Harste | WhatJerome Do We C. Mean Harste by Literacy Now? page 8 What Do We Mean by Literacy Now?

very now and then we really do lar set of social practices that a particular set of have breakthroughs in our under- people value. In order to change anyone’s defini- tion of literacy, the social practices that keep a E standing of literacy. Two of the particular (and often older) definition of literacy most recent insights are “multiple in place have to change. literacies” and “literacy as social practice.” In terms of your classroom, it is important to Instead of one literacy, there are multiple ask, What kinds of social practices are in place and, literacies (Street, 1995). In addition to as a result, how is literacy being defined? Who benefits from this definition of literacy? Who is language, humans have developed a put at jeopardy? What social practices would I have variety of ways to mean (art, music, to put in place to make the everyday literacies that movement, etc.). This is what the hu- students bring with them to school legitimate? manities are all about as well as why malls What kinds of things would I have to do to show that I honor the home literacies that students bring have background music. It is also why with them to school? What would I have to do to visual-text literacies (e.g., electronic expand what it means to be literate in the 21st cen- computer games) are so appealing and tury? compelling to our young. This is not a matter of walking away from what we already know. A good language arts program The notion of multiple literacies has several im- for the 21st century continues to be comprised of plications for how we think about literacy. Differ- three components—meaning making, language ent cultural groups have different ways of making study, and inquiry-based learning, but (and this is meaning. This is what we find fascinating about a big but) the emphasis is different. travel. How many of us have not been fascinated Meaning-Making with totem poles in Alaska or the hula in Hawaii? Even further, different cultural groups induct their M. A. K. Halliday (1975) taught us that language children into literacy in different ways. Literacy did not develop because of one language user but means different things to different groups. Closer rather because of two, and they wanted to com- to home, school literacy may be very different from municate. Language is first and foremost a social “everyday literacy” or even literacy as the parents meaning-making process. Most of what we know of your students may be thinking about it. about language we have learned from being in the Instead of thinking about literacy as an entity presence of others (Wells, 1986). (something you either have or don’t have), think- What this means for the 21st-century class- ing about literacy as social practice can be revolu- room is that students are going to continue to have tionary. When coupled with the notion of multiple lots and lots of opportunities to mean, not only in literacies, literacy can be thought of as a particu- the form of reading and writing, but also in the

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08_12VM_Mar03 8 2/3/03, 7:19 PM Harste | What Do We Mean by Literacy Now? page 9 form of visual-text literacies. I maintain that writ- of Teachers of English, pulled a text off the Web ing begins in voice. If you can get students to write and showed how easy it can be to create those “what is on their minds,” the rest may not take spaces that encourage conversation about social care of itself, but you will have come a long way practices. It was a poster developed by the United toward creating a potentially great literacy pro- Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2002) gram. Barbara Kamler and Michelle Fine (2001) entitled, “Spot the Refugee.” It was meant to argue that we have to help students “relocate the change people’s attitudes towards refugees. The personal,” by which they mean that once students poster showed 40 Lego dolls all in different dress, have expressed what is on their minds, we need to with the following text: help them see how “the social”—meaning social, SPOT THE REFUGEE historical, and cultural forces—have been at play There he is. Fourth row, second from the left. The to position them in particular ways. These are the one with the moustache. Obvious really. Maybe not. new social practices that need to be added to our The unsavory-looking character you’re looking at is more likely to be your average neighborhood slob with process writing program. I like this position as it a grubby vest and a weekend’s stubble on his chin. acknowledges what we teachers of writing already And the real refugee could just as easily be the clean- know: No one can write from nowhere. cut fellow on his left. You see, refugees are just like In reading, we must continue to have “grand you and me. Except for one thing. Everything they conversations” over literature (Peterson and Eeds, once had has been left behind. Home, family, posses- 1990). Literature study and literature discussion sions, all gone. They have nothing. And nothing is all they’ll ever have unless we all extend a helping hand are cultural practices that an important segment . . . .” (UNHCR Lego poster, p. 1).1 of our society values and that, more likely than not, we as English language arts educators are On a first reading with students, a teacher might mandated to pass on to future generations. None- want to explore what connections the students are theless, it is now obvious that we need to expand making with the text and what meanings they are the canon so that all participants can see them- getting out of the text. I would do this with the selves in the literature, not as “other” but as the strategy, “One Observa- Instead of thinking about main character. This is why the use of multicultural tion, One Connection, literature is so important as well as why the use of One Surprise, One Ques- literacy as an entity (some- literature that raises important social issues is key tion” (Short, Harste w/ thing you either have or to making reading relevant (Harste, et al., 2000; Burke, 1996). Figure 1 ex- Leland, et al., 2002). plains this strategy. On a don’t have), thinking about While what materials we read is an issue, even second reading, let stu- literacy as social practice can more of an issue is what social practices we insti- dents begin to interrogate tute around our discussion of books. I like to think the text by building from be revolutionary. of it as opening up spaces in the curriculum for what students have said. starting some much needed new conversations. We For instance, students might discuss how the au- need to teach in such a way that students enjoy thors of the poster have, probably unwittingly, literature and at the same time come to see that paired refugees with “unsavory-looking charac- language is never innocent. “Whose story is this?” ters” or described them as “slobs” who “wear “What would the story look like if it had been told grubby vests” and have “a weekend’s stubble on by someone very different (in terms of race, gen- their chin.” Students might count the number of der, age, etc.) from the current author?” “What is male and female dolls in the poster to find that being taken for granted and what other ways are three-fourths of them are male, leaving the im- there to think about this thing being discussed?” pression that refugees are mainly unsavory men

