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Home , Athletic conference, Atlantic 10 Conference, Big East Conference, College basketball, College rivalry, Dave Gavitt

Declining the Big East: A Case Study of the of the Holy Cross

Anthony Weaver

Elon

This case study examines Holy Cross’ decision not to join the in 1979. Utilizing a contextualist approach, it highlights the long-term impact the decision has had on the institution and athletic department. Data were gathered by interviewing the two most influential decision makers, the president and athletic director, with over 50 years of experience at Holy Cross. Additionally, a review of archival data and over 300 documents including administrators’ correspondence and letters, newspaper articles, magazines and websites related to Holy Cross athletics was conducted. Findings are presented chronologically to show the sequence of each category as it relates to the organizational change. Results indicated that although Big East Conference affiliation presented many opportunities due to the significant increase in national exposure of college , administrators prioritized the academic focus of the institution and refused to sacrifice it in the pursuit of big-time athletics. The ripple effect of such a decision inevitably resulted in numerous organizational changes.

Introduction the commercialization and popularity ecisions regarding intercol- of I . The use legiate athletics have major of athletics to help market an institu- Dramifications for an institution, tion has become a well-known reason often resulting in substantial organiza- why schools continue to pour resources tional change. This is because intercolle- into supporting a Division I program giate athletics has become a large part of (Bouchet & Hutchinson, 2010; Bruening a university identity, particularly through & Lee, 2007; Clark, Apostolopoulou,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 80 Branvold, & Synowka, 2009). For in- er yet compete against each other while stance, some institutions attempt to use showing mutual respect and comparable their athletic teams to develop a brand academic standards” (p. 129). Conference identity for both the institution and the alliance becomes very important to an athletic teams; however, many institutions athletic department and the university be- cannot rely on following the traditional cause administrators believe that they are path of building brand equity, as tradi- “judged by the company they keep”, with tions or norms can take decades or even one of the most public associations being centuries to build (Dooley, 2013). Many an (Weaver, 2010, p. schools “do not possess enough brand 144). The conference with which a col- equity” on their own to create a strong lege team is affiliated may also impact the brand and often rely on conference affil- perceived quality of the institution and iation to help establish media attention department’s brand (Gladden and go from a regional to a national at- et al., 1998). This chase for improved op- traction (Gladden, Milne, & Sutton, 1998, portunities is known as the college athlet- p.7). Thus, one of the most important ics Arms Race, where schools constantly decisions in athletics can be conference invest more money into their athletic de- membership. partment to provide better resources than In today’s college athletic environ- their competitors, particularly in revenue ment, being in a strong conference can generating sports (Fulks, 2015; Oriard, provide an institution many tangible 2009; Sperber, 2000). However, the chase (financial resources, television and bowl is very expensive and often not profitable. game appearances, improved recruit- In 2013-14, only 24 Division I athletic ment/retention) and intangible oppor- departments recognized a profit; all other tunities (prestige, status, image) (Groza, schools required the institution to provide 2010; Hoffer & Pincin 2015; Quirk, 2004; allocated revenues (student fees, tuition, Solomon, 2012; Weaver, 2013). To im- institutional operational dollars) to sup- prove their chances at these opportuni- plement losses (Fulks, 2015). ties, many institutions feel it is necessary Due to the major investment required to realign to a perceived “better” confer- at the highest level of Division I, not all ence, (Kramer, 2016; Sweitzer, 2009). institutions believe that supporting col- Historically, conferences have been lege athletics, including moving athletic developed based on a like-minded phi- conferences is a wise decision. In 1979, losophy of athletic competition, and the College of the Holy Cross declined an similar expectations and constraints (i.e., opportunity to join the newly created Big academic policies, financial capabilities) East Conference consisting of well-es- (Covell & Barr, 2010; Leibowitz, 2011). tablished basketball programs. Since Thelin (1996) states that conference that time, Holy Cross’ decision has been members typically “agree to work togeth- debated because of the strong athletic

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 81 history Holy Cross experienced prior to commonly referred to as Power 5 Con- 1979, and the notoriety the Big East has ferences (Maxcy 2004; Weaver, 2015). brought to their members (Booth, 2008; In addition to the impact of the NCAA Fanikos, 2013; McFarlane, 2012; Wing- structural changes, conference affiliation erter, 2011). Mike Vaccaro (2009) wrote, research became more prominent from “It [creating the Big East] was such an the mid-1980s to present day as Division outside-the-box idea that not everyone I institutions began to align in athletic wanted in right away: Holy Cross actually conferences in order to maximize reve- declined the invite, a fact over which its nues, increase prestige and enhance an alumni have been torturing themselves institution’s profile (Gladden et al., 1998; for 30 years” (p.54). However, to this Shulman & Bowen, 2002; Siegfried & point the decision has not been exam- Gardner-Burba, 2004). Two major chang- ined from the perspective of the es in Division I conference affiliation decision makers at Holy Cross. Thus, to presented new cases for examining sub- achieve the purpose of the study, which sequent organizational change. The first was to examine Holy Cross’ decision not change occurred in 2004-2005 when the to join the Big East Conference in 1979, Atlantic Coast Conference added three three primary research questions were former Big East Conference schools (Mi- addressed through the lens of organiza- ami, Tech, and College), tional change theory: and the second being a major shift in 1. Why did the College of Holy Division I conferences in 2010 when the Cross decline the invitation to join added the Univer- the Big East? sity of Nebraska. Each decision led to a 2. What was administrators’ rationale ripple effect of conference membership for the decision? changes igniting an emphasis on confer- 3. What was the impact such an orga- ence affiliation research (Tribou, 2011). nizational change had on the ath- Much of the literature highlights the letic department and institution? benefits associated with changing con- ference affiliation. For instance, Sweitzer Review of Literature (2009) provided an historical exploration There is a growing body of litera- of schools that have changed division ture on organizational change in college and/or conferences and found that athletics, specifically a change in athletic membership in a major Division I con- conference affiliation. The emphasis of ference has significant tangible benefits; conference affiliation has become in- including the largest television contracts, creasingly important due to changes in fundraising efforts, and game attendance, NCAA governance structure that con- which also bring increased revenue pos- tinues to shift power to the major Divi- sibilities, and enhanced academic and sion I football-playing conferences, now athletic outcomes (Groza, 2010; Kramer

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 82 & Trivette, 2012; Kramer, 2016). Several athletic department. Reasoning for their studies demonstrate that changing ath- decision included a lack of resources to letic conferences, divisions, or member- maintain their current athletic program, ship associations is an effective strategy the inability to maintain or enhance the for fulfilling organizational aspirations student-athlete experience and a discon- and maximizing prestige (Cunningham nect between the institutional philoso- & Ashley, 2001; Sweitzer, 2009; Weaver, phy and the current athletic department 2010). Groza (2010) studied 21 Division philosophy. Using the same eight insti- I schools that changed athletic confer- tutions, Hutchinson and Bouchet (2013) ences and found that a change in athletic examined the exit strategy of this sample conference can increase football game and found that providing objective data attendance. Kramer and Trivette (2012) to stakeholders and the timing of the found that student applications increased decision are important factors in a suc- following conference . Most cessful deemphasizing strategy. Finally, recently, Kramer (2016) conducted a Hutchinson and Bouchet (2014) stud- multi-case design on three distinct uni- ied the same cohort and concluded that versities that switched conferences and the eight schools studied were able to found that improved financial stability, achieve “commitment redirection” within increasing institutional visibility, aligning a college athletic environment where the with peers, and increasing prestige were norm is to increase commitment (p. 158). categories across all cases. Although an The organizational change of de-escala- institution’s athletic conference helps uni- tion does not necessarily result in nega- versities develop a high quality reputation tive institutional outcomes. Jones (2014) (Abbey, Capaldi, & Lombardi, 2011), not studied three FCS schools and found all research has shown benefits directly that dropping football was not associat- resultant from upgrading the institu- ed with a drop in freshman admissions tion. Weiner (2009) found that although applications. One institution, Siena Col- schools and conferences had an increase lege, even saw an increase in applications in financial gains, peer group prestige after dropping football. Finally, one case was sacrificed. study by Bochet and Hutchinson (2012) The exploration of the de-emphasis discussed the University of ’s or “de-escalation” of athletics, while decision to deemphasize football and limited, has been a growing area of re- not follow other peer institutions to the search in college athletics (Hutchinson & Big Ten Conference. In fact, leadership Bouchet, 2014). Hutchinson (2013) inter- at the time felt their peer associations in viewed 32 “decision makers” from eight athletics were “considered undesirable institutions that deemphasized athletics and unwanted when linking the Chicago by either reclassifying to a lower level, brand with stakeholder and public per- removing football or restructuring the ception” (p.108).

