Promising Practices

Examining Critical Literacy

Preparing Preservice Teachers to Use Critical Literacy in the Early Childhood Classroom

Katherine Norris, Lisa Lucas, & Catherine Prudhoe

Every semester one of the authors the ability to read and teach critically. In that this requires understanding literacy of this article, Catherine Prudhoe, chal- this article, we share the way we have ap- as a tool for social action. Examining how lenges many of her preservice students’ proached introducing our early childhood language is organized to reproduce race, perceptions of a familiar and often favorite preservice teachers to critical literacy. class, and gender roles is a function of children’s book, The Giving Tree, by Shel Very few of our preservice teachers have socially responsible literacy. Silverstein (1964). She begins the class experienced critical literacy as learners Lewison, Flint, and Van Sluys (2002) by reading the text aloud to the students. in school, so we must engage them both reviewed 30 years of professional literature Most smile, fondly remembering hearing as simultaneous learners and prospective that focused on critical literacy and found the book as a child. A few become teary- teachers. several common dimensions. They suggest eyed as the tree selflessly gives to the boy that critical literacy can: throughout his life. After reading the text, What is Critical Literacy? u Disrupt a common situation or un- it is then discussed. The students usually All forms of communication are so- derstanding—where students can gain comment on how the book teaches children perspective by understanding the text or cial and political acts that can be used to share and to love their friends. They talk situation in a different way. about their remembrances of hearing the to influence people and can lead to social u Examine multiple viewpoints—where story read to them by a parent or teacher. change (Comber & Simpson, 2001). Ac- students are encouraged to think about Everyone is feeling happy. cording to Freire (1970), readers are ac- tive participants in the reading process. texts from the perspectives of different Then, the instructor asks the students characters or from those not represented Critical literacy encourages readers to to listen to the story again, this time paying in the text. attention to gender issues. Which gender is question, explore, or challenge the power u Focus on sociopolitical issues—where implied for the tree? Who is always giving relationships that exist between authors and readers. It examines issues of power students examine power relationships and who is always taking? What messages between and among individuals. does the story suggest for girls/women and and promotes reflection, transformative for boys/men? As the class reads the book change, and action. u Take action and promote social justice— invite students to determine a course of a second time, there is a definite change Reading from a critical perspective action to bring about change in an inap- in the atmosphere of the discussion. The involves thinking beyond the text to un- propriate, unequal power relationship derstand issues such as why the author students begin to perceive the story in a between people. different way. After debriefing, one brave wrote about a particular topic, wrote student may say, “Well, thanks for ruining from a particular perspective, or chose to It is not necessary that all of these dimen- include some ideas about the topic and one of my favorite childhood books!” The sions be included to engage in critical exclude others. (McLaughlin & DeVoogd, other students will laugh and agree, how- 2004, p. 13) literacy activities. By examining texts ever all are now more attuned to looking utilizing any one of these dimensions, we at texts from different perspectives. In addition, Jones (2006) stated that are engaging in critical literacy. While it’s not our intention to ruin critical literacy is like a pair of eyeglasses anyone’s favorite childhood story book, that allows one to see beyond the familiar Why Critical Literacy Is Important it is our hope to develop in our students and comfortable: it is an understanding that language practices and texts are The United States is continuing to always informed by ideological beliefs become more diverse. In 2003, enrollment Katherine Norris is an associate professor, and perspectives whether conscious or in public elementary and secondary schools Lisa Lucas is an assistant professor, otherwise. (p. 65) was 58.7% White, 17.2% Black, 18.5 % Hispanic, 4.4% Asian/Pacific Islander, and Catherine Prudhoe is a professor, Critical literacy views text meaning- and 1.2% American Indian/Alaska Native all with the Department of Early making as a process of social construction (National Center for Education Statistics, and Middle Grades Preparation with a particularly critical eye toward 2007). Despite this diversity among the of the School of Education elements of the various historical, social, student body, the teaching profession at West Chester University of Pennsylvania, and political contexts involved. Dozier, remains largely homogeneous. In 2004, West Chester, Pennsylvania. Johnston, and Rogers (2006) maintain

