Ethnicity in Contemporary Islamic Republic of Iran

CEU eTD Collection Ethnicity in Contemporary Islamic Republic of Iran In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of the Caseof “South Azarbaijan” Advisor: Professor Anton Pelinka Nationalism StudiesProgram Central European University Central European Gevorg G. Avetikyan G. Gevorg Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted 2009 by CEU eTD Collection ILORPY...... 61 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 57 ...... CONCLUSION REGIONAL 39 FACTORS ACROSS THE ...... STATE BORDERS 39 CHAPTER 4...... FEDERALISM 24 AS A SOLUTION...... 24 CHAPTER 3...... LANGUAGE 12 AND ETHNICITY IN IRAN...... 12 CHAPTER 2...... 7 THE DEBATES ...... IN THE LITERATURE 7 CHAPTER 1...... 2 ...... INTRODUCTION 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS...... T C A U "T HE ROSSBORDER NATIONALISM UNIQUE APPROACH TO FEDERAL DEMOCRACY NITED HESE PEOPLE SHOULD NOT BE CALLED MINORITIES R EPUBLIC OF A ZERBAIJAN VS A ZERBAIJAN ASA . F EDERAL TABLE OFCONTENTS TABLE ...... 39 ...... I RAN " KIN STATE KIN ...... 27 ...... 30 ...... 42 ...... " "...... 24 …"...... 1 CEU eTD Collection differentiate between those in Iran and those in the Republic of Azerbaijan the terms Azarbaijani the Azerbaijan of Republic in the those and in Iran those between differentiate own, supposedly Turkic language identity indue tothe spoken the region. To meaning from an Iranian northern the provinces adistinctof Iran bearing nation to its http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ir00000_.html (accessed April 12, 2009). 2 a slight difference of spelling the word with an 1 and Turkic speaking Iranian Azarbaijanis. The latter have and speakingAzarbaijanis. Turkic Azeris Iranian beencalled The internet raiseArabs, has web-sites grown Turkmens Kurds,Baluchis, to issueof the such as ofmodern resources network entire and an declared been repeatedly have claims about the existence of major problems such as unfair treatment of minoritiesHowever, sight. of be out to seemed have in Iran minorities and nationalism including issues allegedmass destruction, of many creating weapons while of plans other and power nuclear of sole problem the limited to beenalmost has yearsfew recent the single nation (the nation single The Constitution noacknowledges ethnic minorities meaning "allthat Muslims form a any bestow like,not privilege". race, language, do the and enjoy color, equal rights; belong, they which to tribe or group ethnic the whatever Iran, of people "All declares: in 1979 adopted Iran oftheIslamicRepublic Constitution the of article nineteenth of population)the divide refuses and to people basedon their origin, ethnic the while majority the comprise which Persians, (including ethnicities all excludes which Islamic, decadesthree following the IslamicRevolution of 1979 couldbe defined as pan- Iran. of north to the border state the across AzerbaijanAzerbaijanis identifiedjust Republicof population the with often of and the Article 19, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran; available at Whether Azeri or Azerbaijani, Azari or Azarbaijani, the notion of the terms and even and terms the of notion the Azarbaijani, or Azari Azerbaijani, or Azeri Whether The media coverage of issues related with the Islamic Republic of during Iran of Islamic Republic the with issues related of coverage The media The claimed governmentpolicy in the Islamic of Republic Iran duringthelast and Azerbaijani ummah )" and stating that the duty of the government is "formulating government the of duty the that stating and )" will be used accordingly. INTRODUCTION e instead of a after z varies greatly from 1 or 2 2 CEU eTD Collection or there is a real common agreement and understanding of the nationalist discourses. nationalist the of and understanding agreement isareal or common there the answer question whether their cooperation to and mutual issupport limited toposting links virtual necessary is analysis An activists. nationalist other and Arab Kurdish, by web-sitesother butsimilarlinkscreated content of enough, providing to the usually interestingly are, which of anumber others, as aswell web-sites www.azadtabriz.com and www.oursouthazerbaijan.com the are as Examples well. online resources the 5 (MIT Press, 2002). 4 3 provinces of Iranimposed as by the Iranian andbeshouldnot as interpreted an issue of facingan group oppressed thechallenges therefore citizens Iranian alienand Azarbaijanis the to related authorities,matter the that out point to attempting and that labelling "barricades" the of side other the on stand which Atabaki, suchasTouraj authors the northern by proposed perception and theses the byarguing against throughout book the matter constructing animage of dividedthe nation. Shebrings up herideas and view of the divided Araxriver. by the brethren or fatherland divided the of notion a and nation Azerbaijani an of existence identity, Azeri a distinct of statements firm include in Iran nationalists Azarbaijani identity. separate of of bearers theirsa distinctive as recognize of the Muslim distinguishedsegments population bya language the specific minorities (Zoroastrian, thewithin state and Christian Jewish andhasfailedIranians) to ethnicthe led the acknowledgmentof to identity.some This principle religious cultural cultural unity of Islamicthe world". and economic, political, the about bring to strive constantly must anditpeoples, its general cultivating policies with a viewto the friendship and unity allof Muslim Many supporters of Manysupporters movement ideaandthe the have beenquite actively general using BrendaShaffer, Article 11, Some of the basic concepts that lie at the grounds of the arguments provided by The Constitution Borders andBrethren: Iranand the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity Güney Az Güney 4 Brenda Shaffer’s recently published book isbook an example Brenda recently of Shaffer’s published . Ω rbaycan 3 Thus, thepriority is giventothereligious butnot (South Azarbaijan) (South 5 bears a direct political 3 CEU eTD Collection 6 and Iranians, which, undoubtedly, is not limitedandis Persians they not which, tothe Iranians, are understood undoubtedly,(as identity andfrom of andsupraethnic of perspective perception Iran the all-inclusive the the nationalists, the claim by context exclusive rather and a different in used Although here. argument mentioned beline areprovided, in applied web-sites nationalistcould above amateur with the other and sources external links to numerous where say "web-platforms", better or Amotto-likenationalistconflict. onone canbefound that statement of the web-sites point of view claiming about the existence of an age-old Persian-Azeri "ethnic clash" or nationalist the of fallacy the demonstrate to aim an with against argue to intends thesis Itwouldbe this exactly what of state. also subjects the Azarbaijani dominance upon the of chauvinistic Persian iswhich pattern a long-lasting accordingto there perspective, nationalistic simplified a rather from parties by above-mentioned the interpreted been these issues, which could be viewed as internal social problems of all Iranians have Azarbaijanis based on theirlinguisticand differences ethnicidentities. Yet, many of or Persians the to specifically "allocated" not are and both by shared often are non-Muslim Iranian citizensandgovernmentits subjects. In other words,theexisting of Muslim the problems or speaking either Farsi central between affairs the of amatter interior is Iranian andimply, primarily or the Turkic dialect of andforeign have which, authors media would thesis issue, the putupon asthe argue Azarbaijan Azerbaijan" as well as the relevancy of the accent the Azarbaijani nationalists and Turkish nationalism inIran appropriatenessthe of questioning term "South "South". the with "North" ideasconnotationjustify which claims "reunion" could also of or of the territorial http://www.turkiran.com http://www.turkiran.com (accessed 26May 2009). The current research is aiming to look at the specific case of the Azarbaijani "Iran is Persia" not is still a valid argument if approached argument valid a still is 4 6 CEU eTD Collection where it turned out, quite surprisingly, that much of the discontent and both negative or negative both and discontent the of much that surprisingly, quite out, turned it where Iran, to before avisit and after made conclusions curious and personal observations my based on a large extent areto and opinion popular the of research statistics-based 7 support of popularthe masses. in enjoy hardly the managing Irancould the state specificthe governmentor way of themselves and their state, although in both confidence of one kind some might display still possibly Iranians many spheres, economic expect that an Islamic form of if they admit that some reforms could orshould beimplemented especially in the socio- even contrary, the Quite country. the in have they situation the with upset is population the of majority a significant that stated be could it neither Iranians all to refer prominent. been have Iranians Azarbaijani the which among well as groups other the by extent a largelinguisticPersians) dominant (the butto by a implemented not group single as, on the all just butof aswell, Iran provinces in others northwestern not only concern those the other hand,be the theparticipation construction linguisticparadoxical exampleregardless identity religious even of could their(a and of some Christian Armenianswith the results of the ofIslamic Revolution, which hadin inspiredthe large discontent massesthegeneral and of people government Islamiccentral by the provided Islamic that than other information Revolution), Republic equally was andothers. of Georgia) Republic Christian successfullyIslam centuries ago unliketheir in "ethnicbrethren" predominantlythe Orthodox to (whohaveconverted Georgians modernKurds, speaking Iraniansinthe terms), today- those for whom Farsi is the mother tongue) but also Azarbaijanis (the Turkic- These generalized assumptions are not pretending to provide grounded proof of pretendingprovide These arenot a of grounded proof assumptions to generalized It should also be mentioned that these concerns or anxieties do not necessarily The sense of insecurity, isolation from the outer world, limited access to 7 5 CEU eTD Collection problematic than what can be read in the works referred to in to this research. referred can bereadin works what the less than problematic far sounded Isfahan in church Christian the of custodian Armenian an or Tehran by Issues etc. introduced livingAzarbaijani in of whether a Turkic-speaking ethnicity, parts other of government andeconomic world:the social hope for abetter hardships, in many opinions similar other from greatly differ not did comments These Persian. "chauvinist" moreover- or anti-clerical or, be local that flavor have astrong always necessarily not do officials) minor as well as employees University and students Iranians bus taxi the and (shopkeepers, drivers, employeesstudentdormitory, of were expressedbyregular state of affairs current that about the positive comments eliminate the diversity within the Islamic Republic of Iran. of Republic Islamic the within diversity the eliminate than manageis rather would for akind some room whether there of which system, between Iran withand other similar states populations in diverse to see an attempt Finally, the thesis will try to look at the possibilities of drawing parallels drawing of possibilities at the look to try will thesis the Finally, 6 CEU eTD Collection Politically active figures in the neighboring Republic of Azerbaijan as well as some of some as well as Azerbaijan of Republic neighboring in the figures active Politically Azerbaijanis". "Southern the of discourse nationalist the up build that works and 8 groups or of sympat has also referred to numerous web-sites individuals,of nationalist parties, organizations research This warfare. for informational weapon a strong become hasalso instrument, twentieth centuryand quicklydeveloped into awidely available effective and Finally Internet, asanew whichemerged phenomenon, last duringquarter of the the wider modernaccess tothe of andas radio meanssuch the television. capabilities media such periodicals,as andbooks, nextthe pamphlets generations already gained print through later and rates) literacy low as well as materials printing or writing to previously be it by could often mouth of the doneprimarily limited word (due to access Nationalism community". imagined nationally the of embryo the invisibility, visible particular, secular, in fellow-readers] their [the means also"formed, newly the emerging by provided The fixingcommunication languages. eventuallystandardizing the and to led also but information exchange and share to helped it only Not consciousness. the of role important the emphasized has context, different slightly a in although Anderson, and forbeenideology