Hilary Janks (2002), in her keynote address at 1As of this writing, you can view this poster at http://www. the Annual Convention of the National Council longman.com.au/atlas/compweb/016/intlinks/figure 13.jpg.

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08_12VM_Mar03 9 2/3/03, 7:19 PM Harste | What Do We Mean by Literacy Now? page 10 Instrumental literacy is made up of all of those One Observation, One Connection, One Surprise, proficiencies one needs in order to be able to ac- One Question cess a text and understand what it is doing to read- 1. Give 4 sticky notes to each student. ers. In the case of our “Spot the Refugee” text, a 2. On separate sticky notes, students are asked to jot down reader not only has to be able to decode the text one observation, one connection, one surprise, and one but understand how the authors use language to question they have as a result of reading the text being get certain work done. To make this concrete, studied. notice their use of “he.” The use of “he” reinforces 3. Once students have their sticky notes, have them get in the notion that refugees are men. Notice also how groups of 4 or 5 to share. refugees become “they.” All of a sudden, refugees Note: As a variation, the sticky notes containing questions are “othered.” They may look like us, but they are can be collected and run off on a single sheet of paper. In a very different group of people; if not grubby, new groups, students can come together to discuss and then certainly helpless. In this instance, the au- answer the questions that have been generated by thor uses pronouns to do the work. In other texts, classmates. A whole class discussion should follow. other devices may be used, such as “Iraq Bombed,” **Credit for this strategy is given to Jennifer Story as if there were no agent involved in the bombing (seventh-grade teacher, Dole Middle School, Honolulu, and hence no one has to take responsibility. Hawaii) and Lee Heffernan (second-grade teacher, Childs Elementary School, Bloomington, Indiana). I think most of what is exciting about language falls well above the phoneme and grapheme level Figure 1. of text, and yet we do very little to help students understand how language works. Students need who are poor and need a helping hand. Certainly to be invited to become linguistic detectives as well the impression given is that they are not skilled. as encouraged to practice writing texts that do dif- Discussions of this sort represent a new set of ferent kinds of work. It is especially important that practices around what it means to be a reader. “everyday texts” be an integral part of our lan- What I would argue is that students in the 21st guage arts program as this is where literacy is oc- century are going to have to be able to interro- curring in the lives of students. Many people, in gate text for purposes of understanding how au- fact, argue that today’s youth learn more about lit- thors position readers. To be literate is to be able eracy and what it means to be literate outside of to elect what identity one wants to take on as well school than they do in school (Nixon, 1998; Man- as what position one wants to take relative to the ning, 1999; Vasquez, 2000). In school, students issues raised in texts. can learn to examine the literacies that operate on them outside of school and how they might posi- Language Study tion and reposition themselves differently in the Too often in the past we have reduced the study outside world. Critical literacy, Hilary Janks says of language to phonics in reading, and spelling and (2001), is about language and power, language and grammar in the area of writing. I would argue that access, diversity, and redesign. No matter how it has never been good enough, but even more so is said, literacy in the 21st century is not a specta- when it comes to preparing 21st-century literate tor sport. beings. Inquiry-Based Learning Rather than think in terms of phonics, spell- ing, and grammar, I believe it is helpful to think Probably the one thing we can be sure of is that about what kinds of literacy one needs in order to we are handing tomorrow’s adults problems of read things critically. Bill Green (in Comber & some magnitude—poverty, homelessness, pollu- Green, 1998) calls this “instrumental literacy.” tion, over-utilization of our natural resources . . .