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83.1% of public school teachers were White preservice teacher construct as they think language, and gender, and sees children’s (National Center for Education Statistics, about their identities as teachers. In this questions as important will be both socially 2004). Thus, teachers must be prepared to push-pull arena, preservice teacher may just and culturally responsive. teach children from cultural backgrounds find it difficult to adopt a critical literacy Culturally responsive teaching ac- that are very different from their own. stance in their own work, let alone within knowledges differences among diverse Additionally, it is generally agreed the often prescriptive curriculum required students and the need for those students to that children need to see aspects of them- and offered in today’s schools. find connections between themselves and selves in the curriculum. They need to read Dozier, Johnston, and Rogers (2006) the school and/or curriculum (Montgomery, or listen to stories about people like them- emphasize that to teach critical literacy, 2001). In culturally responsive classrooms, selves in situations similar to their own. teachers must first become critically liter- teachers recognize the need to develop Literacy is one way to bring children’s lives ate themselves, then must value social instructional strategies which meet the into classrooms. It also can help children justice, and finally must have an under- needs of all students. understand situations that are different standing of the cultural contexts in which Critical literacy is culturally respon- from their own. they work. Dozier et al. further advocate sive pedagogy. It engages teachers and Through application of critical literacy, that part of critical literacy requires teach- students in thought-provoking discussions children and teachers can explore and ers to step outside one’s self and the social that connect their lives to the texts. It come to understand and appreciate the and linguistic structures in which one is challenges readers to question, to disagree, similarities and differences that they have immersed so that they can view their cur- and to examine power relations that exist and share these with each other (Clarke rent language-saturated reality as one that in stories and in real life (Freire, 1970). & Whitney, 2009). Everyone involved can is constantly changing and evolving. Critical literacy also encourages critical better examine and debate multiple view- Fennimore (2000) maintains that thinking and social action. successful teacher preparation programs points. Through critical literacy, children Learning through activism also helps chil- can discuss social issues and plan ways need to be constructed upon a commit- dren to develop a sense of social justice, a that they can have an impact on their ment to activism as well as to excellence sense of fairness and equity that begins communities. in pedagogical practice. Teachers must with personal and community experience understand the significance of the repre- and extends globally and historically. Critical Literacy sentational properties of language. Funda- (Cowhey, 2006, p. 103) mentally, the sense we make of things is and Children’s Literature To move children from simply comprehend- constructed through language. Since such ing texts to critically analyzing those texts Quintero (2009) has advocated teach- language is expressed almost automati- so they are moved to take relevant social ing with critical literacy by using problem- cally, thus typically outside of our conscious action is truly culturally responsive teach- posing and children’s literature. The goal of awareness. Thus, it is important to make ing at its best. this approach is to nourish an integrated teachers aware of their language practices curriculum that supports young children’s in ways that do not make them defensive Critical Literacy meaningful learning. This method encour- (Dozier, Johnston, & Rogers, 2006). ages integrated learning that is both de- vs. Reading Comprehension velopmentally and culturally meaningful Critical Literacy Written text tends to fall into one of based on interacting with story, reading and Culturally Responsive Teaching two broad categories: expository text, which literature, and participating in related communicates information, persuades, or In order to prepare teacher candidates learning activities. explains; or narrative text, which tells a to teach all children effectively, teacher The history of this problem-posing story. Understanding how text is organized education programs must develop teachers method dates to the Frankfurt School of helps readers construct meaning (Dickson, who understand and can implement cul- Critical Theory during the 1920s, and was Simmons, & Kameenui, 1988). turally responsive pedagogy (Irvine, 2001). initially used with adult literacy students. While narrative text tells a story, Bowers and Flinders (1990) suggest that The method leads students of any age, ex- expository text provides an explanation culturally responsive teachers will create perience, or ability level to use new learn- of facts and concepts. Its main purpose is effective learning opportunities that reflect ing of personal experience in a way that to inform, persuade, or explain. Readers the cultural diversity of their classrooms. encourages critical reflection and focuses of expository text face the challenge of In her book, The Dreamkeepers: Successful on active participation. uncovering its organizational pattern and Teachers of African American Children, understanding the presentation, relation- Ladson-Billings (1994) explains that Preservice Teachers’ Role ship, and hierarchy of ideas. Reading and culturally relevant teaching “…empow- in Critical Literacy understanding expository text involves ers students intellectually, socially, emo- more abstract thinking than does reading Bean and Harper (2004) argue that tionally, and politically by using cultural and understanding the typical narrative preservice teachers are in a kind of limbo, referents to impart knowledge, skills, and text. In expository text students need to caught between the worlds of student and attitudes” (p. 18). compare and contrast ideas, recognize com- teacher. In essence, preservice teachers Culturally responsive teaching arises plex causality, synthesize information, and must negotiate the murky terrain of mul- from a critical perspective. Teachers must evaluate solutions for proposed problems. tiple, and sometimes conflicting, expecta- address issues of inequity that occur in As students learn about the struc- tions. University supervisors, cooperating their classrooms, communities, and soci- ture of expository text they become more teachers, students, and parents are all ety at large. A curriculum that focuses on strategic in their reading, using prior players in developing the perceptions that issues of diversity, such as race, culture,