important advancing necessary Benedictforward. the nationalist Benedict Anderson, Benedict print-languages Brenda Schaffer’s works and the nationalist web sites are not the only sources Access to information, dissemination and publication of the theories has always has theories the of publication and dissemination information, to Access (New York:Verso, 1991), 43-45. h izers Imagined Communities: Reflections ontheOrigin and Spread of and . The Debates in the Literature print-capitalism Chapter 1. in providing the bases for national for bases the providing in 8 If 7 CEU eTD Collection 10 Azerbaijan, 1941-1946 9 description of descriptionAzerbaijani identity, of the and Tadeusz Swietochowski 11 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1992). establishment of Azerbaijaniestablishment 1918asthe“high inHe refersof 1920. RepublicSoviet to of Azerbaijanisarticulatebegannational1905, when their to until aspirations, the between Russian Revolution the period focusing on the is century.primarily work The 20th the openingof with atthe Iran- borderland Russia’s MuslimsTurkic-speaking of the Azerbaijanis- the among identity national of rise the describes Swietochowski Azerbaijani identity.Azerbaijan of question major andthe to some theirof works population”. motherland and a system of national values in minds the of Iranianthe Azerbaijani claims that it “embodied the character of a national movement. It formed a sense of themovement” author the “21 the Azer to Azerbaijani people.In reference history the of aspects of some and Azerbaijan" issue"Southern of the perceive Republic Azerbaijani which serves as an example of how the semi-official and semi-academic figures of the Azerbaijan atBaku StateUniversity,a professor and hasrecently published a book homeland. Azerbaijani vast the of part southern in the live compatriots fellow the of number larger much a that assumption the of creation the to contributing been the Western authors, who have demonstrated some familiarity with the issue, have also (Cambridge: Cambridge University 1985). Press, Azerbaijan, the ShapingofNational 1905-1920: IdentityinaMuslim Community ColumbiaYork: University Press, 1995) also Swietochowski, Tadeusz Jamil Hasanli, Audrey L. Altstadt, Tadeusz Swietochowski, Tadeusz Other authors Other authors such Altstadt,as Audrey Jamil Hasanli, a member of the Milli Majlis (Parliament) of the Republic of Republic the of (Parliament) Majlis Milli the of member a Hasanli, Jamil 9 At the Dawn of the ColdWar:At theDawn of theSoviet-American Crisis over Iranian The AzerbaijaniTurks: Power Rule andIdentityunder Russian (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2006). Russia and Azerbaijan: a Borderland inTransition a Borderland Russia andAzerbaijan: 10 who also suggests adiscussion andalso who 11 havededicated Russian (New 8 CEU eTD Collection 12 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999). 13 (London: British Academy Press, 1993). the Azerbaijanithe Republic. watermark of the national movement" which was determined by the proclamation of subject for Firoozeh Kashani-Sabet’s work Kashani-Sabet’s for Firoozeh subject some basis for further development of the thesis proposed by the current research. provided andby above debate tothe andhe so significantly contributes provides doing questionsa greatextentauthor refutes and of the to arguments nationalistthe discourse surviving members periodthe of of in government autonomous Iranian Azarbaijan. The with materials interviews and and Soviet American, French, as as British, well sources Azeri and Persian, on Atabaki Turkish, Azarbaijan. indraws Iranian identity ethnic on its effect and regime RezaShah’s autocratic the of reforms drastic the 1905-06, including the role played byAzarbaijani in politicians Constitutionalthe Revolution of introduces work backgroundof the Iranian political historyin the 20th century embraces all of its peoples, as well as nationalism, which Iranian of explanation togiveadescription and theattempts Sabet primarily Turkic-speaking populationKashani- afocus With on geography, ethnicity. ideas of older were unleashed, refining of the nationality and citizenship of ideas new borderlands, these On nation. the defining in argues,playedrole adominant surrounding author the borders them, andtheconflicts fluctuating viewed theirfictions," thewaysin often or Iranians "frontier which the conceptions of national geography influenced cultural and political change. The Touraj Touraj Atabaki, Firoozeh Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh A completely differentview point of isintroduced by Atabaki,Touraj The question of identity and in this case the Iranian identity is the central Azerbaijan: and Ethnicity Autonomy inTwentieth-Century Iran Frontier Fictions: Shaping theIranian Nation, 1804-1946 13 where she explores how the Iranian the how explores whereshe 12 whose 9 CEU eTD Collection Nationalism,” 16 Press, 2004). 15 ; Nov 25, 2008.Personal email. 14 introduction. in the on world:the interpreting,seeing, waysof representing and the social asnoted world, in butperspectives things world the arenot nation race, and journalistsethnicity, etc; although is by stillethnic perceived group asahomogenous actor many authors, that argues Brubaker Rogers and politics. nationalism ethnicity, between correlation the as well as phenomena and terms the of understanding an for be essential would other possibly similar cases, the works of Brubaker the Rogers similar cases, possibly other theoretical point ofview as well as to attempt todraw parallelsbetween the Iranian and research: proposed the to referring letter commentary in recent a has stated Iran, particularly and University of New York, whose primary interests as a historian include the Middle East Abrahamian,matter of identity or feelinga of kinship with Distinguishedthose in the Republic of Azerbaijan. Ervand it is not quite Professor a "movement" as ofit is Historyoften declared hasface.literature to nationalist Azarbaijani view thatthe opposing at to beBaruch and that itAzarbaijan isCollege not always a and provinces. the City These two works could be viewed as the antithesis and the Anthony D. Smith,“Culture, Community and Territory: The Politics of Ethnicity and Rogers Brubaker, Rogers Ervand Abrahamian, “RE: Questions on Iranian Studies,” Indeed, in order to look at the questions of ethnicity and identity from from identity look atthequestionsethnicity the andin of to Indeed, order of Shi'ism. There is a strong Iranian identity. just not because Iranians and identify as Azeristhemselves and Most nuanced. complex more much is It problem". "nationality a typical not is issue Azeri The that suggests Azarbaijani the caseinIran to approach inclusive However, anall International Affairs Ethnicity WithoutGroups , Vol. 72, No. 3, (1996), 446. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University 14 15 and Anthony D. Smith 10 16 CEU eTD Collection 17 proposal the wouldbesuggests, the as which movement, Azerbaijan" of matter "Southern recent relatively the to reference be little to seems still there publications, other of number vast is a there although and Azarbaijan of issue the with dealing for assets significant be will scholars mentioned Abrahamian or Kashani-Sabet, as well as the theoretical approaches of the above- research. managing the state. possible Iran viewsof a future with federal/consociational probably rules and ways of be an important sourcefunctioning. for Arend Lijphart's theorycomparative of consociational democracies would particularly methodology keep and state amulticultural society or to aspects tools basic understanding the to look at the itsthroughout history, Iran understanding hardlycould be possible without case of Iran and Theory andPractice Arend Lijphart, Both the nationalist discourse and that of the authors suchasAtabaki, authors of the andthat discourse nationalist the Both Finally, since hasbeen Iran and state a multicultural polyethnic 17 Thinking About Democracy: Power Sharing Rule and Majority in (New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2008). primary case to undergo an examination and 11 CEU eTD Collection 19 April 12, 2009). ( accessed http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav031008a.shtml Eurasia Insight 18 similar to that of the "brethren" various and groups formoreover ascribing anidentity from different of that restandthe to be the sole andmost powerful basisidentifying for "ethnicity"the and origin the of prove notnecessarily casedoes in seen this clearly difference linguistic the butof Iran, largely of language Turkicthe northwestern the provinces among the spoken Iranians not itdoes too much take Iranians. Indeed, notice Farsi to and between difference the different and in some cases even alien exist asdistinct, there parts do "ethnicpopulations" these that a presumption articles with of the larger society or community of the influenceethnic opinion significant the among Azeri population there". into programs Iran Liberty "in Azeri-language for Europe/Radio broadcastinga bid to Free Radio the finance to project new a has launched of State USDepartment the that known became it after affairs internal its into intervention foreign be to believed it issues of issues languageof ethnicity,insufficient policy, minority rights and encouraging Republic saw this decision as an attempt of destabilizing the country through the use of expected, given the fact of the harsh hostility between Iran and the USA. The Islamic Azerbaijan. of Brenda Shaffer, Joshua Kucera, "Iran: USGovernmentPlanning Azeri-Language Broadcasts to Iran," As itis often like case,the terms Azeri "ethnic population" are usedin such with what concerned hasbeen Iran of Republic Islamic of the The government The news raisedid questions and causedanxieties in as it Iran, would be (March 10, 2008); available at Borders and Brethren. Language andEthnicity in Iran 19 across the river, that is the population of the Republic Chapter 2. 18 12 CEU eTD Collection April April 03, 2009). (accessed https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html 20 all countries, estimates the totalan project of online CIA,the systematicallyinformationprovides which updated about population of Iran atnationalists. active as about aswell states and organizations by foreign 66.5 million. provided mostly character, have which figures, a speculative however, are, There terms. mentioned above the in minorities as be considered could who those, of numbers the regarding data statistic any contain reliable not do country inthe population censuses the therefore, ethnicdistinctiveness, or linguistic with their in accordance its citizens and languages for many centuries. "linguisticor issues"in has country,the been home which diverse to cultures, religions andlinguistic and borders arguing that there is nosuch problem "ethnic minorities"of general nation anti-Western break-upanda forced attitudes fearsof along of the ethnic Republic and though) from the rebuttals Iranianthe side influenced strongly by the bewhoare considered recognized as ethnic minorities to (not such bythe Islamic need for Iranian torethinkauthorities central the government’s policies towardsthose, the about warning and others Amnesty International UN, asthe such andorganizations USA) (primarily the states Western mostly of andaccusations statements to extended throughout the entire twentietha surprisingly and newly ithasemerged phenomenon; been accompanying Iran century.been however, not, has minorities of issue TheThe majority. the from claimsregions particular of on the two sides couldmovementssecessionist based on,in linguistic case, this differencesof inhabitants the further be linguistic diversity. inmost Since cases figures the reflecting the ethnic and linguistic and ethnic, religious in of terms population republic's about the data some statistic "Iran", As mentioned above, the Islamic government does not differentiate and identify and differentiate not does government Islamic the above, mentioned As The World Factbook, CIA ; available at The World Factbook 20 It includes It 13 , CEU eTD Collection both between the West (let us assume for a moment, that there is a clearly isaclearly defined there that moment, for a Westus assume (let between the both objective maximum tothe andinfluencepossiblebear no extent relations broader of language. formdialects just Persian to of the other each Gilaki and a Persiannot shouldclearly definedbe drawn and and created and imaginary really making rather of example orjust another speakersis Persian how existingclose Mazandaraniassumptionsethnic in group case first the mostand including then probably them thewithin 58%of as to whereand Persianthe border as aseparate Gilaki and tothe Mazandarani Finally, 8%referring Turkic the dialects. betweenare to a above-mentioned 26%of tothe added it beeasily also could Turkic family, therefore northwestern languageismemberthe of amongprovinces, thea Iranians spoken moreover, is Turkish "ethnic the section, alanguage,astheTurkic whichjust groups" separately under the definition of "languages" while no "ethnic Turks" are mentioned in well:Kurds, Arabs, and Balochis. On otherthe hand, 1%of Turkish speakers appear with as 26% of canbenoted others total Discrepancies the population. reaching about included within linguistic larger the group of Turkic andTurkic dialectspeakers, Azeris" are 24%"ethnic while the is added, speakers dialect andPersian Persian One 7%of thattothe51%"ethnic another cannote, Persians" Turkish 2%. 