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 83 Similar to the case study methodology quent impact on the athletic department used by Bochet and Hutchinson to study and the institution. the University of Chicago, this historical The contextualist approach provides case presents the story of the College of a framework for the study by examining the Holy Cross, its athletic department, organizational change using three con- and what some view as a missed oppor- structs: how change happened (process), tunity to have joined one of the best what changed over time (content) and basketball conferences in college athletics why change occurred (context). The history. Using Pettigrew’s (1985a) con- contextualist approach frames organiza- textualist approach, it examines the role tional change as, “a continuous process of conference affiliation, the landscape for organizations, one whereby strate- of college athletics over a 30-year period, gic changes can be a product of and an and provides administrative analysis on enabler of many consequent decisions” the factors that influenced the decision (Pettigrew, 1987, p. 271). In addition, this not to join the Big East Conference. To model allows for consideration of the better understand the decision not to join role that decision makers play in terms the Big East, it is important to examine of defining the linkages between con- it broadly and in the context with which tent, context, and the process of strategic the decision was made. The case provides change. Each dimension of Pettigrew’s administrators’ rationale for the deci- contextualist approach is described in sion made, including the impact such an greater detail in the following sections. organizational change had on the athletic department and institution. Process Pettigrew (1987) describes the term Theoretical Framework process as it “refers to the actions, reac- Using Pettigrew’s contextualist ap- tions, and interactions from the varied in- proach (Figure 1), the following case terested parties as they seek to move the study examines Holy Cross’ decision organization from its present to its future not to join the Big East Conference in state” (pp.657-658). An analysis of the 1979. Specifically, the case examines the process, using the contextualist approach context in which the decision was made addresses the “how” of change. The in the late 1970s and 1980s. It also high- process itself is seen as a continuous, lights the impact the decision has had on interdependent series of events that are the athletic department and the institu- being used to clarify the origins, mainte- tion as a whole. Because the Big East was nance, and result of some phenomenon. established as a basketball conference, According to Pettigrew (1985b, 1987), this study emphasizes the impact the an understanding of process requires decision has had on the men’s basketball an analysis of the context, such as the program at Holy Cross and the subse- social, political, and cultural elements

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 84 Figure 1: Conceptual Model for Organizational Change in an Intercollegiate Athletics

*Model Adapted from Pettigrew’s Contextualist Approach Model to Organizational Change

Process: actions, reactions, and interactions from the various interested parties. How do we change? Content: aspects of the organization that are being changed. What could change? Context: Outer context – historical, social, economic, political, and competitive environment in which the organization operates. Why did these environments influence the decision to reclassify?Inner context - organizational elements that influence the change process that can shape the power relationships pp.657-658). An analysis of the content, that structure the change, as well as the using the contextualist approach address- content. The impact of the National es the “what” of change. An analysis Collegiate Athletic Association’s (NCAA) of content also requires a simultaneous decision to emphasize the importance of examination of both process and con- conference affiliation and the subsequent text. Holy Cross athletics (as well as the reaction from Division I member insti- institution) was changing, regardless of tutions during the late 1970s, including this decision. The attention to content Holy Cross greatly influenced the role of provides a thick, rich description of the athletics in higher education. impact of moving to mid-major confer- ences (Metro Atlantic Athletic Confer- Content ence (MAAC) and the ). Content refers to the “aspects of the organization that are being changed. For Context example, an organization may be seek- Context is separated into two cate- ing to change “technology, manpower, gories, inner context and outer context. products, geographical positioning, or Pettigrew (1987) described inner context corporate culture” (Pettigrew, 1985a, as those organizational elements that

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 85 influence the change process. The ideas in determining the success of organiza- of change will pass through the inner tional change. Similarly, Cousens, Babiak, context. The outer context refers to the and Slack (2001) explored the NBA’s “social, economic, political, and compet- shift in marketing techniques over a 17 itive environment in which the organiza- year period by examining over 80 docu- tion operates” (Pettigrew, 1985a, p. 657). ments and conducting semi-structured Much of the “why” of change is derived interviews of two senior level marketing from an analysis of context, particularly executives. Findings revealed the multi- the inner context. Nelson (2003) also faceted approach by the NBA to initiate notes that crucial to the contextualist ap- such a complex organizational change proach is recognition of the interaction and find success in implementing a shift between inner and outer environments. from traditional marketing to relation- Influence before, during, and after the ship marketing. Additionally, the authors change of athletics at Holy Cross may concluded that the contextualist ap- be due to the inner context, such as the proach “represents a meaningful way to institution’s management strategy and understand a transformation such as the structure, on-campus traditions and cul- one experienced by the NBA” (p.351). tures, the intercollegiate athletics history Thibault and Babiak (2005) applied Pet- and culture, and political makeup of the tigrew’s approach to discuss the reasons University. Examples of external envi- for a change to an athlete-centered Cana- ronments that may have drastically influ- dian sport system over a 20-year period. enced the decision were (and still are) the The contextualist approach was used in intercollegiate athletics environment, the this study to “allow for a more complete higher education environment, the local picture of the variables involved in orga- and regional community, as well as the nizational change” (p.127). national college athletics constituency. The contextualist approach was also Although the contextualist model used as a framework by Girginou and is most often used to examine strategic Sandanski (2008) to study process of change in business, some research has changing over a 25-year period in three applied this model to sport. Caza (2000) Bulgarian national sport organizations employed Pettigrew’s model to exam- (NSO), , weightlifting and ine organizational change within the , as the country transformed Canadian Amateur Association from state socialism to democratic state. (CABA). Using a participant observa- Findings from observations, discussions, tion methodology, Caza studied strategic document analysis, and semi-structured innovation over a decade. Applying one interviews with seven key sport officials element of Pettigrew’s model, context, from the three federations concluded Caza found that consistency in leadership that the NSOs organizational transfor- style was viewed as an important factor mations was a discovery process compli-

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 86 cated by the changing political, economic enhancing the understanding of sport or- and social environment. ganizations. In addition, Byers, Slack and Specific to college athletics, the use Parent (2012) advocate the benefits of a of Pettigrew’s contextualist approach has multilevel analysis and suggest using the only been utilized by few researchers, be- contextualist approach to study changes ing first introduced by Weaver (2007) to over the length of the period in which study reclassification to Division I. Creat- the change took place. The opportunity ing a modified model, Weaver examined to collect rich data from two key deci- two higher education institutions’ reclas- sion-makers and the access to archival sification to Division I. Among other data and popular media over a 30-year prominent themes, Weaver found that period provides depth in examining such key decision makers at both schools be- an impactful organizational change rarely lieved that the move to Division I would seen in college athletic research. improve institutional profile. Similar to The case also examines college ath- Caza, Weaver (2010) further examined letics in an environment that has been the impact each school’s history (inner frequently overlooked. Much of the liter- context) had on the decision to reclas- ature on conference affiliation has grown sify to Division I. For both institutions, in the last two decades but misses the changing their historical narrative was an major NCAA restructure that occurred important factor for why they moved to in the 1970s and the subsequent changes Division I. Finally, Collins (2012) con- from that restructure. The development ducted a case study on a junior college and growth of such an influential peer transforming to a four-year NCAA Divi- association, the Big East Conference, has sion II. The development of an athletics not been researched, particularly from strategy and the important role of key an historical approach. The study adds figures (i.e., president, vice presidents, to the body of research that explores athletic director) on the implementation the move away from upward mobility of the athletic strategy as the institution in college athletics. Although growing, was transforming to a four-year institu- Bouchet and Hutchinson (2012) called tion were key finding from this study. for more studies to add to the “paucity Although there is a growing body of of research” that examines the organiza- literature that examines an organization- tional decision to deemphasize athletics al change such as conference affiliation, (p.97). Specifically, using organizational there are still significant gaps. First, Slack change theory to examine sport this case & Parent (2006) observe that while few study is unique and adds to the litera- studies within sport management have ture in several ways. First, the use of the used Pettigrew’s model, the richness contextualist approach in college athletic of data provided by the contextualist research provides a valuable framework approach make it a viable method for to study change over time. The strength