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08_12VM_Mar03 10 2/3/03, 7:19 PM Harste | What Do We Mean by Literacy Now? page 11 the list goes on. There are no magic answers to If we return to “Stop the Refugee,” all kinds these problems, nor is it likely that such problems of questions might be pursued. How many refu- will be solved simply or single-handedly. Given gees are really men as opposed to women? If one this “reading” of our times, it should surprise no does one’s homework, what one finds is that 80 one that I am an advocate of inquiry-based col- percent of all refugees are women rather than men. laborative learning (Harste, 1990, 1993). So who, we might ask, is being served by the vi- What I want to see in curriculum is lots and sual text in this poster? Clearly not men. They are lots of opportunities for students to explore their already seen as wolves after little gullible girls from own inquiry questions using reading, writing, and our fairy tales. This poster only reinforces such other sign systems as tools and toys for learning. stereotypical thinking. For the 21st century, I want to produce learners who know how to use art, music, drama, etc., to Conclusion reposition themselves, gather information, change If asked to critique education, I would argue that perspectives, re-theorize issues, and take thought- too often in the past our English language arts ful new social action. curricula have focused on Students in the 21st century Curriculum has historically been organized meaning making with a around the disciplines. Students move through the half hour of phonics are going to have to be able school day by going from English to social stud- thrown in. For the most to interrogate text for ies to science to any number of other disciplinary part, studying language in studies. Donald Graves (1994) called this “the cha- terms of what work it does purposes of understanding cha-cha curriculum.” Students tick off subjects like and how it does it has how authors position readers. it is a checklist: “Taken earth science; done with been left out, as has pro- that.” Even in college, they say: “Taken women’s viding daily opportunities to inquire into prob- studies; done with that.” Rather than invite stu- lems of personal and social relevance to learners. dents to use earth science or gender as a lens to No wonder, then, that students learn more about examine their world, we’ve inadvertently rein- literacy on the streets than they do at the chalkface. forced the notion that they are “done with that.” This has to change. The real question that each This is why, in part, the redesign of curriculum of us has to ask is, “What kind of literate being begins with reflexivity; the self-reflective interro- should inhabit the 21st century?” Asked differently, gation and critique of what it is we have been do- “What kind of lives do we want to live and what ing. Rest assured, we have all had our hand in the kind of people do we want to be?” For my part, I cookie jar. want critically literate beings who know how lan- Don’t get me wrong. I think the disciplines guage works and can use it to make meaning and are important. But they are only important in re- reposition themselves in the world in a more lationship to the inquiry questions of learners. It democratically thoughtful and equitable manner. is for this reason that I want curriculum to begin with what is on students’ minds; with what makes Bibliography them itch; with what questions they have. Disci- Comber, B., & Green, B. (1998). Information technol- plines can and should be introduced as perspec- ogy, literacy, and educational disadvantage. tives that students can take in unpacking and Adelaide: South Australia Department of Educa- understanding issues. The same is true of the arts. tion, Training, & Employment. Curricular invitations to explore what something Graves, D. (1994, July). Inviting diversity through looks like in art or in music can be absolutely illu- writing. Keynote address given at the 4th Annual minating. Meeting of the Whole Language Umbrella (audiotaped), San Diego, CA.

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08_12VM_Mar03 11 2/3/03, 7:19 PM Harste | What Do We Mean by Literacy Now? page 12 Halliday, M. A. K. (1975). Learning to mean: Explora- Leland, C. H., & Harste, J. C., with Berghoff, B., tions in the development of language. London: Bomer, R., Flint, A. S., Lewision, M., & Moller, K. Edward Arnold. (2002). Critical literacy. In A. A. McClure & J. V. Harste, J. C. (1990). Inquiry-based instruction. Kristo (Eds.), Adventuring with books (13th ed., Primary Voices, K–6, 1(1), 3–8. pp. 465–487). Urbana, IL: NCTE. Harste, J. C. (1993). Literacy as curricular conversa- Manning, A. (1999). Frameworks for locating practice tions about knowledge, inquiry, and morality. In (mimeographed). Presentation given at a Mount M. Ruddell & R. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical models Saint Vincent University Open Learning Course, and processes of reading (4th ed., pp. 1220–1242). Mississagua, Ontario, Canada. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Nixon, H. (1998). Fun and games are serious business. Harste, J. C., with Breau, A., Leland, C., Lewison, M., In J. Sefton-Green (Ed.), Digital diversions: Youth Ociepka, A., & Vasquez, V. (2000). Supporting culture in the age of multimedia. London: UCL critical conversations in classrooms. In K. M. Pierce Press. (Ed.), Adventuring with books (12th ed., pp. 507– Peterson, R., & Eeds, M. (1990). Grand conversations. 554). Urbana, IL: NCTE. New York: Scholastic. Janks, H. (2001, May). Critical literacy: Models, Short, K. G., Harste, J. C., with Burke, C. L. (1996). methods, and motivations. Keynote address given at Creating classrooms for authors and inquirers. the co-sponsored IRA/NCTE Critical Perspectives Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. on Literacy Task Force Preconvention Institute, Street, B. (1995). Social literacies: Critical approaches to Annual Meeting, International Reading Associa- literacy in development, ethnography, and education. tion, New Orleans, LA. London: Longman. Janks, H. (2002, November). Critical literacy: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Deconstruction and reconstruction (mimeograhed). (2002). UNHCR Lego posters. Web site: Keynote address given at the Annual Convention of www.unhcr.org.ch. the National Council of Teachers of English, Vasquez, V. (2000). Our way: Using the everyday to Atlanta, Georgia. create a critical literacy curriculum. Primary Voices Kambler, B., & Fine, M. (2001). Relocating the K–6, 9 (2), 8–13. personal: A critical writing pedagogy. Albany: NY: Wells, G. (1986). The meaning makers: Children State University of New York Press. learning language and using language to learn. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Jerome C. Harste is Distinguished Professor of Language Education at Indiana University. He can be reached at [email protected].

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