1%,other TurkicKurdish andTurkic 9%,Luri dialects 26%, Balochi Arabic2%, 1%, 1%.Andother in caselanguages of thenumbers are:Persian and 58%, Persiandialects Gilaki and Mazandarani Kurd8%, 7%,Arab Lur 2%,3%, Baloch Turkmen 2%, 2%, isAzeri CIAFactbook the population following:Persian 24%, to the 51%, according Iran's comprising major groups ethnic of the Thepercentage linguistic differences. and ethnic indistinctiveness "ethnicity" caseisthis shaped identified and in parallel and along with that here from conclude could one identical, almost are Iran of composition There is no reason to believe that either of the two conflicting opinions are conflicting opinions two eitheris of the to believe reason that There no 14 CEU eTD Collection Press, 2008),2. 22 Ferdowsi. 21 that: notes he time same the at but others", all like contested and is"fluid identity national Iranian the that finds studies, Iranian of field in the scholar a prominent Abrahamian, a multilingual state with a diverse population butyet a strong "Iranian" identity. Ervand international relations at all isbut a rather importantissue of the internal affairs of Iran, of theframework limitedis within thedebatenot words, In other of state. the language official sole the Farsi- than is other tongue" "mother whose citizens, Iranian and Iran as well as between the central ruling authorities of the Islamic Republic and here) issue a necessarily central is not since that case West" in this as"the phenomenon language policies betweenand relation language andidentity is framed byLaitin in the during which havethey encountered issues.these The importancetolook particularly at of history, locations periods andthe in of both differenttheir terms of a number states in policies ethnic and linguistic politics, and language of relation the is that here- raised various parts of the globe for the last several years, have been referringsimilar to issues would bediscussed below. which states, similar from other distinctions certain have itdoes although such case Ervand Abrahamian, Ervand Shahnameh (Bookof Kings)is atenth-century written epic by Iranian the poet Shahnameh Although national identity is often bedeemed to invention, amodern the and who articulated italwayshas constant. not remained articulated and who haveseems how it longto course, modern era.Of wasexpressed precededthe awareness national peoples- Eastern Middle some other among Iranians- as Among nation. of be history whole epic can readasamythical Iranian the A number of works by David Laitin, which are the result of his researches on only the however, not, is languages, of multiplicity and diversity its with Iran, 21 refers to Iran by name more than one thousand times, and the and times, thousand one than more name by Iran to refers A HistoryofModernIran Cambridge(New York: University 22 15 CEU eTD Collection 24 (Jul.,1993), 228. en Emergent World System.LeSystèmeLinguistique Mondial Formation Language 25 26 Science Review / Revue Internationale de Science deScience Politique Internationale Science Review / Revue 23 which would possibly never be able to successfully reach the form of the classic nation- entities, created asartificially are often described states post-colonial while the states, unifiedcreate had nation countries and theabove-mentionedhow European managed to find why reasons the to aiming research analytical an undergoing period,are colonial of countries, which in on contrary,the haveemergedasmulticultural states post- the homogeneity and (Spain,parts Another group France). amongkinship its constituting which have successfully nation states boundaries or (Japan) natural stateswith clearly defined ideal nation become such due to an initially existing common essence veryof heterogeneity. that or supporters of Iran’s integrity, naturally, which, not be guaranteed should attheexpense boundaries" andacross within state belief "the longer-term supports culturalis equilibrium heterogeneity that onethat theirbreakstates intocomponents?" national up is raised andfurther developeda more into directand outrightquery: "willmulticultural correspond with boundariesthe of "nation"the andcultural linguisticor dividinglines substantiates is ideathatanidealthe state inone, which politicalthe borders nationalism. for of theemergence factor language". mostin keenlyfeltare for identity domain national "thethe of pressures that statement Benedict Anderson, Benedict David D. Laitin, Ibid. David Laitin, "The Game Theory of Language Regimes," Laitin looks at the examples of a number of states that are believed to be either The question whether thereis a political logic which convincingly explains and 23 Similarly, Benedict Anderson has considered language as an essential Nations, States,and Violence Imagined Communities 26 an approach, which seems to match that of the 24 . 25 (Oxford University 82. 2007), Press, As an answer to this there comes the , Vol. 14, No. 3, International Political The 16 CEU eTD Collection 27 is languagewhich in no there of experience colonizer, andtherefore, colonial the the could also easily draw a firm distinction line between these two states. one government of forms the among differences current the particularly and history recent their to due reasons, of number a for although, Iran, with comparison further as it willbe described further below. the as language Persian the of role obvious an with but above described othersocial system centralizedregional no educational with leaders or services some unifying as bea loosely state semi-independent to defined centralized extent here) only three decades ago. The nineteenth-century Iran, on the other hand, could still colonized, it still wasnot that is itas astate, anexception term andinthat emergedperiod century pre-twentieth as the Islamic Republic (the policies of which are studied Spain FranceisSpain or that: state buildingfor andbased which example,be India, on viewed should with not along historical two the of One factors,language. and culture national dominant asignificantly with states as suggested by Laitin, that have significantly affected the logic of Ibid.,90. state the provision of an languageaffair was all the thus of services citizens- and to toprovide these expected stateswere when inemergedera an states century Buttwentieth and care, social arangeof services… primary hospital education, Unlike India, Iran has not been colonized but rather went through a quazi- rather wentbutthrough been hasnotcolonized Iran Unlike India, for sample lessappropriate more or be a could India of case the Particularly, 27 . In the early periods of state formation, states did not provide basic Although also asanindependentinIran existed and sovereign state the lingua franca 17 CEU eTD Collection 28 experiences, as mentioned above, have lead to two dissimilar situations. The Indian The situations. dissimilar two to lead have above, mentioned as experiences, historic and ideologies asstate aswell structures political and constitutions different and India, wherestates would the be necessary actual to look multiplicity deeper on communication. the interesting anddifferences"Modernization" diversity between Iran and of "Enlightenment" the works periods poetry, written languageclassic literary of are quiteof the nineteenth similar,where Farsiis virtually again by spoken all citizens andhas alwaysbeen dominantthe and twentieth whileAzarbaijanEast province with a predominantly Turkic-speakingbilingual population centuries the as wellwould be 2+1the languagesof an livingIranian Armenian inthe city of Tabriz in the as official Iranian from Khuzestanthe province, andFarsi,Azarbaijani andTurkish Armenian living inthe capital FarsiTehran, and Arabic could be 2languagesthe Arab of an languageofficial of Republicthe language would bethe 2-1 of a native Farsi-speaker leaves the Iranian case rather with model a presupposed2±1 in which Farsi the as in have Iran. itsnot That equivalent case,does define the Indian to used byLaitin of Indian states. Thus, English as one of the three languages in the 3±1 model, which is neutral language rationally become chosen to the official language of entirethe Union one the as be seen could it therefore, minority, ethnic an or plurality a dominant be that isin English.language notthe indigenous also It peoples inhabitingany of the of India weretrained citizens andskilled most educated of the factthat the due to large extent a shares thestatusof language" a "link case of India has remained as some kind of legacy of the colonial period and today Ibid.,89. A comparison of A of comparison languagesin constitutional the provisions regarding the two The English language saw little or no resistance in independent Indialanguage to inindependent The ornoresistance sawlittle English 28 along with Hindi. with along 18 CEU eTD Collection 30 29 and in jobs publicsector. the languagesfor in official sphereslike use signs,primary street education, documents local the choose to right their used also have states Indian many while level, Union All- the on languages official asthe Hindi and English acknowledged has Constitution terms of Persian the as well as languages" tribal and "regional the of formulation the is detail language of the state astheofficial languageis selected whereasingle be"rationalization", of apolicy in all of its internalof their languages as many nationalist circles like to claim, however, there does andseem to foreign with "assimilating" localthe systematically linguistic minorities or oppressing any use affairs. One other not bereally seem concerned do to Republic leaders Islamic of the The centre. of the problematic andlocallya higher languageraising discontent possiblycausing a status used to thus additional obstacle as a result of which local authorities would often refrain from the provinces governors of in the which government, appoints Constitution, with accordance again as central the wellon dependent strongly also are authorities local The as region. given city a of language and an official of a status gain never but schools in possibly or divisionalmedia mass aregovernors. still only to be taught onThat secondary could basis after Farsibe seen(Persian) asand canan be used in reads: Republic Islamic of the Constitution the Article 15, Ibid. in schools, is allowed in addition to Persian. to addition in allowed is schools, in languagesin pressandthe massmedia, as well for teachingas of theirliterature must be inis Persian.this Official documents, correspondence,language and texts, as well as text-books, and script. However, the use of regional and tribal Therefore, althoughbanned Therefore, not and tribal "regional languages" completely, the zaban The Constitution (language) and (language) The Official Language and script of Iran, the lingua franca of its francaof of people, lingua LanguageandscriptThe Iran, the Official 29 . lahje In the case of Iran,however, Article 15, Chapter II of (dialect). There is no clear definition of those tribal 30 19 CEU eTD Collection and the Ottoman Empire, of nowadays Iraq parts Caucasus, South the initfar beyond surrounding the territories, Afghanistan and thecenturies literatureclassic but throughout modern notonly also the territory of on Iran vast territories of Central Asia, which language hasindeedlanguage servedasa a majority but rather hardly tongue" constitute half and total of the of population state the quite thusis it not a "dominant "mother asthe for whom is considered Farsi for hand onone is those, revised state the plurality", on the other hand Farsi or the Persian 32 Science 31 condition that the that condition noted at the same time that (R1) could very muchgroup. be appropriate too as long as the group. asthemotherassociated livinglanguage-group tongue thatstate. of within a significant is but not practically of within and state, the theunderstood boundaries universally as: them language policy, Laitin three David differentsuggests methods tentatively marking letalone Islamic Republic. the general languages in different two orbetween adialect language and betweena distinction formethodology afirm criteria is or convincing northere and languages aplausible Ibid.,151. David D. Laitin, "What Is a Language Community?" 