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 87 of this approach allowed the research- Methodology er to design a case study that provided Case Study Methodology thick, rich data using questions that Because of the explanatory nature of explored the totality of the organization- this study, a qualitative approach is most al change. The study presents a unique appropriate as it allows the researcher view of the change. Much of the popular to gather open-ended responses used to media literature suggests that the need answer the central question in this study: to emphasize college athletics is of the why administrators chose not to join the utmost importance. For administrators to Big East. Creswell (1998) points out that make another decision would be detri- qualitative studies allow the researcher mental to the school. Yet the design of to delve deep into the field to describe this study explored the rationale from what is happening. Qualitative research is an administrators’ point of view, often useful for discussing and analyzing sub- overlooked. Second, the insight of the cultures such as college athletics within two key decision makers, the volumes and examining a group in of archival data, observation, and docu- depth (Creswell, 1998). ment analysis of newspapers over three The historical case study design takes decades provides trustworthiness of the the reader into the university setting with data. Findings from the study are unique a vividness and detail not typically pres- in that they are presented in a chrono- ent in more analytical reporting formats logical manner. The reader can identify (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). This case important categories associated with the study permitted the exploration of a organizational change but it is presented single phenomenon, The College of the in a “time line approach” so the reader Holy Cross and its strategy of rejecting can see the ripple effect of change. Last, conference affiliation, as a way to identify this work adds to the conversation of de- and clarify the relationship of athletics to emphasis in athletics, with arguably one the mission of the institution. Schramm of the most important cases in recent (1971) describes the essence of a case history. Much of the other literature uses study by stating, “the central tendency cases that are older (University of Chi- among all types of case studies, is that cago) or identifies schools that have not it tries to illuminate a decision or set of had much success at the Division I level. decisions: why they were taken, how they Thus, the decision to deemphasize athlet- were implemented, and with what result” ics may not have been such an impactful (p.12). Finally, the justification of a case decision. The organizational change at study to understand higher education Holy Cross was, and is, transformational administrators’ decision to de-emphasize and to this day, debatable. athletics was highlighted by Bouchet and Hutchinson (2012) by stating, “observing de-escalation strategies in a historical set-

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 88 ting provided insight into the dynamics interview participants and tour the cam- of a university athletic department and pus. At the time, the researcher toured the stakeholders who influence behavior” the campus (both formally and informal- (p. 102). ly) gathered admissions brochures, and observed athletic and academic facilities. Data Collection Observation notes were recorded and To avoid potential restrictions due to used to help shape some of the ques- limited sources, Yin (2003) and Creswell tions for the administrators. Documents (1998) suggest that data be collected were also reviewed on an ongoing basis from numerous sources. An extensive to help tailor questions to each specific review of archival data and documents interviewee. spanning over 40 years, including ad- Multiple interviews were conducted ministrators’ correspondence and letters, with two former administrators at the university documents, newspaper articles, College of the Holy Cross who were magazines and websites related to Holy instrumental in the decision not to pur- Cross athletics were gathered from the sue Big East membership, former presi- Department of Special Collections at dent, Fr. John Brooks and former athletic the College of the Holy Cross. In-depth director, Ronald Perry. These participants interviews were also conducted with key combined for over 50 years of admin- administrators. Interview questions were istrative experience at Holy Cross and developed in three distinct phases: ques- had unique perspectives on the decision, tions that addressed before, during and including its long-term impact (Doyle, after the decision to decline the Big East. 2015; Hevesi, 2012). Initial interviews For example, questions included, but with subjects were conducted over the were not limited to: Discuss the environ- phone and then a follow up in person ment on campus prior to the consider- interview that lasted between 90-120 ation of conference affiliation? What was minutes was conducted on campus. Each happening in college athletics during this participant held a different administrative time you were considering this organiza- role, thus the ongoing review of docu- tional change? How did various constit- mentation served as a means for adding uencies respond to your decision? Why appropriate questions to highlight their did you think this was (or was not) the individual experience. best strategy for your school at that time? In addition to the documents gath- Now that you have had time to reflect ered at the College of Holy Cross, doc- on your decision, please discuss your uments were also gathered from local, thoughts on your strategy to not join the regional, and national newspapers and Big East. magazines that span the 1970s, 1980s The researcher also visited campus on and 1990s. In total over 300+ documents two separate occasions to meet with the were reviewed for information on topics

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 89 such as: the impact of athletics on the 1) was conducted to classify central ideas overall institutional profile at Holy Cross, that emerged from the interviews and athletic success of Holy Cross prior to the documents. The categories from each the 1970s, the impact of college athlet- interview were given back to the sub- ic governing bodies, including but not jects as a form of member checking. To limited to: the NCAA, the ECAC, the Ivy strengthen trustworthiness within cate- League, the MAAC, the Patriot League, gorization, peer debriefing was employed the internal correspondence of evaluat- with an additional impartial reader. Tran- ing the pros/cons of conference affilia- scripts and initial categorizations were tion, and popular media debate over the reviewed and feedback was provided decline of Holy Cross athletics. back to the researcher. Data triangulation was used as information was gathered Data Analysis from numerous forms of data including Stake (1995) suggests that qualitative observations, interviews, institutional analysis is concerned with understanding documents, archival records, and popular the phenomena rather than stating an media accounts. All steps were complet- explanation; thus analysis of the data for ed to reduce known limitations when this case study was to “tell the story” (p. using qualitative data analysis methods 39). In an effort to do so, the analysis is (Gratton & Jones, 2004). guided by a strategy of thick, rich de- scription. Data were collected and ana- Findings lyzed over several rounds of information Because the case is conveyed within gathering and analysis. Once all initial the context of the growth of the Big documentation was gathered, analysis of East, this study emphasizes the potential the data was performed on the archival impact of conference affiliation. The records and institutional documents to findings are presented in a chronological categorize according to the elements of structure, while using the contextualist Pettigrew’s model. Additional documents approach as a framework (also see Figure from popular media were analyzed and 1). Yin (2003) supports the chronologi- added to support initial categorization. cal structure in case study research when Coffey and Atkinson (1996) support this there is a sequence of events that help type of analysis by stating, “We should tell the story. Utilizing the elements in never collect data without substantial the contextualist framework, findings analysis going on simultaneously” (p.2). provide rationale for the decision within Once each interview was complete, the context of college athletics over a audio tapes were transcribed and all tran- long period of time, the processes of the scriptions were analyzed. Categorization decision, and the impact not to join the based on the definitions and key words Big East on the Holy Cross constituency found in Pettigrew’s Model (See Figure (content). In line with Nelson (2003),

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 90 Table 1

Timeline of Categories Presented Category Time Frame Represented Prominent Element of the Contextualist Approach Institutional Background 1843-present Inner Context The Athletic Tradition Prior to 1979 Inner Context/Content The Formation of the Big East 1979-present Outer Context/Process Conference Growth of 1980s-present Outer Context/Process Achieving National Recognition: 1980s Process/Outer Context The Impact of ESPN and beyond The company we no longer keep: 1980s-present Content The Jesuit Association & the Loss of Athletic Rivals An Athletics Identity Crisis 1980s Inner Context/Content Finding a Home: The Formation 1984-present Process of the Patriot League The Patriot League and the impact 1990-present Content on Holy Cross Basketball Administration’s Rationale: Pro- 1970s-present Inner Context/Content tecting the Academic Mission these findings highlight the ongoing and a liberal arts education built on a relationship between the three concepts foundation formed by the Jesuit tradi- (context, process, content) which is cen- tion. Holy Cross has built a reputation of tral to understanding the complexities of having great faculty-student interaction the organizational change. with a student population of just over 3,100 undergraduate students. As other Institutional Background: Under- schools, including Jesuit and uni- standing the Inner Context versities, began to expand enrollment and Holy Cross was the first Catholic in some cases, add graduate programs, college in the New England area, and Holy Cross has kept class sizes small and one of the first in the , to faculty attention on providing undergrad- open its doors. It has long maintained a uate students with a rigorous liberal arts commitment to undergraduate education education (“About Holy Cross”, 2019).