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 60 Promising Practices knowledge to set a purpose for reading, intention was to introduce these preservice book and create a critical literacy lesson to identify what is important, to question teachers to critical literacy and gain an that they could use in the primary class- and clarify, to make inferences, and to insight into their experience and percep- room. The lessons were to follow McLaug- summarize. The student who is aware of tions of critical literacy and its use in the lin & DeVoogd’s (2004) critical literacy the structural patterns in expository text primary classroom. lesson framework which consists of four can then begin to adopt a critical literacy parts—engaging student’s thinking, guid- lens and to question things that are taken Getting Started ing student’s thinking, extending student’s for granted or assumed to be normal or At the start of a two and a half hour thinking, and reflection. natural in the world. class on critical literacy, we created a Within the development of the lesson, By moving beyond basic comprehen- PowerPoint presentation to introduce the the preservice teachers were required to sion, critically literate students have students to the concept of critical literacy. use activities that support critical literacy. mastered the ability to read and critique Using McLauglin and DeVoogd’s (2004) McLaughlin and DeVoogd (2004) provide the messages in texts in order to better Critical Literacy text as the foundation for several examples of possible activities. A understand whose knowledge is being this project, the preservice teachers were setting switch allows students to see how privileged. introduced to the idea of critical literacy the story would be different if it took place and were given examples demonstrating in a different place or time, while a gender Impact of Critical Literacy the importance of getting children to move switch allows a class to examine the story if the main character was the opposite Critical literacy lends itself to promot- beyond comprehension. gender. Question posing allows the teacher ing action for social justice (McLaughlin The preservice teachers were next to guide the students’ thinking through & DeVoogd, 2004). If we are going to have asked to name their most memorable or questioning. The pre-service teachers were children read books and begin discussions favorite storybook as a child and to look encouraged to use such activities in order on difficult issues of power, race, gender, for hidden messages and missing point to allow children to examine the issues and class, we want those young children to of views in those stories. Upon examining from various perspectives and to choose be empowered to help make a change. After some of their favorite children’s stories, the best fit for the selected text. reading the assigned text, the follow-up the preservice teachers began to see how The preservice teachers, still operating activity should be one that allows children children’s books contain messages of power, race, gender, and class. This activ- in pairs, then presented their critical liter- to begin an action that gets them directly acy lessons. After each lesson presentation, involved in important current issues. For ity was undertaken as a way to encourage preservice teachers to recognize the need there was an opportunity for the larger example, our youngest readers can help group to provide feedback and reflection collect items to donate, participate in clean to make the curriculum more transparent and teach young children to take a critical on the lesson. This overall activity gave the ups and food drives, and partner with pre-service teachers exposure to a variety diverse groups, while third graders can stance towards literature. Monica Gunning’s (2004) A Shelter in of children’s picture books, examples of begin letter writing campaigns to support critical literacy lessons, and opportunities a cause. This is also a great opportunity to Our Car, for example, was one such text used as the critical literacy lesson was to examine and reflect on the use of critical involve families. The options are endless. literacy in lessons for young children. As we begin to prepare our young carried out with the class. In this picture book, it is easy to enable students to see children to become thinkers and learners, Students’ Perceptions of Critical Literacy we should not wait to have them start the messages within the text. This story thinking critically when they get to high tackles the difficult issues of homeless- After learning about and engaging school. Young children are already capable ness and poverty, and briefly touches on in activities using critical literacy strate- of moving beyond what is in front of them immigration and death. The mood created gies, we were curious about our students’ on the page. Teachers of young children by the illustrator is easily understood perceptions of critical literacy as a part can guide their students through early and it is clear whose point of view is not of their classroom practice. A small study literacy using critical literacy with the heard—that of the impoverished. was conducted using a convenience sample. purpose of creating global thinkers who The preservice teachers were thus All of the participants were enrolled in are comfortable dealing with issues and guided through a critical literacy lesson “Diversity Perspectives in Early Childhood who are actively working toward change. using strategies which encourage them Education,” a required course for all early to examine the author’s and illustrator’s childhood majors. In total there were 27 The Critical Literacy Project perceived purpose and point of view while preservice teachers who participated in the at the same time discussing how the story study. Of those participants, one was male. In the project described here, preser- could differ if told from someone else’s All of the participants were White. vice teachers were introduced to critical perspective. After the discussion and The study participants were asked to literacy as a reading strategy designed to examination of the text, the preservice respond to the following open-ended ques- help children move beyond mere compre- teachers were asked to brainstorm ideas tions: hension. They were given the opportunity that could connect this lesson to a social to create critical literacy lessons and then 1. Do you see critical literacy as benefit- action project. ting students? If so, how? demonstrate their lessons in front of their peers. After receiving feedback from their The Critical Literacy Lesson 2. What challenges do you see with imple- peers, the preservice teachers had the menting a critical literacy program? Following the in-class demonstration opportunity to respond to open-ended lesson, the preservice teachers worked in 3. What other thoughts do you have on questions that explored their perceptions pairs and were asked to select a picture critical literacy? regarding the use of critical literacy. Our