32 Iran would be classified under the (R2) criteria in this case although it should be minority thelanguagea of of therecognition through Rationalization (R3) (R2) Rationalization majority through recognitionthe of language the a of (R1) Rationalization through recognitionthe isa linguafranca, which of spoken In terms of "rationalization" as it was used above to describe the Iranian , Vol. 44, No. 1 (Jan., 2000), 144. lingua franca shouldnot be that of language-groupa significant in lingua franca 31 and the language of and language andthe courts of royal the American Journal ofPolitical 20 CEU eTD Collection (13/04/2009). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Iran time", first very the for (in Tabriz)in and Kurdishthe languageandliterature(in inSanandaj) areoffered Iran academicthe year2004-05B.A. programmes in Azerbaijani the andlanguage literature in twolargestthe minority languagesin Azerbaijanithe language and Kurdish, and in "There a isinUtas: fact, etc.) taking newspaper,considerable place publication (book, 33 viewed as a rule but rather as "most likely" cases. be should however, example, thesecond nor first the Neither same time. at the Tabriz only in Tehran, but alsonot press Armenian-language hasanaccessto Armenian province,a Christian while in Isfahan, where problemsthere is a largewith Christiandoing universities the as well as so incommunity, the capital and East Azarbaijan language province,can his both use distinctatschool mediaand local city of Tehran or, if livingTherefore for let Iranian in example capital a the Tabriz, Turkic-speaking the of us say, schools. thein community as well as media in printed Mazandaranlanguage their use freely example, for Armenians, Christian the while here, irrelevant is policies linguistic the of objects as Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians. The latter are predominantlyminorities that are officiallyPersians recognized and theirare the religiouscase ones limited, however, only formulation Constitutionbutthe languages". the quoted rather "regional only The of to therefore one couldnot even expect tofind anotion linguisticof ethnic or in minorities recognized, areofficially minorities linguistic ethnic noor formationwhere of state the an assimilative policy aiming to establish a "nation-state of the Persians". modern-typebefore universally" long a of state Iran had emergedand wasaccusedof unanimity. Farsi Therefore, has beenalready practically "spoken and understood bears a connotation of rather cultural and linguistic and toa much lesser extent political have historically been and culturally bound within so-calledthe "Iranian world" which A Wikipedia article on ethnic minorities in Iran cites a work by Annika Rabo and Bo The complexity of the Iranian case also derives from naturefrom case Islamic The unique derives the Iranian the also complexity of 33 as a "regional language" the same person might face 21 CEU eTD Collection stabilizing the state. in subjects promoting "undesirable" activities, cooperation with foreign andpowers de- its suspect to reasons finds time same the at government central the while assimilation of policy a "chauvinist" implementing is center the that a belief and confidence of lack Iranians is prohibited not from usage in media and education, still there seems tobe languageof Azarbaijani issuethe one handtheTurkic recent earlier: cited the on while millions of Iranians. Thereis an example of such deepening discrepancies mistrustor in and center of the expectations the between discrepancies as aswell possible minorities linguistic borders. match with the state of the borders the in which nation-state" a "classic image of However, there cultural "equilibrium supports that heterogeneity" as resemble farasitarenotdoes the always demands an secure to able hasbeen state multicultural a as Iran that assume to possible for changes on behalf of the towards language. Arabic approach the specific this of abeneficiary as viewed be mechanically can which population, 34 Iranian Constitution preceded by articlethe about the officiallanguage, states: language by itsacknowledging significantrole inIslam.Article 16,Chapter IIof the Article 16, all areas of of all study areas in and school secondary of classes in all level, elementary after be taught must permeated is literature language, by itArabic, thoroughly andsince Persian this Returning question to initiallythe quoted by raised itDavid Laitin,would be of hasKhuzestan, one Arab-speaking provinces, Iran’s alargesouthern Another specificity of the Iranian case is that of the status of the Arabic The Constitution Since the language of the Koran and Islamic texts and teachings is 34 . . 22 CEU eTD Collection knowledge about. 35 language or dialect, secession. leadinglanguage or to of "going to the barricades"for Farsi insteadlanguage oftheirsexcept linguistic useasecond andwill demands to with furthermay certain have keep functioning andsatisfy who citizens, the state the minimum to claims of a distinct language similarly Quite probably could policy be defineda Iran’s as necessary identity basedworkpeople in not goinggoing the barricades to in and mornings the to the evening. on their Most probably it belongs to a verified author whom, unfortunately, Ihave no There is aphorism There an 35 that says salary is the necessary minimum to keep the keep to minimum necessary the is salary says that 23 CEU eTD Collection 37 29-30. Harmony and Regional Challenges," 36 Iran as a modern integrated nation-state". Iran as amodern integrated statedefinition the of long he/sheappreciated as as newly administration, established his/herregardless of ethnicorigin enjoyed theof rightpersonal in achievement the supersedes identities and since"every citizen other state the clearly affiliations defined the to belongingness of sense and identity the where state, a build to attempt an rather This,not necessarily should though, be simply perceived forced "persianization"as but Along with ethnic and linguistic diversity,the existence of classes, too, was rejected". low"require homogeneity.and ahigh adegreeof diversity ethnic cultural buildingnationmodernization andwhile state andmodern state" weresupposedto assumed around the distinctive of "by definition of society organized concepts akind War WorldI afterthe model" initiated "European of state the of a centralized creation linguistic "cleavages" would have achance toemerge. The period modernization of and or ethnic as tensions such no where affairs, of state and stability of kind a create twentieth-century Iran, both before and after the Islamic Revolution, has been unable to the that however, noted, be should it whatsoever, issues nationality or ethnicity people"These should not becalled minorities…" Ibid.,33. Touraj Atabaki, "Ethnic Diversity and Territorial Integrity of Iran: Domestic In order to avoid the creation of a wrong image of Iran, in which there were no were there image Iran,in which of a wrong avoidof creation the to In order Federalism asaSolution Iranian Studies Chapter 3. 37 This state-buildingelimination through of , vol 38, number 1, March 2005, 24 36 CEU eTD Collection 38 Azarbaijani nationalist- by the US authorities. Chehregani's "peregrinations", asRobert "peregrinations", Chehregani's USauthorities. bythe nationalist- Azarbaijani prominent the Mahmoudali Chehregani- offered to is warm reception the example One at least foreign such by used or considered havebeen organizations states. the revolution. Islamic the after Iranfrom within "liberate" to"democratize" or attempts Iran or with pre-republican the and"alliance" bethosedescribedsimply as "cooperation" variousunder explanations covered goals and itsdifferent internalaffairswith into interference foreign cases of hypotheses about foreign plots to "destroy Islam". Indeed, Iran has witnessed numerous conspirological of context the within repeatedly appear later will which "they", an undefined about implications find also can one establishment, Islamic new the have wouldface: to that Iranians post-revolutionary the approach of kind the of example illustrative be an would Khomeini Ayatollah Republic Islamic the of leader spiritual founding the by made expression image-bearing the that, have inlinguistic beenintroduced diversity already moreabove. detail In addition to pages. in described linguisticdiversity previous tothe "rationalization" becompared the could Ibid.,38. In the latter case the ethnic differences, grievances of nationalist groups or groups nationalist of grievances case differences, ethnic latter the In the of eyes the through nationalism and ethnicity of view clear already the Besides philosophy. Islamic the such isms,which contrary are to Islamic doctrines. Their planis destroy to Islam and to be united… They create the issues ofnationalism, of pan-Iranism, pan-Turkism, and thathave suchproblems been created those whodo not by wish Muslim countriesthe speakdifferentlanguages, instance, or Arabs for the thePersians. Itisvery probable such hasa difference no place at all. There isno difference between Muslimswho minorities, because called be not should people These such. and thisBaluchis, Persian, Turks, termLurs, assumes that there is a difference between these brothers. In Islam, theissues The views towards Islamic the of ethnicity of andgovernment Sometimes word minority is the torefer theKurds, used topeople such as 38 25 CEU eTD Collection 41 603-103140-3533r.htm; accessed 19May 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20051028032730/http://washingtontimes.com/world/20030 The Washington Times 40 Nationalism andEthnic Politics 39 Olson State Department and Pentagon officials. and DepartmentPentagon State meetingsUSsenators, with numerous included USA, and finally European states the would be one such case to limit the argument here. officials US the with connection demonstrated and claims Chehregani's with example The completely. entire situation the in all explain not cases) the necessarily (and do existence of plots and conspiracies are notalways groundless in fact. Nevertheless, they state. As it is often the mainstream ideology from destroy something outside injected as to the with apurpose case in such the to opposition claims political simple or nationalism local of form any introduce and anxieties- the paranoidduring views ofthe the against the "foreignrise evil" and "external enemies of the nation" that couldbe often heard of themany Revolution other similar reasons, andfor those Therefore, Azerbaijan". "South of future Iran and for the visions contrary as welland as due afterwards,to the populist differentand sometimes introduces Chehregani hespeaks, Dependingwhere on declarations aboutitwhich financial and support physical they will give Iranianopposition".the to fightinghas analyzing are notthey and support, political [US] their feel already been nationalists] Turkish rare in Azerbaijani [the that"we declares himself Tehran", Chehregani to internal opposition Iran to encouraging or supporting of for purposes settingup, the not but occasion, speak "on to Iranians other many as well as Chehregani with met have they that accept officials in Whilestatements quoted thatshould be newsreport the noted. the USdefense Ibid. Foe," Regime with Meet Officials "Pentagon Ismayilova, Khadija and Behn Sharon RobertOlson, "The 'Azeri' Question and Turkey-Iran Relations, 2000-2002," 39 termed his active visits to the Republic of Azerbaijan, Turkey, some of the , 2003;available at , Vol. 8,No. 4, Winter 2002, 79. 40 There is a discrepancy between the between Thereis a discrepancy 26 41 CEU eTD Collection are malleable and situational, and that individuals have more than just one. […] one. just than more have individuals that and situational, and malleable are andidentities Adeney that asKatharine denies an exaggerated approach argues "such the is identities somewhat and communities between different incompatibility of perception identities, linguistic or local other all included that identity Iranian broader Abrahamian's book, from whether asquoted case,where, in Particularly Iranian the group. nationalist determining" "fluid" or "contested"not an argument tovalidate all claims of any emerging "national awakening" and "selfis still butit reason, that or this for still-conflict and mistrust mutual of "tradition" say cynically there has always been could one history long with or a relations or interethnic interstate of matters particular a in some case the be may this although However, boundaries. linguistic ethnic, the with coincide say nation-state, andbetter the in of state, boundaries the is which the one, the state ideal only the that nationalists by perceived been often has it in Iran, realities and country. the into stability bring to will genuine a not and affairs in its involvement foreign of form by the Iranian authorities, in neither well-designed andgrounded byChehregani nor seriouslypart considered or trusted due to those veryyet, but Republic, Islamic in the assumptions problems all similar for solution awise as found that it is rather some and evenpossibly be elaborated anidea,which ethnic further to the could minorities: autonomy more giving but integrity territorial its maintaining still state federal a as Iran United Azerbaijan vs.Federal Iran As mentioned above as well as in the chapter, discussingAs mentionedlinguistic chapter, aboveaswellin policies the the It wouldbe deeperand moreimportantto look his relevant at view particular of 27 CEU eTD Collection available at http://iranfederal.org/en/?p=5#more-5; accessed 26May available athttp://iranfederal.org/en/?p=5#more-5; 2009. differences" 42 consociational form governmentproposed andof by elaborated Arend Lijphart. 