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 91 Holy Cross became more academical- mostly white New England Catholic ly rigorous under Fr. Raymond Swords, students of the 1970s to a more open president of Holy Cross from 1960-70. campus, accepting students of diverse That effort was enhanced under his suc- backgrounds. While president, Fr. Brooks cessor, Fr. John Brooks, president from was instrumental in recruiting, retaining 1970-94. Fr. Brooks reflected on the and graduating African-American males academic mission: to campus, and making Holy Cross co- I caught on with what Father educational, as women were welcomed Swords was doing. And I simply in 1972 (Brady, 2012; Kuzniewski, 1999). followed what he did. And I had Although very controversial at the time, one goal in mind: I saw a chance his efforts to diversify the student body for us to become one of the finest changed Holy Cross forever (Brady, undergraduate liberal arts colleges 2012). Currently, Holy Cross’ student in the country. Holy Cross is one population is 48% female with 25% mi- of 28 Jesuit institutions, but is nority and international students (“Holy the only one that is strictly under- Cross At A Glance, 2019”). graduate liberal arts so we don’t In addition to these major changes have any law, medical or graduate during his administration, Fr. Brooks schools. We just stick with the strongly influenced the direction of the undergraduate, focus on that, keep athletic program. He always felt that it tight. (J. Brooks, personal com- presidents should lead athletics. The munication, June 11, 2012) president, not the athletic director or the coaches, needed to be responsible for the This tight focus allowed Holy Cross athletic department (Kuzniewski, 1999). to flourish academically during Fr. This message was far from the common Brooks’ tenure. Today, Holy Cross is practices of the 1970s. described as, “a school with a strong I thought the NCAA had done academic tradition” “academically rigor- a lousy job and I would have ous” and “more selective” (“About Holy wished for the presidents to take Cross”, 2019). In fact, Holy Cross is con- a stronger stand. I used to go to sistently ranked high in academic rank- these NCAA meetings, and they ings found in Forbes (#22 in national top [the presidents] were weak. They liberal arts colleges), US News & World voted for whatever was good for Report (#35 in best liberal arts colleges) the coach? Of course the coach- and Wall Street Journal (#4 in best Cath- es were strong people and they olic colleges (“Holy Cross Points”, 2019). argued their case, and that’s fair. I In addition to the student body being don’t mind that, but you have to academically gifted, it has also become be able to say no to them when more diverse; growing from the all-male, they were not doing the right

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 92 thing. The president is in charge! Those teams featured Basketball Hall (J. Brooks, personal communica- of Famer (Buttell, 2007). tion, June 11, 2012). The teams in the 50’s also dominated, as All-Americans Togo Palazzi and Tommy During his time as president, Fr. Heinsohn led the Crusaders to multiple Brooks faced numerous challenges with NCAA and National Invitational Tour- Division I athletics and the impact it had nament (NIT) appearances (“2018-2019 on Holy Cross’ athletic program. Among Men’s Basketball Fact Book”, 2019; the most hotly debated was the decision Gearan, 2006). However, by the 1960s, not to pursue membership in the Big the athletic programs, including men’s East. basketball, had become mediocre. Although the mid to late 60s and into The Athletic Tradition (Prior to 1979): the mid-1970s did not bring any postsea- Inner Context/Content son appearances, Holy Cross began to Prior to the formation of the Big make a on the national basket- East Conference, Holy Cross had a ball scene starting in the early 1970s, led strong athletic tradition, particularly in by new athletic director, Ronald Perry, football, and men’s basketball. who was hired by Fr. Brooks in 1972. In the early 20th Century, Holy Cross Perry recalls the athletic department en- had established itself as one of the best vironment when he took over: athletic programs in New England. In Things [in the athletic depart- 1949, Holy Cross played and lost in the ment] were in disarray. We had Orange Bowl to the University of Miami not had much success in many of (“2012-2013 Football Recruiting Guide”, our sports and what I tried to do 2012). The baseball team won the NCAA was start to build some optimism National Championship (College World and enthusiasm. One of the first Series) in 1952 and remains the only things I did was I brought George team from the Northeast to have won Blaney back to coach [basketball] the College (“2012 Holy (R. Perry, personal conversation, Cross Baseball Yearbook”, 2012; Gearan, June 11, 2012). 2006). When discussing the glory days of Coach Blaney ‘61, a Holy Cross Hall Holy Cross athletics, the conversation of Famer and basketball standout, had usually begins and ends with men’s bas- a rough two years in the beginning but ketball. In the late 1940s, Holy Cross began winning in 1974. The 20-8 Cru- was recognized as a national basketball saders ended the 1974-75 with an powerhouse, culminating with an NCAA appearance in the NIT , their National Championship in 1947 and an first postseason appearance since 1962. NCAA Final Four appearance in 1948. The following season resulted in another

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 93 NIT bid and reestablished Holy Cross’ As Holy Cross established itself as an basketball brand as a “powerhouse” (Mc- East Coast basketball power in the late Farlane, 2012, para 3). Success contin- 1970s, the landscape of college basket- ued into the next season as the 1975-76 ball was changing. National exposure, team won the Eastern College Athletic mostly due to increased television cover- Conference (ECAC) North Conference age, was taking Northeast recruits - that Championship, beating Providence Col- had years ago stayed and played close to lege (then ranked eighth in the Associat- home - to the South, where the Atlantic ed Press (AP) Polls) and advancing to the Coast Conference was flourishing and NCAA Tournament, where Holy Cross to the Midwest where the Big Ten had lost to top ranked Michigan (“2018-2019 established itself as a location for East Men’s Basketball Fact Book”, 2019). Coast talent (Wolff, 2011). Also in the As Holy Cross entered the 1977-78 late 1970s, the NCAA also implement- basketball season, Sports Illustrated ranked ed regulations on scheduling and the the Crusaders the ninth best team in automatic bids to the men’s basketball the country and the AP ranked them tournament. Because of these concerns, 18th (Papanek, 1977). Holy Cross would , the basketball coach and climb to as high as 12 in the AP, but athletic director at Providence at the would slide out of the rankings midway time, began discussing an idea to start through the year and end the year failing a conference in the east that would be to make post-season play. The 1978-79 developed around established and suc- season rebounded with a 17-win season cessful basketball programs. and an appearance in the NIT, losing to the in the first The Formation of the Big East round (“2018-2019 Men’s Basketball Fact Conference (Outer Context/Process) Book”, 2019). Perry reflected on that The Big East Conference was formed period of success: in the spring of 1979 and began playing Slowly but surely we started to the following fall, with its first basketball come back and in about ’75. We conference consisting of seven teams: had a great recruiting class in ’75 , Providence, Seton Hall, and that had Mike Vicens and St. John’s, Syracuse, Georgetown, and Chris Potter. And then my son (“Big East Conference His- [Ronnie Perry] came in ‘76 and so tory”, 2019). in that span of ‘75 through ‘80 we According to former Syracuse Uni- were really the top team in New versity athletic director, Jake Crouth- England. (R. Perry, personal con- amel, conversations about a new league versation, June 11, 2012) began a year earlier in 1978, mainly due to aforementioned changes in NCAA

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 94 regulations in scheduling and the impact ability to take advantage of the growing of automatic bids to the NCAA Tour- sports market (Rhoden, 2012). The Big nament (Crouthamel, 2000). In 1978, East Conference was an instant success. the NCAA adopted a rule that said a Of the seven teams, three (Georgetown, team in a conference could not qualify Syracuse, and St. John’s) participated in for the NCAA tournament unless it had the NCAA and two others (Connecticut played every other team in the confer- and Boston College) played in the NIT. ence twice (home and away) (DeSilva, The seven original members of the Big 1985). This rule had a dramatic impact East, were joined a year later by Villano- on the schools in the ECAC, which was va and began three decades of basketball a loose collection of schools, many of dominance. whom played each other once or did Since the inaugural year in 1979-80, not play each other at all. This forced a the Big East had at least three teams breakup of the more than 150 Division I go to the NCAA tournament during schools loosely assembled in the ECAC the 1980s. Twice (in 1984-85, 1987-88) to form smaller conferences. The Big six teams represented the conference East jumped quick to assemble major in tournament play. Every team in the east coast basketball schools, with an conference, including the University of opportunity for Holy Cross to join. Mr. (who became a member in Crouthamel writes: 1982), played at least once in the NCAA These requirements forced inde- Tournament. The last team to reach the pendent institutions like the four tournament was the University of Con- (Syracuse, Providence, St. John’s, necticut, which finally represented the Georgetown) of us to align and Big East Conference during the 1989-90 schedule schools with whom season. Holy Cross, which decided to we had no interest or tradition. go in a different direction with athletics, Self-determination was far better including their men’s basketball team, than being told who your partners was not a part of the newly formed con- would be, and so the four of us ference and the growth of the Big East met for countless hours in count- basketball brand. less sessions to determine the make-up of our new conference Growth of College Basketball (Outer to be (Crouthamel, 2000, para 2). Context/Process) The make-up was based on several fac- College basketball became a na- tors, but the most prominent criteria tional obsession in the 1980s following was a strong men’s basketball team. The the - NCAA athletic directors also wanted schools Championship game in 1979, which aired that were in cities with large media mar- on NBC (Davis, 2009). However, NBC kets, spacious basketball arenas, and the decided to get out of the college bas-