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Once the questionnaires were collected, Conclusion Cowhey, M. (2006). Black ants and Buddhists: a qualitative content analysis of the stu- Thinking critically and teaching differently dents’ responses was conducted with the Our experiences in teaching preser- in the primary grades. Portland, ME: intent of uncovering similar themes. The vice teachers about critical literacy have Stenhouse. deepened our conviction that it should be Dickson, S. V., Simmons, D., Kameenui, E. J. themes that emerged were divided into two (1988). What reading research tells us about categories that illuminated the benefits an essential part of teacher education pro- grams. The preservice teachers we worked children with diverse learning needs: Bases and challenges of using critical literacy in and basics. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum with overwhelmingly recognized the need teaching young children. Associates. to move children beyond comprehension Dozier, C., Johnston, P., & Rogers, R. (2006). Benefits into thinking more critically about texts. Critical literacy critical teaching: Tools for They clearly felt that critical literacy is preparing responsive teachers. New York: In response to the first question, all a valuable tool for use in the primary Teachers College Press. preservice teachers found critical literacy classroom, and that it is never too early Fennimore, B. S. (2000). Talk matters: Refocusing to be beneficial. When the preservice to encourage young children to begin to the language of public school. New York: teacher’s responses were examined for think critically about the literature they Teacher College Press. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New common themes, there were three themes are reading. As America’s classrooms are York: Continuum. that emerged. First, the students believed becoming increasingly diverse, it is crucial that critical literacy enhances children’s Gunning, M. (2004). A shelter in our car. San that we begin to equip preservice teach- Francisco: Children’s Book Press. critical thinking and understanding of dif- ers to tackle the tough issues of diversity Irvine, J. J. (2001). The critical elements of ferent perspectives. Second, they suggested by examining other perspectives in the culturally responsive pedagogy: A synthesis that it allows children to be exposed to or curriculum and encouraging students to of the research. In Culturally responsive aware of problems in their community. promote social change. teaching: Lesson planning for elementary And third, the preservice teachers felt that Although our preservice teaching stu- and middle grades. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Jones, S. (2006). Girls, social class, and literacy: critical literacy engages children in learn- dents recognized the importance of critical What teachers can do to make a difference. ing about different cultures and difficult literacy, they also admitted feeling that issues such as homelessness or hunger. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. there are barriers that stand in the way Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: of utilizing critical literacy in the typical Successful teachers of African American Challenges classroom. Recognizing and understanding children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. In responding to the second question, these potential barriers will allow teacher Lewison, M., Flint, A. S., & Van Sluys, K. (2002). while the students were able to see the education programs to seek solutions that Taking on critical literacy: The journey of newcomers and novices. Language Arts, benefits of critical literacy, they were also will help preservice teachers develop effec- 79(5), 382-392. tive strategies for overcoming any chal- aware of some challenges. Three themes McLaughlin, M., & DeVoogd, G.L. (2004). Critical also emerged regarding this question. lenges that arise while including critical literacy: Enhancing students’ comprehension The first theme focused on their personal literacy as a part of the early childhood of text. New York: Scholastic. anxiety or discomfort in addressing “touchy curriculum. Montgomery, W. (2001). Creating culturally subjects.” A second related theme was a The first step in making critical litera- responsive, inclusive classrooms. The Council concern about potential parental opposi- cy accessible to all students, however, must for Exceptional Children. 33(4), 4-9. tion to the issues being addressed. The be teaching preservice teachers about the National Center for Education Statistics. (2004). http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/ students did not want to offend anyone practice and showing them how to utilize sass_2004_18. it in developing effective critical literacy by overstepping their boundaries. The National Center for Education Statistics. (2007). third theme focused on the practical issue lessons appropriate to the classrooms in http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2007/minoritytrends/ that school district curricula, resources, which they will teach. tables/table_7_1. and time would make engaging in critical National Center for Education Statistics. literacy difficult. References (2007b). http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2007/ minoritytrends/figures/figure_9a. Bean, T. W., & Harper, H. J. (2006). Exploring Silverstein, S. (1964). The giving tree. New York: Other Thoughts notions of freedom in young adults literature. When the preservice teachers were Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, also asked for “other thoughts” on critical 50(2), 96-104. literacy, seven preservice teachers failed to Bowers, C. A., & Flinders, D. J. (1990). Responsive teaching: An ecological approach to classroom respond. Of the 20 who did respond, two practices of language, culture, and thought. expressed an interest, but also a concern, New York: Teachers College Press. about the appropriateness of using critical Clark, L., & Whitney, E. (2009). Walking in their literacy with young children. The remain- shoes: Using multiple-perspective texts as a ing 18 responses were positive, indicating bridge to critical literacy. Reading Teacher, that the preservice teachers felt that criti- 62(6), 530-534. cal literacy is important to and beneficial Comber, B., & Simpson, A. (2001). Negotiating for young children. critical literacies in classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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