45 44 43 (New York:Palgarave Macmillan,2007),2. identity identity and identification with institutions ofthe the central whichmay government, forit promotion the a dual finds and conditions security provides "enhances of that which meanwould also creation of ethnically homogenous units,Katharine Adeney andpurposes aims. declared activist's Azerbaijani" "Southern and of SANAM's source as a admitthat to be it reasonable would Kurdistan" etc, of Party "Azad(Freedom) Turkmenistan", others such as the "Azerbaijanby Mahmoudali Chehregani ismentioned also list inthe of these organizations among Diplomatic Mission", "National Movement of Iranian current republic declares: the democracy of territory within the establish federal movements a nationalist into with united goal a common Iran, be anumberethnic, indeed,of bringingtogether of which claims to onlinethe sources, more is than conceals revealed". level domestic or international the at either conflict of inevitability the positing Katharine Adeney, Tobe discussed below. Ibid., 6. Manifesto Federalism has been proposed "manageas Federalism rather eliminate than a way ethnic proposed hasbeen to In defense of the kind of "nationalityIn federalism of and basedon defense of kind the geography", led (SANAM) Movement" Awakening National Azerbaijan "Southern the Since the in framework rule self of a free, unitedexercise and and democratic Iran. aspirations their realize to nationalities Iranian and is geography the only is mechanismpolitical that enduring, and allows all We believe that a federalist system of government on the basis of nationality 43 , The Congress of Nationalities for aFederal Iran, (Stockholm, 2007); but Adeney makes sure to differentiate between federalism and the and federalism between differentiate to sure makes Adeney but Federalism andEthnicConflict Regulationin India and Pakistan 42 45 44 One 28 CEU eTD Collection 46 multiethnic state "the motivation to secede isdiminished". to "the motivation state multiethnic inhibit an andthatonce secession" is provided with ethnic group security the within 47 lead toquestions such as what a"united Azerbaijan" exactly means andhow itfits adifferent occasion: on aswell declared as an"elderbrother" latter the called Azerbaijan Chehregani Republicof the of president the with during ameeting and flavored pan-Turkism expressions in have been mediaquoted and researches: reunification" "Azerbaijani of aspirations irredentist hand, other the on and, integrity territorial its federal inreferencemutually Iranensuring tothe statements opposing and activities andcontroversial Azerbaijan" Turkey.Chehregani's in the "Northern claim dissatisfaction, sense of insecurity and will and AliKhamenei)Republicare still Grand Ayatollah there groups organizations to to unite with "Turkish brethren" both Islamic of the Leader Supreme current the and Shariatmadari Kazem Ayatollah Revolution as well as the Islamic Revolution, leading with Azarbaijani Iranians such as even the leadingfigures during(especially twentieth the early century Constitutional extent some to and princes) crown Qajar the of residence the then and Iran of capital the been long has regions speaking Turkic north-western the of centre the Tabriz, factthat including the reasons, different society (for of segments Iranian integrated and active culturally and politically most the of one as been perceived haveoften latter Azarbaijani although could of Iranians, the the be questionable, example sinceon the Katharine Adeney, Robert Olson, Further speculations and attempts to interpretFurther such speculations to statements andwould attempts inevitably cause. forthis themselves sacrifice to areready Azerbaijanis southern the Karabakh, liberate want to Azerbaijanis northern the When lands. Azerbaijan liberate to willing always North. Brave and South between division without Azerbaijan isapart of united Karabakh nations determined their own borders. Southern Azerbaijanis are The 'Azeri' Question Federalism andEthnicConlfict 47 , 73. , 19. 46 However, the argument 29 CEU eTD Collection 2009). available athttp://www.csis.org/media/csis/events/020808.pdf (accessed May 19, Again?" 49 48 ensure stability within the system by crosscutting each other. The notion of crosscutting creation of states in which identities should serve not as dividing the of lines,advocate but ratherprominent most the as appears Lijphart Arend whom among scholars, multiethnicthe multilingual or like societies has Iran been developed byanumber of to A uniqueapproach federal democracy EUstates. between borders of the between the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan) could be like that border state the (meaning Azerbaijan "Northern" and "Southern" between border USA that he is a supporter of the kind of Iran, which would resemble the US and the andfederal instead of Iran a "Turkish world": in its casesit idea devotion Turkey, of to the democratic although declares other a free, in movement SANAM the of leader the by statement inanother seen best is nationalism Azerbaijani"nature of neighboring "Southern the pan-Turkic country The etc? a causeof for the themselves of- sacrifice subjects they are the state the within limited be normally should interests national and nation the whom for Iran" "federal of citizens within Azerbaijanis"-how orwhy "Southern supposedly the do the "federal Iran", the Mahmoudali Chehregani, "Azerbaijani of Turks Iran: Will They Lead a Revolution Ibid.,76. As mentioned earlier, a similar, but yet peculiar and unique approach asimilar,butyetAs mentionedpeculiar approach andtowards earlier, unique in sameWhile the has stated Chehregani at of Mahmoudali the period time whom are Azerbaijanis. The road to the Turkish world passes trhough Tabriz. inof half world.students Thereare Turkish 650 000univeristy the 1 Iran, of future the of because importance has a strategic issue Azerbaijan The Southern CSIS Caucasus Project Meeting Notes 49 (Washington D.C.,August 8,2002),5; 48 30 CEU eTD Collection 51 NY: Anchor Books, 1963). 50 society forciblyoften brought together within boundariesthe a newlyof state. emerging the of members the among consensus a reach to managed never have or stability have either failed todo so at some point after a period of seemingly unchangeable others described reach above, equilibrium have kindof the populations managedto with While many states and sound asitmay diverse as initially. unproblematic perfect 54 Karvonen and SteinKuhnle (London:Routledge, 2001),93. Western Europe." In 53 10 May 2009). (accessed http://www.tamilnation.org/conflictresolution/consociationalism/Lijphart.pdf 1999),9-11, 15; available at cleavages, which on their turn form "the originality of each nation". each of originality "the form turn their on which cleavages, horizontal vertical and these of intersections and "criss-crossing" the on founded democracies income, typejob of etc. social class, and complex economics, tothe which arerelated cleavages, andhorizontal criteria similar other societies andlinguistic, ethnic on religious, based society the divide vertical,of which those: (of which Iran cancleavagelinguistic within religious or not groups, between them". be a good needs Democracy in andCanada. India itlinguistic as does areas, or ethnic, religious, example of) division the "between indifferent kindoffederalism arguinggoes against the which is particularly,has been follow. worksby to Lipset, influencedauthors and other later cleavages bySeymour wasdeveloped Martin Lipset 52 Perspectives Cross-National Century," Arend "Power-Sharing Lijphart, and Autonomy Group in the 1990s and the 21 Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein andRokkan, Stein Lipset Seymour Martin Lipset, Seymour Martin Ibid. Mattei Dogan, "Class, Religion, Party: Triple Decline of Electoral Cleavages in Seymour Martin Lipset, Seymour Martin The theory of the crosscutting cleavages makes a distinction between two types two between a distinction makes cleavages crosscutting the of The theory Constitutional Design2000 Party Systems andVoter Alignments Revisited Political Man: TheSocial Bases of Politics Political Man (Toronto: The Free Press, 1967). (University of California, San Diego, December 53 Dogan argues that the equilibrium in pluralist equilibrium the that argues Dogan quoted quoted in conferencea paperpresented by Party andVoter Systems Alignments: 50 and Stein hisco-author Rokkan 52 , ed. Lauri 54 However, it is not (Garden City, st 31 51 CEU eTD Collection 55 secessionism. nation-states andyet do not seem to be challenged seriously by matters of ethnicity and which a quite few far homogenous states, from orlinguistically beingare ethnically "mutual tolerance", "peaceful coexistence" "peaceful "mutual tolerance", between the segments of the population can societies. in multiethnic conflicts" ethnic of "inevitability the of concept be termed asmentioned earlier the to "dialogue", similar sounds impossible" even or "difficult is dialogue least "compromise", at The acompromisenationalist that tensionsconflicts. or argument existing and ethnic loose control relatively the or issues oversocial and economic the freedom about was it whether Union, Soviet the of speech, which spilled into or simply flared up the pre- impossible: even or asdifficult is seen issues (for example) social the asimilar groups, compromise ordialogue around cultural accomplishclimate aresupposedly amongeasier to through dialogue andagreements intheeconomic and changes reforms where economic spheres, unlike thesocial or may fail more often due to the between the groups and their identities. It is expected balance to be and moreharmony likely the secure that to the cease state often may "horizontal" the and "vertical" The Ibid.,94. However, despite the peculiarities of the semantics, whether the relations the whether semantics, of the peculiarities the despite However, This resembles to some extent the debates likely Catholicthe totake more viewof things. about the reasons ofhave the collapse four of centuries areborn you in rather you than Yugoslavian. Tuscany Slovenian Croat If or of Basqueto bepartly areCatalan People than Spanish, Catholic. rather or anticlericalism aCalvinist or part of time the speak French to ask cannota Flemish person You behind you, whereas in Veneto you are " malfunctions or " of the first or the "vertical" criteria, since criteria, "vertical" of the the firstor "supranational solidarity" there are still are there solidarity" "supranational 55 32 CEU eTD Collection 57 56 Supreme position. the Leader's for in office" "terms of notion or limit no time is there importantly- less not and forces to some of the key positions in the state. He is also the chiefhowever, there is still commanderthe Supreme Leader, who has the authority appointto individualsof the armed body. legislative Iranian unicameral in the Christians) Armenian two and Jewish one Zoroastrian, one Christians, Assyrian and Chaldean the by jointly elected representative MPs(one non-Muslim fiveleast areat there Thus, Parliament. in the seats own their get minorities religious the that sure makes Republic Islamic the of Constitution the that noted be should It villages. and towns in councils local the to Parliament the from range: different of "councils" religious and secular of number the most powerful body. Iran's somewhat complicated political of structure status the have is not based does on he still a country, in the president is a there although because systems are particularly inimical to ethnic power sharing". power ethnic to inimical particularly are systems andinevitablyhence one belongsalmost presidential "president ethnic group, to plurality systems for anumberincludingbutnot limited of the factreasons to thatthe or than rather presidential much bein to isbelieved easier parliamentary realization Its by Lijphart. is sharing supported power concept the thebasis of making That process. in decision- the be represented to should chance begiven the andothers- religious "conciliation compromise"and the representativesof ethnic, groups- linguistic,those through coexistence peaceful desired reach the to order In else. somewhere in West or whether the we areconsidering, society the of regardless rest" laid to easily Article 64, Arend Lijphart, If Iranian the mightapplied to possibly conceptcase, this effectively work Arend Lijphart's idea regarding the issue of ethnic cleavages is that it is "can be cleavages that issueof ethnic the idearegarding Arend Lijphart's The Constitution Thinking AboutDemocracy . , 169. 