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 95 ketball business, even though they were a conference) were affiliated with the responsible for one of the greatest net- Eastern Collegiate Athletic Conference work decisions in sport history, allowing (ECAC), which was a mini-version of the viewers to move from one game to the NCAA, was made up of approximately next so exciting plays and buzzer beaters 150 east coast schools. At the time, the could be seen live. In 1982, CBS bid $16 ECAC controlled all television rights million for exclusive rights to the Final and post-season opportunities, including Four, while ESPN began broadcasting their own ECAC , which conference tournaments and the early was essentially a qualifier for additional rounds of the NCAA Tournament. This postseason opportunities (NIT, NCAA). non-stop month-long focus on college By starting the Big East and gaining an basketball, featured the ability to view automatic qualifier bid to the NCAA numerous games, often showing the best basketball tournament, Big East mem- finishes live. More importantly, it led bers could control their own television to the introduction of the “Cinderella” package and work directly with networks. teams, which were schools who received In addition to the interest from the major unexpected national exposure because of networks, the Big East began working their upset wins over basketball power- with a new network at the time, ESPN, houses. The tournament soon became a the first “all-sports” cable network. The national phenomenon known as “March formation of the Big East and the cre- Madness” (Layden, 2012; Davis, 2009). ation of ESPN, also headquartered in CBS continued to renegotiate its pact New England (Bristol, CT), created a with the NCAA every few years until symbiotic relationship (Marc, 2004). in November 1989, when it reached an As the Big East was growing quick- agreement on a seven-year, $1 billion ly, so was ESPN. The timing and close contract (Gerard, 1989). In 2010, Turn- proximity could not have been better. er Broadcasting partnered with CBS to Immediately, conference rivalries began offer the NCAA a 14-year, $10.8 billion to form, and media outlets took notice. deal. That contract was re-negotiated and ESPN, among others, led the charge to extended to 2032 and will now pay the highlight players and turned coaches NCAA an average of $1.1 billion per sea- into strong polarizing personalities. Jake son (Brady, 2016). Crouthamel, said, I credit a lot of it [capturing the Achieving National Recognition: nation’s attention] to the coach- The Impact of ESPN and beyond es in the league. People like John (Process/Outer Context) Thompson [Georgetown], Lou Prior to the formation of the Big Carnesecca [St. John’s], Rollie East Conference, many Division I inde- Massimino [Villanova], and Jim pendent teams (those that did not have Boeheim [Syracuse] gave the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 96 league an identity. And I believe ington (Wolff, 1986), allowed the con- our success fed the success of ference to gain an identity as a physical ESPN, which also was a new kid brand of basketball built by playground on the block at the time. (Pitoniak, legends and larger than life coaches. In 2005, p.5). 1985, Sports Illustrated writers debated the best conference in college basketball, Throughout the 1980s, the Big East with the Big East being one of the three became a staple in ESPN programming, considerations (other conferences were including the formation of Big Mon- the well-established ACC and Big Ten) day, the Monday evening showcase of (Kirkpatrick, et al., 1985). college basketball, which has lasted well over three decades. Every Monday night The company we no longer keep: during basketball season, ESPN featured The Jesuit Association & the Loss of Big East teams playing in prime time to Athletic Rivals (Content) sold out basketball arenas such as Mad- Perhaps most painful to the growth ison Square Garden, the , of the Big East was the attention of two or the Capital Center. of Holy Cross’ rivals, who were getting This extended the popularity and national recognition in athletics: George- the brand of the conference, which was town and Boston College. Although dif- quickly picked up by other networks. ferent in institutional structure (George- During the 1984-85 basketball season, town and Boston College are strong 29 games involving Big East teams were research universities, focusing on both aired on NBC or CBS, at the time a undergraduate and graduate education record of games for one confer- and have enrollments that exceed Holy ence to appear on network television in Cross), both Georgetown and Boston one season (Kirkpatrick, Wolff, & Kelly, College share similarities to Holy Cross 1985). in that they are private institutions built In addition to television, Sports Il- on a commitment to the Jesuit mission, lustrated had routinely covered not only are academically rigorous, and had expe- the Conference and its teams, but had rienced athletic success. in-depth features on its players and The formation and identity of the coaches, giving readers insight into the College of the Holy Cross has been personalities of the conference. Articles influenced by Georgetown, which was on the growth of Georgetown basket- the first Catholic college in the United ball (Gilbert, 1980), the Louie and Bowie States, beginning in 1789 (“About Holy show in Syracuse (DelNagro, 1980), the Cross, 2019”). In fact, Holy Cross would easy-going nature of New Yorker Chris not have started without Georgetown. Mullin at St. John’s (Kirkpatrick, 1984), “Unable to secure an educational charter and the flash of Dwayne “Pearl” Wash- from the legislature, the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 97 College of the Holy Cross conferred ments, appearing five times in the Final degrees under the authority of George- Four, the National Championship game town University from 1843-1865’ (“Holy three times, and winning one National Cross History”, 2019). Perhaps more Championship (1983-84) (Georgetown importantly, Georgetown supplied the NCAA Basketball Tournament History, most valuable resource – talented per- 2019). The two teams have not met on sonnel. The founder of Holy Cross, Fr. the since February 23, Benedict J. Fenwick studied and worked 1980 when Georgetown beat Holy Cross at Georgetown before moving to Holy 105-78. Cross. Also, the first president of Holy Although Cross, Thomas Mulledy, was also presi- has had a tremendous influence, without dent at Georgetown. “Many of the other question the biggest athletic rival for the Jesuit administrators and teachers, who Crusaders had always been another Jesuit were to introduce Ignatian education- school, Boston College. However, this al concepts into New England, gained rivalry started to become one sided in experience at Georgetown” (Kuzniewski, the early 1960s. Mike Madden, a reporter 1999, p.14). This pattern has contin- from the Providence Journal described the ued until today, as Holy Cross’ current separation that existed: president, Fr. Philip L. Boroughs, was In the decade from 1962 to 1972, Georgetown’s first-ever vice president confusion was the best word to for mission and ministry from 2003-2011 describe the HC sports program. (“Holy Cross About”, 2019). While one group of Jesuit admin- The association with Georgetown was istrators 40 miles down the pike also growing in men’s basketball. The at Newton willingly countenanced teams played each other once every year a drive for national sports promi- from 1967-1980, and were very com- nence at Boston College, another petitive playing to an almost even draw group of Jesuits in Worcester (Georgetown won 7 of the last 13 games decided academic quality was played). However, in the late 1970s, incompatible with athletic quality Georgetown had begun to lay a founda- (Madden, p. C1, 1975). tion of basketball success with the hiring of John Thompson. Coach Thompson The Boston College rivalry dates back and the university placed an emphasis on to a disputed football game in November improving and developing a more diverse 1896 and has continued in various athlet- basketball team (Gilbert, 1980). Since ic contests since (Kuzniewski, 1999). The then the direction of their basketball football series, called one of the greatest programs has gone in two different ways. in history, discontinued As a member of the Big East, George- in 1986 after Boston College, who had town has appeared in 30 NCAA Tourna- decided to play Division I-A football

