxes disarmament in each country. and, in cooperation with the member During the ten-year actual nations, collect the taxes decided on. disarmament phase, every country The budget may not exceed two per should reduce its military force by ten cent of the world’s total GNP. per cent per year (it is assumed that Taxes should be collected from the authors mean ten per cent of the the member states’ people based original force) proportionally across all on ability to pay. There would be weapon branches. Every country must a special UN tax office in every draw up detailed annual disarmament country, and member states would be plans for approval by the UN’s instructed to cooperate with this to inspection body, which would then collect taxes from their inhabitants. monitor that the plans were adhered to. The cost of administration would be If any country did not comply borne by the member states. with the disarmament plan, the inspection body would report this to Disarmament the Executive Council, which would One of the fundamentals of the decide on sanctions. proposal is general and complete The inspection body should disarmament of all national military have access to all facilities and the forces. Only pure police forces could right to make use of all means of remain under national control to the communication necessary to carry extent and with the arms decided on out its assignment.
16 Global governance models in history Limitation of powers In the Declaration of Human The revised UN in Clark and Sohn’s Rights, the first article establishes proposal has considerably greater that all nations reserve all powers powers and power resources at its not expressly delegated to the UN in disposal than the current UN. The the Constitution, and in its second authors are careful to point out that article that the UN may not make the world organisation’s powers any decisions that restrict individual must be clearly limited to such areas freedoms such as freedom of religion, that are absolutely necessary to opinion, the press, etc. preserve peace. Other areas must The constitutional guarantees are remain under the states’ control, fairly general. According to Clark and this must be guaranteed by the and Sohn, the International Court constitution – otherwise, they argue, of Justice has an important role no state would accept the transfer of in defining and interpreting them power that the proposal entails. by judging disputes and thereby In the same way, individuals must establishing the boundaries of the be protected against any abuse UN’s mandate, in roughly the same of power. The creation of a world ways as the American Supreme Court organisation with huge power on whether laws are consistent with resources at its disposal is a risk, the Constitution. and constitutional limitations are The fact that all powers are limited therefore required to reduce the risk in the Constitution does not mean of any abuse of power. that they are cast in stone forever An essential element of this but that there is an inbuilt slowness proposal is therefore a catalogue of in them, as decisions on changes human rights that establishes which to the charter requires a two-thirds individual rights may not be breached majority in the General Assembly and which issues remain the states’ and ratification by four-fifths of all own affairs in which the UN is not member states, of which eight must permitted to become involved. be from the twelve biggest nations.
Global governance models in history 17 3. Global democracy The modern academic discourse the nation states and democracy has on global democracy involves a become weaker and that the strong number of prominent writers who links between cosmopolitanism have contributed with interesting and democracy have become perspectives and ideas. These increasingly clear. In a world in which include, among others, David Held, the individual’s autonomy is at the Gillian Brock, Daniele Archibugi, Luis centre, it is natural to demand the Cabrera, Thomas Pogge, Torbjörn same autonomy for everyone in the Tännsjö, Richard Falk and Andrew same political order. According to Strauss. Held, the democratic ideals of the future will therefore be cosmopolitan. 3.1 DEMOCRACY AND WORLD Globalisation is contributing to this ORDER development. David Held (b. 1951) is a professor of According to Held the states have politics and international relations not played out their role, but they at Durham University, Great Britain. need to be complemented with a In his book Democracy and the global world order. Sovereignty will Global Order10, Held argues that need to be shared between the local, cosmopolitan democracy must regional, national and global levels. become the superior organisation There are many common interests form in the world, and he presents here, according to Held, not least a few principles that he believes are in the area of the economy. The central, including: free market needs to be regulated • equal value of everyone for the democratic ideals with free • active representation individuals to be maintained and • personal responsibility and developed. accountability Held believes the road to • consensus cosmopolitan democracy goes via • common decision-making on global institutions that already exist. matters of common interest These must have sufficient mandate through voting to be able to handle global matters. • involvement and subsidiarity (i.e. Cosmopolitan democracy must decisions being made as close to permeate legislation at the national those affected as possible) and regional level. In addition, • avoiding serious damage regional organisations, like the EU, • sustainability must be developed to take regional responsibility for the application and All these principles are closely implementation of global laws. related and, according to Held, But this is not enough, according to mutually dependent on each other. Held. Some form of global democratic They are aimed at making the forum must also be created. This individual the starting point of the could have its place within the UN, future global legal order. as a second chamber, or outside of In the book, Held conducts a the UN. In the beginning, it would comprehensive review of the growth be made up of democratic states, of modern democracy. He describes and grow as other states become the growth of democracy in parallel democracies. with the growth of sovereign states. In the longer term, Held can Held’s review also covers our time, in see a clear but gradual expansion which he feels that the link between of democracy to the global level,