56 57 On the other hand, other the On 33 CEU eTD Collection etc are in etc listed a few in book: points Lijphart's theoretical elaborations and practical examples from Lebanon, Cyprus, New Zealand with model substantiated of self-determination home.the The advantages heat speaks emphasize or decision-making hislanguage process to regardlessof the "iranianness" in the be represented to right basic the and autonomy cultural with provided minority" Azarbaijani identifyto Iranian himself as a memberof Turkic-speakingthe "ethnic religious distinctiveness. kindidentity of differentiate doesnot which peoplelinguistic basedon their and/or perceived as a member of a specific "group", "segment" or "minority" In or to opt for the otherbe to individual of choice itthe the referslarge to a extent To be represented. to words, it should/couldwithin thebe state what groups of created how or belongs kindis where and the right matterrefers of the by primarily who determining Lijphart discussed to determination of self-determination self- The state-creation. independent for and secession simply opting as interpreted repeatedly rightannounced nationsof of for self-determination, which is frequently most an the with be confused not should here mentioned self-determination of kind the that clarify, to is necessary It self-determination. for a chance be provided they should by be should formal the legislation similarother pre-determined of or state the groups- and communities religious minorities, linguistic or ethnic population- the of segments the whether of issue the he discusses First here. mentioning worth are Lijphart their group identity, and perhaps prevent pressure being exerted upon beingidentity,pressure their exerted perhaps prevent and group preserve to whowish those fearof the reduce could perhaps obligatory choices. Aformula membership whichmakes group optional instead of avoids comparisonsinvidious andIt discriminatory problem of the Two very very Two interesting observations byArend suggested and points 34 CEU eTD Collection 60 59 58 unwritten unwritten agreements and understandings leadersthe among of maingroups". the based formally on andrecognizeddesigned "or documents rely merelyon informal and be should rules consociational the whether question a poses author The unexpected. elite mixed origin. areoften political of the Persians and Azarbaijanis, are quite common and many members of the cultural and between intermarriages, Persians. apriority giving In addition particularly the to that, to There is no Arab. provision Iranian an Shamkhani- Ali minister defense former the and origin Azarbaijani in the foundationbodies holdto high positions. Examples include the Supreme LeaderAli Khamenei of of the legal systemKurdish,Balochi Turkic, Arabic or intospeakers both legislativethe andtheexecutive of the Islamic Republicethnic differentiation theabsence of elections, since in simply through parliament the are still represented in the Islamic governmentself-determination forlinguistic/ethnicalthough the it groups, bearguedthat they could system automaticallyclear example gives ofa waythe to pre-determination listed of of are asthose self-determined"consociational democrcacy" the kind. model, while theredetermination model was applied. On the contrary, the Dutch, Swiss andis Austrian cases no specifiedspecified pattern the of Greek constitution, which 1960Cypriot and wellasthe established as were cultural councils Turkish segments are some of the examples, where the pre- Arend Lijphart, Ibid. Arend Lijphart, The second point that Lijphart makes may initially sound somewhat unusual or unusual somewhat sound initially may makes Lijphart that point second The a is parliament Iranian in the represented are minorities religious the way The community as butLebanese. those who do not wish to define themselves as members of a specific The Belgian model in which only three (Dutch, French and German) and French (Dutch, three only which in model Belgian The Power-Sharing andGroupAutonomy Thinking AboutDemocracy 58 , 71-73. , 16. 59 60 35 I CEU eTD Collection 61 "Persian nationalist" nature of the state as well as some constitutional provisions constitutional some aswell as state of the nature nationalist" "Persian strictlynot numerous frames due the but restrictions established mainly andto Islamic for speculations and suppositions only. Itshould beemphasized, however, that there are inbe"natural work toleftway" things Republic?Thosewould bequestions Islamic the the itis or agreements unpublished and informal some to due is that distinctiveness- participating in cultural the and political lifebased on his/her ethnicity linguistic or from anyone preventing for formal thereare obstacles nor ethnic differences the state of affairs. If there are no formal ethnicities. rules for balancing "national movements",isawakening the farfrom inharmoniousan union of quarrelsome society in terms of claims with leaders nationalist the notwithstanding society, Iranian of of image and impression general the however, hand, other the On one. coherent strongly or divided" in society the Iranisa"deeply whether measuring wayof indisputably effective only for "deeplysuggested societies".divided group leaders". The alternative, that is the formal constitutional and legal regulations,is flexibility and perhaps because they "ahigherlevel assume among and trust of groups be their moreto due effective sincetheyareexpected informal sidethe the rules of stubborn partiesand resolute filled upwith hatred andmutual Lijphartmistrust. takes of are perceived asconfrontations anexcuse) is justusedas ethnicity where reasons, conflicts with other (or conflicts preventing state possibleor ethnicity-based the the issueswithin ofmanaging diversity is it since often casethat the call unexpected, this Ibid. Yet, Yet, proposed the "informal mayrules" lead confusing into interpretations of 61 On the one hand there is probably no 36 CEU eTD Collection 62 cultural autonomy to calls for secession and independence as well as a federal Iran. One and individuals, other and groups parties. Those also rangefrom basic demands for diverse segments of the "Iranian people"? the be addressedto world" "Turkish the in praisingcentered dialect aTurkic calls population of the state?and for Iran addressedtotheAzarbaijanis afuture only envision entire the Iranian or And finally, if itAzarbaijanis and notin Farsi- the universally language spoken in isIran? Is the appeal the first case, only thenby the spoken in appear dialect, the Turkic fate entire of state the tothe referring how can the "Azeri"-However, evenit ifit still a question: exists, would raise whywould adocument Iran). from secession seeking not is movement Azarbaijan" "Southern the that believes (if still one nationalists Azarbaijani bytheIranian imagined Iran" federal "democratic the introducing elaboration detailed of least some kind be at mightstill there because Azarbaijan, in Iranian spoken dialect Turkic the or Turkish of knowledge insufficient my is research current the of shortcomings significant the of One Washington. meeting that Chehregani's orUSofficials nationalist circlesin or with this abroad printed-possible, that a more detailed proposal, document or text exists in eitherbut form- online or be may It nature. declarative of statements it basic with text a short just is which above, was not quoted find anythingmorethan Iwasto nationscoexisting "Manifesto" the unable etc, made publicmovement or to promotedbring change etc. elections for presidential the from running candidates of the some as preventing asin Iran,much make allowing tosuch Guardian Supremethe Leaderor the Council decisions arbitrary make as itthe a democratic news about federation of peacefully Article 110, There are other similar "movements" in Iran led by Kurdish, Arabic, Balochi led Kurdish, in by Iran similar "movements" There areother Despite the vociferous claims of the supporters of a "Southern Azerbaijan" The Constitution . 62 37 CEU eTD Collection 64 63 federation. incomplete, for thefuture state of andBalochistan Sistan within Iranian the establishmentof a federation in and hasIran a constitution, even proposed although of those is the "Balochistan United Front (Federal Republican)", which advocates the as examples for the future multinational Iran. multinational future the for examples as serve could which states, other and India USA, Switzerland, Netherlands, the Britain, Great France, Germany, Belgium, of constitutions the studied have they that note text Theinitiateof the authors is debate. samplethe of to auniqueattempts "Constitution" However, even in its imperfectand version, unfinished proposition this a of etc. withlargenumber errors introduced grammatical of a and poorly designed Ibid. http://balochunitedfront.org/constitution/constitution.htm; accessed 26May 2009. 63 The trilingual (English, Balochi, Farsi) web site of the organization is organization the of site web Farsi) Balochi, (English, trilingual The 64 38 CEU eTD Collection the notion of a Turkmenistan or Turkmen nation-state itself owes to the Soviet policies factidea duetothe that partially "nation" a of been for creating aconsolidated enough probably has its directinfluence on Turkmenthe itIranians,does but notseem haveto as of a "kin-state" Turkmenistan emergence lessThe are usually coverage. given between Iran and post-Soviet the Republic of Turkmenistan. Theirvoice and activities border near Iran state the northeastern of population example Turkmen-speaking isthe Another fruitless anticipation. of regions Iran- a succeed in Arab-populated to the Iraqi Arabs during war,where SaddamHusseinwasparticularly the Iran-Iraq expecting the with "kinship" linguistic the than rather identity Iranian their to attachment stronger between Iran, Pakistan andAfghanistan) etc. The Iranian Arabs best demonstrated their in (a goodexamplebe regions concentrated contiguous Balochis, the would whichare ormore states between two butdivided level) onthelocal among religion and dialects distinctions possible the (notwithstanding language of interms both identical basically Shi'a Muslims predominantly are former the where states, neighboring the of Arabs the and Arabs unlike (Iranian affiliation in of religious mostterms bebut different language same sharing the of the Arabsthat all of them acrosshave some kind of "kins"the across border, the state borders. Theywho can eitherare be Sunni)Crossborder nationalism or be A specificity of basically all cases of ethnic nationalism inside Iran is the fact the is Iran inside nationalism ethnic of cases all basically of A specificity Regional factors across the stateborders Chapter 4. 39 CEU eTD Collection linked to regionthe issuesand thatAzarbaijani nationalists areexpressing their strong conflicts, second- the Kurds,reasons. the First,conflict of course,and the regionit is not under the exclusivediscussion right are directlyof the UN officials to judge the 65 the Kurdsthe in Turkey and his struggle: of struggle the between a comparison a question drawing to replied Turkey, world" and Azarbaijan. Interestingly enough, Mahmoudali admirerChehregani, the of "Turkish the restraining powerpreventing from Turkey theirsupporting "Turkic brethren" in Iranian internal policies linked coordination foreign andthe andof precautious intoforcingcompeting states them to the Kurdish issue. binding two On the become afactor This haseven state. the integrity of territorial the other handthe endangering thisactivities irredentist Kurdish of has wave new a mean could it both turned for into a since inand Iran, Turkey fears both and anxieties emergence caused Its of north Iraq. governmentin wellTurkey as as creation the an of autonomous Kurdish unitin the due tothelong-lastingbetween conflict Kurdishthe nationalistsand central region is two first unstable with aparticularly the border common Iran's andIran Syria. in Iraq, Turkey, areconcentrated speakers of Kurdish the segments largest times. The including theissue "popularity" factors greater the of hasreceived"Kurdistan" inrecent them. after republics union newly-built the naming and of nation-making in andbuilding Asia by republics Central nation" selecting a"titular Mahmoudali Chehregani, minority. The Kurds in Turkey are more like the Farsi in Iran. situation in is Iran sameas the innotTurks Turkey- we arethemajority, authority,but whenever cultural rights are deniedis it bad. However, our judge conflicts nota UNhuman official with I am soIcannot other rights Commenting on this would require some sense of humor for a number of The case of differentThe case moremuch of dueto Kurdswasandstill is complicated the Azerbaijani Turks Azerbaijani of Iran , 6. 