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 98 (current day FBS designation), dominat- has gone to the NCAA Tournament 11 ed the series in the 1970s and 80s against times as a representative of the Big East Holy Cross, who chose to play Division Conference and another three times as a I-AA (current day FCS football) (Carew, member of the ACC (Boston College’s 2002). first season in the ACC was 2005-06). The two schools also met on the bas- Although Holy Cross has been to the ketball court and developed a great rival- NCAA tournament seven times since the ry, as some of New England’s finest play- 1979 season, it has hardly captured the ers would compete as members of the national exposure that the BC basketball BC or Holy Cross basketball teams. Bob program has been able to achieve. Cousy, who in addition to his playing Perhaps the greatest separation be- days at Holy Cross also served as a bas- tween rivals occurred on the football ketball coach at Boston College said of field in the early 1980s when Boston the rivalry, “I don’t care if its basketball, College captured national attention due football or tiddledywinks, BC vs. HC is to the meteoric rise of a very strong, intense rivalry” (Baccardi, winner . His ability to lead 1980, p.15). The teams had played each the team to dramatic victories and bring other regularly since 1906, and annually national attention to Boston College from 1945-2006 with Holy Cross win- from 1981-84 was unmatched. The cre- ning 58 of the 112 contests. However, scendo of the attention came on No- since Boston College joined the Big East vember 23, 1984, when Flutie connected and later the Atlantic Coast Conference, with Gerard Phelan on a “Hail-Mary” Holy Cross has only managed to win two pass on the last play of the game to beat of the last 18 contests. the University of Miami, 47-45. Boston Those numbers, however, might not College finished that season 10-2 and tell the entire story. Prior to the forma- ranked fifth in the final polls. The nation- tion of the Big East, Holy Cross had al attention and subsequent rise in atten- more than held their own against their tion and applications to Boston College rivals from Boston, winning 11 of the became known as the “Flutie Effect” 20 games played during the 1970s. As (Pope & Pope, 2009). athletic directors began forming the idea of a basketball-centric conference in the The 1980s: An Athletics Identity spring of 1978, Holy Cross had won six Crisis (Inner Context/Content) of the last seven meetings against Bos- As the Big East basketball programs ton College. One could argue that based began to take shape, and the nation on that recent success, Holy Cross was became enthralled with college athletics, a better basketball program at the time Holy Cross was searching for a new ath- than Boston College. Yet, Boston College letic identity. While other schools placed joined the newly formed Big East and an increased emphasis on athletics, in

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 99 particular the men’s basketball and foot- identity. The Crusaders were still very ball programs, Holy Cross was deempha- competitive as the 1980s began, allowing sizing their athletic programs. In addition alumni and fans to remember the glory to their rejection of the Big East, Holy years of the 1950s. The late 1970s had Cross declined the jump to I-A in foot- brought national attention to the small ball (Cebasuolo, 1982). When the NCAA private school and it appeared that bas- broke Division I football into two groups ketball success would once again grow (D I-A and D II-A), Holy Cross chose into a national force. the level with less of a financial commit- In 1979-80, Holy Cross joined Big ment and resources to compete, I-AA East members Syracuse, Georgetown (Horgan, 1977). and St. John’s in the Division I NCAA The football team was settling into Men’s Basketball Tournament. Their suc- the Division I-AA level and had experi- cess however was short lived as they were enced success on the gridiron. However, beaten by Iona College in the first round the success they had experienced in the and failed to make another NCAA Tour- 1980s was being received as unimpres- nament appearance throughout the 1980s sive, as games against common 1970s (their next appearance in the NCAA’s opponents (Syracuse, Rutgers, Army, and did not come until the 1992-93 season, Boston College) were replaced by games as a member of the Patriot League). against Lehigh, Lafayette, and Bucknell; The 1980s had introduced Holy Cross hardly major college football competi- basketball to two conferences, both of tion. But, the Crusaders had become one which were not perfect matches: the of the best I-AA programs in the 1980s, ECAC North (members from 1979/80- highlighted by two-way player Gordie 1981/82) and the Metro Atlantic Athletic Lockbaum, who led the 1986 team to a Conference (MAAC) (members from 10-1 record. The following year, Lock- 1983/84-1989/90). baum continued to play both running The MAAC had formed in 1981-82 back and defensive back receiving exten- and had quickly developed an identity as sive national exposure and finished third a decent City based, mid-ma- in the Heisman Trophy voting (McClo- jor basketball conference; but it would skey, 2011). One could argue that part never be compared with the programs of Lockbaum’s captivating story was the that were developing in the Big East. In small school, well-balanced student-ath- 1983-84, the MAAC expanded to eight lete that matched perfectly with Holy teams as LaSalle University from Phila- Cross’ philosophy (Tolland, 2012; Reilly, delphia and Holy Cross joined the origi- 1986). nal six schools (Iona, Fordham, Manhat- As the football team found a quiet tan, St. Peter’s, West Point, and Fairfield). niche as a Division I-AA program, the From a basketball standpoint, Holy basketball team struggled to find its Cross hit rock bottom, even in their new

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 100 league. In a Inquirer colum- of schools to abide by Title IX regula- nists Bruce DeSilva wrote, “In today’s tions and build a broad based athletic world of big-time college basketball – a department that represented the needs world of multimillion dollar television of all students, made it difficult to com- contracts and watered-down academic mit to a men’s basketball-centric confer- standards for athletes – idealistic little ence. It became clear that the brand for Holy Cross has been sucked into a black Holy Cross athletics was not going to be hole of failure.” (p 5D). In January 1985, based on basketball wins, but rather on five of the nine teams in the Big East providing a competitive athletic environ- were ranked in the Top 20, and Holy ment for strong academic students. Holy Cross was last in the MAAC (DeSilva, Cross needed a conference that shared 1985). In fact, the Crusaders struggled the same philosophy. in their seven years in the MAAC, finally The Patriot League was founded in breaking through with a first place reg- 1984 and began play as the Colonial ular season finish in 1989-90 (14-2 con- League in 1986 as a football only confer- ference record, 24-6 overall) (“2018-2019 ence. The creation of the Patriot League Holy Cross Men’s Basketball Fact Book”, was the result of the wanting 2019). an athletic conference as a “partner.” As their basketball team continued The Ivies were looking for schools that to struggle, administrators at Holy Cross they could compete against in non-con- had committed to a different approach ference competition that valued the same with their athletic programs and began athletic philosophies that they fostered. reshaping their Division I athletic pro- Perhaps the two most important ideals grams based on characteristics that had were a strong commitment to academics, nothing to do with television appear- which showcased student-athletes that ances or athletic rankings. Fr. Brooks were representative of the institution’s identified schools that had the same academic requirements, and a pledge to commitment to academic rigor, provid- not provide scholarships based on athlet- ing athletes need-based financial aid, and ic talent. Essentially, the Ivies were look- controlling athletic department expenses. ing for schools they could compete fairly with on the athletic playing fields. At the Finding a Home: The Formation of time, two people found this very appeal- the Patriot League (Process) ing: Fr. Brooks, and Dr. Peter Likens, At the time, Fr. Brooks paid close president at (Feinstein, attention to the landscape of college 2000). athletics and realized that to compete Fr. Brooks had become disenchanted at Division I more resources would be with the direction of big time athletics, needed, especially for football and bas- and started examining other ways to run ketball. Additionally, the responsibilities a Division I athletic department. Around

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 101 the same time the Big East athletic di- ceptions (”2015-16 Patriot League Policy rectors were creating their league, Fr. & Procedure Manual”, 2015). Brooks began speaking with Tony Maru- Basketball, and all the other sports ca, vice president at Princeton and a rep- teams, at the Patriot League schools resentative of the Ivy League presidents moved slower to sign up for the Ivy about possible entrance into the Ivy League philosophy. It was not until the League. After a short lived examination 1990-91 season that the members of the to see if Holy Cross could gain entrance Patriot League decided to stop athletic into the Ivy League, the presidents at the scholarships in other sports (particular- Ivies decided not to expand member- ly basketball) and become an all-sport ship. Rather the Ivy League presidents conference sponsoring 22 sports. Seven invited Holy Cross (and Colgate, Buck- members (Holy Cross, Lehigh, Bucknell, nell, Lafayette, Lehigh, as well as over a Army, Colgate, Lafayette, and Fordham) dozen strong academic institutions) to committed to the philosophies of no consider forming an associate league, athletic aid, which was a drastic change to where they would regularly play against programs that had been full scholarship the Ivies (Brooks,1983a; Brooks, 1983b; and especially hard on Holy Cross which Kuzniewski, 1999). Although disappoint- had the strongest tradition of basket- ed, “Holy Cross would have loved to ball success among any of the members get into the Ivies”, (J. Brooks, personal (Feinstein, 2000). Navy joined a year later conversation, June 11, 2012), Fr. Brooks and allowed the conference to become still liked the idea of competing against eligible for NCAA Tournament play like-minded schools and having a contin- (“Patriot League History”, 2016). Having ued association with the Ivies. a bid to the NCAA tournament eased The idea developed over conversa- some of the pressures faced by Holy tions in 1983-84 and presidents at Holy Cross administrators but certainly the Cross, Lehigh University, Bucknell Uni- ability to regularly compete against other versity, , and Lafayette Division I schools outside of the Patri- College, all signed on and in 1986 began ot League was now almost impossible the Colonial Athletic League for foot- (Donaldson, 2011). The hopes of return- ball (later named the Patriot League). ing Holy Cross to national prominence in Like the Ivies, each school in the Patriot basketball was unlikely under the scholar- League calculates an academic index, a ship model in the Patriot League. composite of GPA and other academic measures, for each recruited athlete. Both The Patriot League and the impact individual scores and team averages are on Holy Cross Basketball (Content) expected to be consistent with those of A minority of constituents, but a the student body and member schools “very vocal minority” was against stop- hold each other accountable for any ex- ping athletic aid, especially for basketball