18 Global governance models in history towards a completely autonomous global meetings where the delegates global decision making structure with are not elected. During these responsibility for coercive measures, meetings a campaign is developed to administration of justice and gain support for a world parliament. economic control instruments. The meetings will also designate an election commission, tasked 3.2 A GLOBAL PARLIAMENT with outlining electoral districts OUTSIDE OF THE UN and prepare guidelines for the first George Monbiot is a British writer election. These guidelines will then and political activist, active in the be sent for referral around the world. environmental movement and the Monbiot is careful to specify global justice movement. He has that this phase can’t be considered written a number of books about the democratic, and that decisions threat of climate change and global made during this phase must be distribution of power and resources. subject to repeal or change once a In The Age of Consent11 however, democratically elected parliament he criticizes the elements in the is in place. He further suggests a global justice movement advocating referendum regarding the parliament for Marxism or anarchism as an directly after the first election, to alternative to the present system, ensure that it is supported by a and commits himself to democratic majority of the world’s population. governance. Monbiot briefly discusses different Monbiot argues for the need for a proposals regarding representation democratic decision-making process and voting rules, but rejects most on a global level. In the introduction of them as too complicated. He of the book he writes that everything advocates for the simplest form – one else has been globalized: vote per adult human being in the “Democracy is the only thing world. The parliament is intended relegated to the national level!” to consist of 600 delegates, who are He specifically suggests four things: elected according to majority rule in single member constituencies, 1. a democratically elected world that is in accordance with the British parliament electoral system. 2. a democratised UN General The world parliament will not – at Assembly least at the initial stage – have any 3. an international clearing union real power, according to Monbiot. Its that automatically compensates influence is completely based on the trade deficits and prevents moral authority that is derived by indebtedness being considered the only legitimate 4. an international organisation for representative of the world’s citizens. fair trade This moral authority will make it difficult for powerful international With regards to the first proposal, institutions, such as the World Bank, a democratic world parliament, to disregard its recommendations. Monbiot envisions that this must be Monbiot estimates the cost established outside of the auspices of of holding a global election to the UN, by the citizens of the world approximately 5 billion USD and themselves, without the help or the operating cost to about 300 approval of any nation. The process million USD. He discusses the is initiated through a series of open problem of financing this, which is
Global governance models in history 19 complicated by the ineligibility of proposal seriously advocates for, or states, corporations or international even takes a position on. institutions – with the possible Monbiot also discusses the exception of some benevolent UN risk of corruption and that the agency – to act as financiers. He does parliamentary delegates are not provide any suggestions on how controlled by other interests than to accomplish this. those of the voters. He includes the Another problem that he discusses risk that individual delegates are is how to hold elections in states, controlled by the party line when especially in dictatorships, that they make decisions on proposals are opposed to a world parliament. in the parliament. He points to the He argues that there are various lobbying activity that is financed by possibilities, such as covert elections, financially strong interest groups or having citizens who have fled in national parliaments, as in the their country vote on behalf of their EU parliament, and argues that this constituencies. This, he argues, usurps democracy, but is impossible will also function as a tool for to completely outlaw without democratizing these countries. interfering with legitimate influences Monbiot is of the opinion that from the voters. He suggests a democracy demands that we don’t number of measures, such as strict pre-determine the duties and anti-corruption regulation, and that functions of the world parliament, or the International Criminal Court, impose any limits on its evolution. ICC, is appointed to prosecute these The only acceptable democratic way cases (it is unclear who would enact is to let the parliament determine its these laws and commission the ICC own evolution. Maybe it will remain with this responsibility, considering an assembly with advisory functions, the parliament lacks legislative or maybe it will choose to eventually, authority), but he further argues that when it is politically feasible, develop protection against abuse of power into a real legislative authority. rests foremost on transparency and Maybe it will choose to establish a independent review by media and democratic world government. We democracy movements. must, according to Monbiot, be open In addition to the World to this, but it is not something his Parliament, Monbiot also suggests
The clearing union aims to maintain a balance in international trade to avoid that some countries end up in an unsustainable debt crisis.