65 40 CEU eTD Collection also had anti-Kurdish slogans such as 67 66 Iranian intellectual Sheikh Khiabani, which was retrospectively as interpreted a one. interesting isa Caucasus particularly South of the Muslims for the republic created newly for the aname selecting of story The importance. isvital of state" "kin perceived as Azerbaijan a of Republic of the theexistence nationalism Azarbaijani" "Southern culture". Farsi dominant the by assimilated been have that minorities other and Arabs, Kurds, samethe meetingmovement in2002,where hesaidhas lines "our communication with solve.willing to Thisis also conflicting statement with another by Chehregani during are nationalists Azarbaijani thevery same a problem basically assimilation- but choice ethnicity withinimplyIranians, would anda strictly issuesmajoritarian the to exclusive approach of a state, of minority a are Persian-speakers the that believes where one if even in Iran, "Farsi" the the majority lifein Andpopulation. Kurdsof the Turkey with the thestruggle comparing finally,of gets all, leavingAzarbaijani population anywhere morea quarterIranian than of about Iran's total the minoritiesin.interest putting isnothereliable number Third-there source of Turkic-speaking the with no 68 ponse.htm (accessed April 24, 2009). http://www.azargoshnasp.net/recent_history/atoor/responseasgharzadeh/asghrazadehres is awake, theKurds are our guests! and should either "behave" or leave "Azerbaijan". leave or "behave" either should and the that Kurds livingin northwestern Iran's provinces are infact "guestsofAzerbaijan" them,for existing problemsandKurdish the reasons strugglein find Turkey, they also by adopted perspective nationalistleastfrom at very the are, there that acknowledge Some of the demonstrations that were organized in Tabriz during the last fewlastyearsin the were organized during Tabriz that Some demonstrations the of Ibid., 4. See for example Touraj Atabakai, Seefor example Touraj 68 Interestingly enough, one of the political movements led by the Azarbaijani the by led movements political the of one enough, Interestingly 66 In the reality, not only the "Southern Azarbaijani" nationalism denies to denies nationalism Azarbaijani" "Southern the only not reality, the In ) available at Azerbaijan ΪϨΘδϫΎϣϥΎϤϬϣΎϫΩήϛˬΖγ΍έ΍ΪϴΑϥΎΠϳΎΑέΫ΁ : Ethnicity and Autonomy. 67 Finally, for the case of the of case the for Finally, ( Azerbaijan 41 CEU eTD Collection Zürcher (London:I.B.Tauris,77. 2001), Ethnicity andLabourin theTwentieth Century In Nationalism." 71 70 2009). pages such April as http://www.arshiv.gamoh.info/en/xiyabani_en.html (accessed 18, Struglles Challenge of Diversity: IslamicFundamentalism, Aryanist Racism,andDemocratic 69 early 1990s wasparticularlyanardentadvocate of pan-Turkish unity and adevout of Sovietthe Abulfaz Union. Elchibey, presidentof the Azerbaijanithe Republicin the asa of collapse the resultgained independence hadjust which Azerbaijan, Republic of and haveAzarbaijan in provincesbeen EastalsoIran) parts of largelysupported the andNorthern divided into Republic(the ofAzerbaijan)and Southern Azarbaijan(West Iranwithin andnorthern Caucasus called 'Azerbaijan' andpolitical entity a geographic of of Turkic peoples South the speaking developinga singlehomelandall of concepts The Republicof Azerbaijan as a "kin state" the name issue, Touraj Atabaki name issue,writes: the Touraj Iran".governmentand authoritieslocal throughout central the between powers executive of distribution fair a seeking beyond go not integrity and to the establishment of Iranian nation-state" where "political demands did fatherland" but rather Azeri for freedom", "national revolt a movement "committed to preserving the country's territorial Touraj Atabaki, "Recasting Oneself, Rejecting the Other: Pan-Turkism and Iranian and Pan-Turkism Other: the Rejecting Oneself, "Recasting Atabaki, Touraj Touraj Atabaki, SeeBrenda Shaffer, Claims of national awakening, calls for unification as well as aswell generally forcalls unification awakening, national Claims of Iranian Azerbaijan to name change the decided to Transcaucasians, from the themselves dissociate to among intellectuals. Azerbaijani Khiyabani and hisfellow in Democrats, order especially Iran, in consternation caused 'Azerbaijan' name the of adoption the Transcaucasia, of south-east and River Araxes the of north territory On 27 May 1918, when newRepublicAzerbaijanthe foundedof on was the , (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); as well as numerous nationalist web Identity Politics in Central Asia and theMuslimWorld: Nationalism, Ethnic Diversity and Territorial Integrity Borders and Brethren Azadistan 69 (Land of Freedom). wasnotastruggle"Azeri for anindependent ; Alireza Asgharzadeh, ; Alireza , ed. Willem van Schendel and Erik J. 70 Most importantly, in reference to in reference importantly, Most 71 , 33-34. Iran andthe 42 CEU eTD Collection 2006); available at a country be indifference hardly would in acceptedwith Iran. [Rush Transcript; Federal News Service, Inc.], 76 is mentioned in the previous pages based on data from the CIA total the population should beof 120million-Iran more twice than around almost what a quarter of total the ifpopulation. 30million Logically, of are aquarter total,the then international areproviding-about maximum web site orthe CIA what of organizations Azerbaijani" nationalists. Pretend that the number of Azarbaijani Iranians comprises the 75 priorities". better lifecare about their people round the world, and Azerbaijanof isnotexclusion. Therefore, the Azerbaijanis who live outside Azerbaijan, for us, is one of the top 74 73 72 million 30 below: case issue suchasthe this around Azerbaijan and Iran between still contentions some were there newa completely occasionally policy, adopt to pretended their governments Aliyev and hissonIlham,father succeeded who his as Azerbaijani the president) and during the Armenian-Azerbaijani presidents the subsequent (Heydarwar. Although ArmeniaRepublic to insteadof "fellowthe Shi'a Muslims" Azerbaijanithe of Republic by provided Islamic the support tacit paradoxical thatled the be afactor to believed to stanceisalso anti-Iranian explicitly His case. Azerbaijani" of "Southern the supporter Ilham Aliyev, "A Conversation with Ilham Aliyev," presided by Brent Scowcroft is asit "Southern is thethat Note casewith numberother the highly exaggerated Robert Olson, Movement Azerbaijan United Azerbaijan Southern of Movement Liberation National President Ilham Aliyev on a different occasion has declared that there are about are there that hasdeclared occasion a different on Aliyev Ilham President 20 April. school Thehadtextbook. byAliyev's textbooks been on printed party political primary grade fifth a of cover the on Azerbaijan-Iran and Azerbaijan both over fluttering flag Azeri the showing Azerbaijan in published were maps when nationalist activities of NLMSA the of activities nationalist 75 76 Azerbaijanis in Iran and that he thinks "every nation, every country takes country every nation, "every he thinks that and Iran in Azerbaijanis Acknowledging 30 million Iranian citizens as the people of as Azerbaijan the citizens of Iranian as people Acknowledging 30million In spite of Azerbaijan's disclaimers that it did not support the Azeri 74 The 'Azeri' Question 'Azeri' , 75. 72 or the UAM the or Council onForeign Relations 73 , feathers flew in Tehran World Factbook. (April 26, 43 CEU eTD Collection _federal_news_service_inc.html (accessed May 13, 2009). May13, (accessed _federal_news_service_inc.html http://www.cfr.org/publication/10547/conversation_with_ilham_aliyev_rush_transcript trying to go as far as possible, when speaking about the roots of the nation. The nation. the of roots the about speaking when possible, as far as go to trying nation" included orreinterpreting rewriting history,inventing new traditions as well as image of "divided the shaped recently and arelatively state a newly-independent discourse. Soviet andestablished previously of designed andthe by somefollowers meansthe descendants were institutions other all as well as humanities, of fields the in researches Azerbaijani “schools” Oriental of Studies and educational which centers, conducted andit contemporary proportioningtothe situations.political Obviously, the ignoring evidence of past historical reality, even when available, effectively equalizing liessimplification in the frequent enough, tendency, surreptitiously, and, sometimes, to which necessarily notdid all.exist at A majorfactor of confusion undueor evidence, similar of creation the hand other the on and contexts normal in otherwise or used admit peopleto during peacetime of of denial that respectivegroups evidence the the as far as went controversies such Azerbaijan), and Armenia post-Soviet between (Nagorno-Karabakh) conflict occupation the Artsakh Iran's northern of provinces; In some cases, anthropology. and whichphilology art, history, in especially occurred humanities, of fields the invading especially in wartimesby Azarbaijanis Iranian as within nationalist asthe circles well state Azerbaijani the (World War II with the of andaspirations actions the justifying of attempts and grounding There wereconstant Soviet north of isthe that Arax territory the naming of phenomenon river recent relatively the to legitimacy with providing a name identical to that of a region in the north of Iran. Building or reshaping the new national identity, which would fit the interests of interests the fit would which identity, national new the reshaping or Building Thus, Azerbaijani the nationalism and nation-building has process been 44 CEU eTD Collection established a trend and a discourse, which prove establishedjustify andadiscourse, trend andprimarily aims to a the whole. on the state Azerbaijani an of emergence the as recent as just a phenomenon is similarity and/or linguistic distinctiveness basedon republic post-Soviet the of speaking Azerbaijanis Iranian nation and putting them, on the other hand, into the same basket with the Turkic Shi'a Muslims from nowadaysthe of understanding Islamic Republic broader the of the Studies, 77 below: nationalism heavily onlinguistics notalwaysrelying effectivelycan work noted as Such viewsacknowledge fail often thatdescribingto by the past using modern of terms yoke". "Persian under nation" suffering asbeing"Azeri an hasbeen Iran reinterpreted same time beingTurkicof though, speakingIraniansand therefore, constituting apart atthe Persian and own of their dialect a Turkic both speaking were actually Qajars by Persians.Russians many and/or Note that rulingof inthe dynasties such asIran the autochthonous group, which has been a victim of the neighboring nations and was ruled of an descendants they are the that assumption the lead to would logic, and which facts of building theidentity, national providing areasonable history based on consequent matter Azerbaijan alsoaserious it was it. caseof In the era andpost-1991 Soviet after the during both prevalent been have issues historic and national on views primordial Ervand Abrahamian, "Kasravi: The Integrative Nationalist of Iran," permanentand unalterable fact of life imposed on man by God. as a the subject- evercontemplated had they linguistic diversity- viewed tribesmen…The Qajar monarchs, speakingand in their own indialect of Turkishcourt with their own Persian with their royal administrators, would have Numerous authors both in the Republic of Azerbaijan and elsewhere have elsewhere and Azerbaijan of Republic in the both authors Numerous speaking Turkic the of identity national a separating and defining Therefore, Vol. 9,No. 3 (Oct. 1973),273. Middle Eastern 77 45 CEU eTD Collection the Everyday,” 78 Republic of Azerbaijan Republic is Caucasian, IranianorTurkic of origin of that hasbeenamajor the middle ages.inhabitants of the territory, previously known as Albania, toits ChristianThe population in identity issue and the matter whether the population of the Harootunian writes with a reference to N. Poutlantzas: D. time. AsHarry current the itinhabitat who people the of history the with territory history a given by of national the created connecting identity, needs of still-to-be the andnationalist ideology often elaborates and creates a story or history, which fits the is a general. emphasize It that necessary newly insuchcases to nation-state emerging in region surrounding the or heritage territory, same the on claims serious have who others, with clashes violent provokes and disputes territorial the into intervenes also it Here fields. academic the only within not issues conflicting of number a with, creates matter of letting someone chose whatever he or simple she the wants cases in some to identifyHowever, himselfphenomenon. existing an or herself at eyes one’s closing mean simply would “Azerbaijani”, as themselves identify generally which of members Azerbaijan, of Republic in the citizenship), on based (primarily civic or cultural ethnic, is whether a today community, certainly refusingacknowledgethere that that note to to is essential It immemorial". times since nation Azeri or "Azerbaijani an of existence Harry Harootunian, “Shadowing History: National Narratives and the Persistence of and Persistence the Narratives National History: “Shadowing Harry Harootunian, reach and permeate the space-time matrices of everyday of life everyday matrices space-time the reach andpermeate carried out by the folk, this did notmean that the idea of the national was able to been had that story particular the exceptionalize to and territory, and history between link the toconcretize narrative was national of the task While the of national narrative. the territory’ and a‘historicity to produce form of nation occasion… supplied the The modern a ‘territorialization of a history’, both the calling and the content connectis, to thenot onlyabout current Azerbaijani the attempts obviously,It Cultural Studies , 18(2004), 191. 