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 102 (Feinstein, 2000, p.19). Holy Cross which and were 26-5 overall. They beat Bos- was allowed to phase out scholarships ton College (71-70), soundly defeated until 1993, had success again early on in Fordham (87-54), beat every Ivy school the Patriot League but quickly became on their schedule and took Final Four mediocre before reaching all-time lows participant Marquette, led by superstar for futility (back-to-back 7-20 seasons to the last minute, nar- in 1997-98 and 1998-99). In 1996, Holy rowly losing 72-68. Cross announced that they would restore Minus a slight dip in success in basketball scholarships, beginning with 2003-04, Holy Cross went on another the class of 1998. The Patriot League, three-year run of success from 2005-07, fearing that the conference would dis- including another tournament appear- band if Holy Cross left, agreed to es- ance in 2007. Although the Crusaders tablish in basketball made the NCAA tournament in 2016 by only. Beginning in the fall of 2013, all winning the Patriot League Tournament Patriot League members were permitted (despite finishing in th9 place during the to offer athletic scholarships in each of regular season), the Holy Cross men’s the 24 League sports (“Patriot League basketball team has once again struggled. History”, 2016). Over the last decade, they have regularly However, restoring athletic scholar- found themselves in the middle of the ships has not brought Holy Cross back Patriot League or lower. to national prominence; in fact, it has not even allowed the school to reestablish Administration’s Rationale: itself in the Northeast as a basketball Protecting the Academic Mission elite. Since joining the Patriot League in (Inner Context/Content) 1990-91, the Crusaders have won or tied Even as recent changes in college for the regular season championship six athletics presented a new wave of op- times, won the league tournament and portunity for some Division I athletic played in the NCAA tournament five departments to realign and perhaps times. On several occasions, Holy Cross strengthen their athletic identity, Fr. has come close to reestablishing itself Brooks remained comfortable with the as a strong mid-major basketball pro- decision he made over 30 years ago not gram. Holy Cross represented the Patriot to align with Big East schools and rath- League in the NCAAs three years in a er become a founding member of the row (2001-2003) and each year battled Patriot League. College documents and against the best basketball programs interviews reveal that the administration ( in 2001; in 2002; acknowledged that there were benefits Marquette in 2003). The best year was to aligning themselves with the Big East perhaps the 2002-03 season when they schools (favorable home schedule, tele- finished with a 13-1 conference record vision revenue, NCAA conference distri-

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 103 butions, exposure, benefits to recruiting was in the best academic interest excellent basketball players); however, of Holy Cross. I have no regrets any benefit gained would come with on it. (J. Brooks, personal commu- academic and financial sacrifices that the nication, June 11, 2012). school was not willing to make. Adminis- tration had major concerns about the Big In fact, Fr. Brooks stayed true to his East members admitting student-athletes word several times throughout the 1980s with academic standards and graduation as other leagues formed and expressed rates lower than the comparable criteria interest in Holy Cross. Not only did they used at Holy Cross (Brooks, 1979). reject the chance to gain membership At the heart of their decision was Fr. into the Big East, but also declined mem- Brooks’ insistence that athletics remain bership to the Eastern Eight (currently part of the academic mission of the known as the Atlantic 10) Conference in institution; specifically, that student-ath- the early 1980s (Connolly, 1982; Doyle, letes would be recruited to Holy Cross 1982). based on a strong academic record with The decision not to join the Eastern the goal to graduate in four years. Fr. Eight raised more concern among the Brooks could foresee the amplified com- national media and alumni base because mercialization, academic problems, and everyone (including Holy Cross admin- the increased resources needed to build istrators) had the chance to watch the the infrastructure to support athletics; all immediate success of the Big East (An- things that Holy Cross did not want to derson, 1982). In many people’s mind, be a part of, at least in Fr. Brooks’ mind. joining the Eastern Eight would give Fr. Brooks summed up the environment Holy Cross one last chance to align with of college athletics in the late 1970s: strong basketball schools. At the time, I got a glimpse of what was go- the Eastern Eight consisted of West ing on in the early days and I just Virginia, Rutgers, George , didn’t like it. It looked to me like Duquesne, St. Bonaventure, Massachu- they were just messing around, wa- setts, , and Pittsburgh. By tering down the academic standing 1982, Pittsburgh was leaving to go the of the schools…And they were Big East and Penn State and Temple going to get the TV contracts and were going to be added for six sports, all that. And once I saw the mon- including basketball. Holy Cross, after ey on the table I knew it wouldn’t great debate, declined the invitation to work out because…it was all join the Eastern Eight (Connolly, 1982; about money. So, No, No! I would Doyle, 1982). Yet, former athletic direc- not sell Holy Cross out academ- tor Ron Perry looks back with no regret. ically for money. I never made a Although early on he had his reserva- decision here that I did not think tions about the missed opportunities to

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 104 join the Big East (and later the Eastern Past case study examples have sup- Eight). ported the use of athletics to build I expressed some of the reser- brand equity and develop tangible results vations I had. And I think it was (Bouchet & Hutchinson, 2010; Bruening a good dialogue, certainly when & Lee, 2007; Clark et al, 2009); in partic- it was done I said fine let’s get ular, when a school such as Holy Cross on with what we’ve got. It was had team (success, star players), organi- the right decision so it was never zational (strong reputation and tradition, where I left the room and was conference affiliation), and market relat- upset with him [Fr. Brooks]. I saw ed (attractive media deals, support) suc- the good in what was happening cesses (Gladden et al, 1998). The results with the school and that was what of this case highlight several characteris- I liked about the whole situa- tics that would suggest that Holy Cross tion and I didn’t want to see that would have been able to enhance its change. I give him [Fr. Brooks] institutional profile using athletics, similar an A+ for his foresight. Looking to what other past and current Big East back it would have been nice and schools have done in the last four de- everything but there’s no way we cades, namely Jesuit schools Boston Col- could have competed today with lege and Georgetown. Holy Cross built a what’s going on out there now, loyal base because of athletic success there’s no way. (R. Perry, personal due to the recruitment of some of the communications, June 10, 2012). best student-athletes in New England, a strong academic and athletic reputation, Discussion and a very competitive athletic schedule The purpose of this study was to with regional rivalries. The one anteced- examine Holy Cross’ decision not to join ent discussed by Gladden et al., (1998) the Big East Conference in 1979. By pro- that was missing for Holy Cross was the viding a glimpse of the changing athletic strong conference affiliation and the me- environment since the 1970s, this study dia deals that became prevalent once the highlights the impact this organizational Big East formed. change has had on the institution and Holy Cross’ decision not to be judged the athletic department. Specifically, it by their relationship with athletic peers examines the commitment to de-empha- goes against the current trend of the size athletics at a time when many insti- importance of conference affiliation tutions were using the growth of college (Gorza, 2010; Quirk, 2004 Switzer, 2009; sports and its financial relationship with Hoffer & Pincin, 2015). Past research television to help market their university suggests that administrators have a ten- identity. dency to align their schools with major