20 Global governance models in history democratization of the UN General trade, and since both countries with Assembly and shutting down the UN surpluses as well as countries with Security Council. By democratization deficits at the end of the year must he means that every state’s vote pay interest, an incentive to even out should be weighted according to the trade imbalances between countries size of population and rating on some is created. form of objective global democracy The interest should, according index. This, he argues, would also to the proposal, be collected in a give non-democratic states a strong fund that can finance both world incentive to democratize. The parliament elections and operations, reformed General Assembly should, as well as various projects to reduce according to the proposal, assume inequalities in the world. The the current duties of the Security question is how countries could Council. be made to pay interest to such a The question is how such a reform union, and how countries that today could be executed within the have large trade surpluses can be framework of the current UN system, compelled to voluntarily accept such where repeal of the veto power of an organisation, not least considering the five permanent members of that the proposal was rejected in the Security Council requires all 1944. five permanent members to vote in Monbiot’s answer is that poor and favour of it. Monbiot is aware of the indebted countries can use their problem but discusses the possibility debts as leverage to force a change that the Security Council will break – they can threaten to collectively up primarily due to the US decision cancel their payments. The question to go to war without its approval, for is how credible this is as a weapon. example the invasion of Iraq. Outside Even if poor and indebted countries of this expectation he doesn’t provide can hurt the wealthy creditors by not any suggestions on how to solve the repaying their debts, it is likely that problem. the wealthy countries can hurt the The idea of an international poor countries even more. clearing union comes from the Finally, Monbiot proposes a global economist John Maynard Keynes, organisation to monitor fair trade. who proposed it at the Bretton Woods One idea is to licence companies conference in 1944 when the World who want to trade internationally, Bank and the International Monetary and impose certain requirements Fund were created. The clearing regarding compliance with fairness union aims to maintain a balance in principles. The monitoring can international trade to avoid that some be assigned to specific auditing countries end up in an unsustainable companies, and the trading debt crisis. Basically the idea consists companies will absorb the costs. Part of creating a global bank, with its own of the monitoring would include currency, called bancor, which has a checking that corporations pay a fixed exchange rate against national reasonable price for damages to currencies. Every country has an natural resources during production. account in this bank, with assets and How to establish such an liabilities in bancor, equivalent to institution, what resources it should its trade surplus or trade deficit. A have at its disposal, and how it would surplus in bancor could be used for be able to monitor all international
Global governance models in history 21 trade in every country and ensure 3.3 UN REFORM that companies who lack a licence Apart from more ambitious aren’t able to do business, is not proposals for a radically different explained. The proposal assumes global governance model, there are that all of the institution’s monitors also a number of writers, including can operate in all national territories Andreas Bummel, Dieter Heinrich, and across all borders, and that all Joseph Schwartzberg and Erskine countries allow extensive regulation Barton Childers who have proposed by an external authority within their reforms of the current United Nations territory. It also seems to require system aiming at an improved fairly significant resources. Who capacity to manage large global would establish such an institution, risks and crises, and also democratic whether all states would be required representation and accountability. to go along with it, how decisions Some of these proposals include regarding what constitutes equitable the institution of a UN Parliament, conditions are made, and whether the directly elected by the world citizens, decisions are binding for countries whereas others are satisfied with who haven’t voted for such an more modest reforms of the Security organisation remains unclear. Council veto.
REFERENCES 1. Kleingeld, P. B., Eric. “Cosmopolitanism”. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2011).
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