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 105 Division I institutions to achieve ben- phasizing big-time athletics. Presidential efits associated with such relationships leadership at both the University of (Bouchet & Hutchinson, 2010; Clark, et Chicago and Holy Cross wanted to stay al 2009; Duderstadt, 2003; Gladden et away from the “win at all cost” mentality al., 1998; Kramer, 2016; Weaver, 2007; (p. 105). Although the decision came 40 2010). Yet scholars warn against the years apart (University of Chicago dis- overemphasis of athletics and the failure counted scholarship football in 1939), to adhere to an institution’s core values; both schools were aware of the long- leading to a devaluing of the organi- term, consistently rising investment that zation’s profile (Feezell, 2015; French, was needed to either move into their 2004; Hutchinson & Bennett, 2012; new conference or maintain their current Hutchinson, 2013; Shulman & Bowen, membership. In both cases, the leader- 2001; Simon, 2008; Sperber, 2000). This ship would not compromise the integrity case presents a prominent example of a of their institution’s academic mission. A school that made a very difficult decision difference between the two cases is that to deemphasize athletics, adding to the the University of Chicago’s leadership limited scholarship devoted to this type felt it was necessary to drop completely of organizational change (Bouchet & out of Division I and move to Division Hutchinson, 2011; Bouchet & Hutchin- III. Fr. Brooks believed that Holy Cross son, 2012; Hutchinson & Bouchet, 2013; could still compete at the Division I Hutchinson, 2013; Jones, 2014. The level, however the need to find partners contribution to the literature not only that would commit to the balance of builds off past deemphasis research in academics and athletics was paramount. college athletics, but provides a thorough Thus, the answer for Holy Cross was the description and reflections from admin- Patriot League. Another subtle but im- istrators that had to make the decision portant difference between the two cases at a time when Holy Cross athletics was is the decision on the final outcome. flourishing. No other case in previous Bouchet and Hutchinson clearly state the literature has reviewed deemphasis at president’s decision at the University of such a critical point in time at a univer- Chicago was “not only courageous but sity, making the administrative decision correct” (p. 110). The goal of this study, and its ripple effect on other institutional however was not to determine if the changes such a valuable addition to the decision was correct, but rather present scholarship of college athletics. the rationale and the historical context of Perhaps most similar to this case is the ramifications of the decision. As the Bouchet and Hutchinson’s (2012) study college athletic environment continues to on the University of Chicago, which change and influence mid-major schools, identified similar reasons provided by the decision not to join the Big East may administrators as rationale for de-em- be viewed differently. Scholarship should

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 106 continue to question whether schools research should explore other points of such as Holy Cross really need the bene- view not considered in this study – such fits of big time college athletics. Clearly, as Holy Cross students, alumni, and the decision makers at Holy Cross would fans’ perceptions of this decision. From align with research that disputes the a broader perspective, future research notion that conference affiliation results could use this study as a model to exam- in increased institutional benefits (i.e. -fi ine de-emphasizing conference affiliation nancial gains, peer association, improved and the impact on the university profile. admission rates) (Bouchet & Hutchinson, 2012; Jones, 2014; Weiner; 2009). Acknowledgements Finally, this study adds to the liter- The author would like to acknowl- ature that utilizes the contextualist ap- edge the College of the Holy Cross Ar- proach to study organizational change in chives and Special Coillections for their sport. Exploring the context, content and willingness to support this work. process of change in sport organizations provides insight into the complexities References and long lasting impact of such a deci- 2012 Holy Cross Baseball Yearbook sion. Similar to past research, Pettigrew’s (2012). 1952 NCAA Champions. Re- contextualist approach (1987) provides trieved from http://www.goholycross. a meaningful framework to understand com/sports/m-basebl/2011-12/files/ the magnitude of such a transformation Postseason.pdf in sport organizations (Caza, 2000; Cou- 2012-2013 Holy Cross Football Recruit- sens, Babink and Slack, 2001; Girginou ing Guide (2012). Retrieved from & Sandanski, 2008; Thibault & Babiak, Holy Cross Athletics website: http:// 2005; Weaver, 2007; 2010). www.goholycross.com/sports/m- footbl/2012-13/files/12-hc-fb-rg.pdf Limitations and Future Research 2015-2016 Patriot League Policy and A limitation of this study is the late Procedure Manual (2016). Retrieved time frame. Data collection relied heavily from the Patriot League website: on archival data and two administrators http://www.patriotleague.org/docu- with extensive experience at Holy Cross. ments/2016/4/11/201516PLpolicy- It is possible that due to the decades of AndProceduresV2.pdf?id=18 time in between, important data and dif- 2018-2019 Holy Cross Men’s Basketball ferent perspectives have been lost. How- Fact Book (2019). Retrieved from ever, this study does present a strong Holy Cross Athletics website: http:// foundation because of the significant and www.nmnathletics.com/fls/33100/ well-kept archives, and the opportunity sports/m-basketball/2018-2019/18- to interview two of the major decision 19-hc-mbb-fb.pdf?DB_OEM_ makers. Building from these findings, ID=33100&_ga=2.205390608.

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Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 112 Pope, D. & Pope, J. (2009). The impact television broadcast cartel. The Anti- of college sports success on the trust Bulletin, 49, 799-820. quantity and quality of student ap- Simon, R. (2008). Does athletics under- plications. Southern Economic Journal mine academics? Examining some 75(3).750-80. issues. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport 1, Quirk, J. (2004). College football confer- 40–58. ences and competitive balance. Mana- Solomon, J. (2012, December 27). Con- gerial and Decision Economics, 25, 63-75. ference realignment: Follow the Reilly, R. (10 November 1986). A Won- money in college sports over the derful Throwback, Sports Illustrated, past decade. The Birmingham News. Retrieved from http://sportsillus- Retrieved from http://www.al.com/ trated.cnn.com/vault/article/maga- sports/index.ssf/2012/12/confer- zine/-MAG1065445/1/index.htm ence_realignment_follow.html Rhoden, W. (2012, March 4) The Sperber, M. (2000). Beer and circus. How Big East is still paying for a fum- big-time college sports is crippling ble. The New York Times. Re- undergraduate education. New York: trieved from http://www.ny- Henry Holt. times.com/2012/03/05/sports/ Sweitzer, K. (2009). Institutions are ncaabasketball/big-east-pays- changing their athletic conference the-price-for-not-embracing- affiliation as a way to advance their football.html?_r=4&ref=williamcrho- ambitions. New Directions for Higher den&pagewanted=all& Education, 148, DOI: 10.1002/he.368. Sandy, R., & Sloane, S. (2004). Why do Thelin, J. (1996). Games colleges play: Scan- U.S. colleges have sports programs? In J. dal and reform in intercollegiate athletics. Fizel, & R. Fort (Eds.), Economics : Johns Hopkins University of College Sports (pp. 87-109). West- Press port, CT: Praeger Publishers. Thibault, L., & Babiak, K. (2005). Orga- Schramm, W. (1971, December). Notes on nizational changes in ’s sport case studies of instructional media projects. system: Toward an athlete-centred Working paper for the of Ed- approach. European Sport Management ucational Development, Washington, Quarterly, 5(2), 105-132. DC. Tolland, J. (2012, December 19). Holy Shulman, J., & Bowen, W. (2001). The Cross waiting on new Catholic bas- Game of Life: College Sports and Edu- ketball league. Worcester Telegram & cational Values. Princeton: Princeton Gazette. Retrieved from: http://www. University Press. telegram.com/article/20121219/ Siegfried, J.J., Gardner-Burba, M. (2004). COLUMN11/112199869/0# The College Football Association

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue Two Weaver, 2019 113 Tribou, T. (2011). Sponsorship: Associ- Weaver, A. (2015). New policies, new ating image attributes with specific structure, new problems? Reviewing sports and particular teams. Interna- the NCAA’s autonomy model. Elon tional Journal of Sports Marketing and Law Review, 7(2) 551-570. Sponsorship, 12(2), 138–152. Wingerter, A. (2011, September 23). Vaccaro, M. (2009). Party likes it 1985. Winging it: What if? The Crusader. Re- Big East trying to match its most trieved from: http://www.thehccru- magical year. The New York Post, p.54. sader.com/sports/winging-it-what-if- Weaver, A. (2007). Upward reclassification 1.2609374?pagereq=1 of intercollegiate athletic departments to Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: Design Division I: A case study approach. Ph.D. and methods (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks, dissertation, The University of North CA: Sage Publications. Carolina at Greensboro. Wolff, A. (2011, October 20). Something Weaver, A. (2010). Reclassifying prestige: special in the air. Sports Illustrated. The influence of history on the deci- Retrieved from http://sportsillustrat- sion to reclassify to Division I: A case ed.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/ study. Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate MAG1191296/index.htm Athletics, 3, 131-153

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