78 . 46 CEU eTD Collection Nationalism,” 81 term is introduced. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_name_Azerbaijan, history wherethe of the mention is territory the byAzarbaijan availableonlineoccupied geographically, at which quotes, and of citations Acompilation territories. these applied to hardly ever Persian rule and gubernias (provinces) under the Russian rule. The term Azarbaijan known as Albania, Arran in the middle ages and then different khanates under the including the region between Arax and Kura rivers in the South Caucasus, have been Aturpatakan, is located to the south of the Arax river, while the territories mostly experts andhistorians have generally agreed thatAzarbaijan, previously knownas 80 as many well web-sites others. as www.azadtabriz.com and www.oursouthazerbaijan.com arethe aswell. Examples onlineusing resources the 79 thoroughly studying ethnicity doesand nationhood necessarilynot mean orintend to systems”. state andinfluencing in states and creating ethnicity groups and nationalist ethnic which in ways the movements either signify can “this that adds and former seek the upon latter their political goals […]; or the role of the impact the study could nationalism, one and with ethnicity are correlated politics of culture been related to what is located to the south of the Arax river. known as territories sincethe disputable as of Iran provinces thenorthwestern labeling itself, term for The secession. as an attempt authorities the hasbeenviewedby movement Azarbaijan" South of Iran "the Republic In theIslamic empire. Soviet enlarging boundaries of the republicthe within newly-created mergethe of north Iran occupyingafter itandduring World WarII most possibly attempting to in the Republic" Democratic "Azerbaijani an creating as such events other with along concerned. timeof the from political conjuncture independent the neverfor debates topic Anthony D. Smith, “Culture, Community and Territory: The Politics of Ethnicity and works Numerous of andancientauthors geographers as well as researches bymodern actively quite been have movement general the and idea the of supporters Many Anthony D. Smith, as well as a number of other authors, suggests that since that suggests authors, other of number a as well as Smith, D. Anthony This idea of dividedthe nation apartofthewas also Sovietpolicy and goes International Affairs Güney Az Güney Ω rbaycan , Vol. 72, No. 3, (1996), 446. 79 (South Azarbaijan), is quite controversial and controversial is quite Azarbaijan), (South Azarbaijan have primarily (or often solely) often (or primarily have 80 81 Rethinking and 47 CEU eTD Collection 84 83 process, inprocess, historiography,recent Azerbaijani of ancientthe Caucasian Albanians who immemorial andpast glide into a limitless future". which'historical', nations the to they political give of expression always loom an out be 'new'and to conceded are widely "if nation-states idea that Andersen's Benedict This would longitquestion,became an comply before argument struggle. with armed (Nagorno-Karabakh) of Artsakh the with emergence the gained importance subject this example, for context, Caucasian In the conflicts. andmilitary even political of inter-ethnic or of tocontexts debates, implied reference, oropenly expressed, strong with a projects, political bein function with to itappears Normally heritage. Soviet history research has been a very topical subjectfor almost all nations that bear the post- proto- The Azerbaijan. of Sciences Academy of of National the President of Vice the prominentfigures in Azerbaijani contemporary circles academic and heldthe position most the beenoneof has Bunyatov here.Ziya described republics and societies 82 perspectives: those about writes and “cognitive perspectives” as doexistbutprimarily race andnationhood different way”. different thatithe argues rather isexpound just “their to andreality, significance ina power “minimize discount theiror by their power significance”,asproposed Brubaker,Rogers Benedict Anderson, Benedict Ibid.,18. Rogers Brubaker, terms. theirinterpret in national otherethnic predicaments racial, than rather or experience world the andperceiveidentify others, when- people themselves, they can help specify Instead of simply asserting simply of Instead It is the matter of 83 82 Further in Further his workBrubaker thatsuch states phenomena asethnicity, Ethnicity without Groups Imagined Communities how how a nation was and still and was nation a they are constructed. They can help specify how- and how- specify help can They constructed. are they that ethnicity, race and nationhood areconstructed, nationhood and ethnicity, race , 11. , 11-12. 84 It arouse "azerbaijanization" asthe It is being specificin built thetwo 48 CEU eTD Collection 87 accessed 9January 2009. http://armacad.org/iranocaucasica/programme.pdf; Armenia. in Yerevan, Diversity” and Unity Caucasus: the and “Iran Conference Methodological and Critical on presented Remarks” June 06,2008at International the and paper “Culture, Policy, and Scholarship in the Sub-Caucasian Region: Some 1974) and others, who were mentioned in Prof. Boghos L. Zekiyan’s keynote speech 86 Geografia Kavkazskoy v. Albanii:III do n.e.- VIII v. n.e. main works it is also worth to mention Obshchestvennomu StroiuRannesrednevekovoiAlbanii 85 infor of Azerbaijani the Azerbaijanithe roots people, a quest ethnicity. of ancestors werethe Balkans) today’s innowadays be as Albanians misperceived the book: distortion history.of Waal Thomas mentions de particularly historian in this his recent and misrepresentation plagiarism or cases of andaccusedof handheavily criticized was ontheother Azerbaijan, Bunyatov academician Republicof the prominent within Mamedova Farida previously, mentioned was who Bunyatov, Ziya from Apart latter. the heritage of of of Medesandbearers descendants the and "distinct" "autochthonous" legitimizingits state,therefore supposed ancestor being claimsof "ancient", as Media and Azarbaijan" "Southern between sought been have connections and claims have followed each ethnic presumably, fact two the that justifiedgroups, bythesimple two, between the other as inhabitantsidentity and the Caucasian Albanian one, or at least the affirmationof of a strict continuitypretty much Azerbaijani the of equalization is the result The population. an extinct as awhole, theare, same territories. Similar Ziya Bunyatov, Ziya Particularly Kemal G. Aliev, SeeFarida Mamedova, transpired that the two articlesintranspired hepublished two the 1960and that Caucasian 1965on later It weredubious. credentials scholarly Buniatov's a result). as any clearer themselves should Buniatov began a for quarrel poisonous which CaucasianAlbaniansthe take none of the blame. (Their true history has not become Bunyatov led aquestionableBunyatov to assumption Caucasian (not the that Albanians to 85 is another active supporter of this theory along with others. with along theory this of supporter active isanother Azerbaijan vVII-IXvv. “Istoria Alban”Moiseia Kalankatuiskogo kakIstochnikpo Kavkazskaia Albania I v. do n.e. – I v. n.e. Politicheskaya Istoriya iIstoricheskaya (Baku,1965). (Baku:Elm, Among 1977). her (Baku: Elm, 1986). 87 86 While being a (Baku:Elm, 49 CEU eTD Collection in their societies", their in groups some suitextreme not did that policy advocating were they because apparently infour fell victim caseswhen assassinations, theanthropologists ex-Soviet Union to least "at he knows that states interestingly Khazanov Anatoly As state. independent inyearsjust becamean afew Azerbaijan after assassinated nearhisapartment 1997, was Bunyatov that mentioned, be should It nation. Azeri or Azerbaijani the comprehensive myth and chain of events leading to a logical and smooth emergence of incould appear Caucasus South the andnorthern Iran, did a managenot create to fully exclusion. periods itisof history, distinguishpossible types to two of correlation:fusion and independent which states, face the need torevise history.the newly- the or nation-building of attempts and Union Soviet the that be policy, state the discourse couldhave. These research areas simply were never free independentor from wouldsay have to the publicto andwhatkind of consequences deviation from main the what fields anthropologists,scholars historians the working other and intherelated nationhood and to answer and question the to of nationhood above. 90 Anthropology Today 89 (NY: NewYork University 152-153. Press, 2004), 88 A point that BoghosL. Zekiyan made inhis speech keynote and papermentioned Anatoly M. Khazanov, “Anthropologists in the Midst of Ethnic Conflicts,” Thomas De Waal, was evidently political brilliantly. here he and was evidently political succeeded by Westernthe in English scholars written C. F. J. originally Dowsett andarticles, Roberttwo of Hewsen.translations But his mainunattributed, intention published, simply had he name, own his Under plagiarisms. direct were Albania When speaking ofcontinuity between ethnic groups belonging different to That is to say, one of the attempts to justify the existence of the proposed 90 The fusion type would act when a new ethnos is born from the synthesis of synthesis the from born is ethnos new a when act would type fusion The 89 it shows once again, how much importance was and is still given to , Vol. 12,No. 2(April, 5. 1996), Black Garden:Armeniaand Azerbaijan ThroughPeace andWar how and why an Azerbaijani national identity national Azerbaijani an 88 50 CEU eTD Collection ethnic identity described in the historical and theoretical literature, and a voluntarist and literature, a and historical theoretical inthe identity described ethnic dimensionsnational identity: of resembling theconcept dimension of anascriptive other authors as well as their own studies, Philip Smithas andit F. L.is Jones in "identified the case two of the population the that mean identity,ethnic ornational not does language sharingthe religion, just or of these territories.powers great (Russian Empire sharingHowever, identity, and Iran). same the group be Based on previousAzarbaijan) works by provinces)the Ardabil, Azarbaijan-e Gharbiare (West Azarbaijan) and Azarbaijan-ethe Sharqi (East same people partsof Islamicof the Iranian provinces inthe northwestern Republic Iran (primarily or the same nation dividedthe Arax river,between that istwo to say thepro-Azerbaijani circles, suggests inhabitants the that of territoriesthe sides onboth of Republic of Azerbaijan in the north and some of the in themiddleages. since region dominate the be the heirs of the Caucasian Albanian culture, but rather a new element, which came to In currentthe words, Turkicother of inhabitants Azerbaijan Republicthe of not could conquest with use of force for an anthropological-cultural connection and development. instead of that of exclusion betweenrelation Azerbaijanias based Albanian cultures model the on fusion and the of would mean mistakingevident a thatspace this succession latteritis is Azeri)concerned, be Azerbaijani or called, to Turkic (later onetothe Albanian followed and territorial almost from the cultures in Caucasian exampleAsthe here. case farasthe passage a good of entirely the exclusiondomination model. of a new culture Consideringon the pre-Colombian culturesifmarginalization, not suppression and extinction, of precedingthe local culture. The inthe North America could be of culture andnew the of emigration, a domination implies the unilateral fusion, of that exclusion, to opposite of type of while the morepeoples, groups two or The mainstream other of view,point which withindominates the Azerbaijani or 51 CEU eTD Collection (2001), 103. Comparative Multi-Level Analysis,” 91 dimension closer to the notion of civic identity". civic of notion the to closer dimension Republic of Azerbaijan). Shaffer writes in the introduction of her book: her of introduction in the writes Shaffer Azerbaijan). of Republic the of (citizens Azerbaijanis the and Iran) of provinces Azarbaijan East and West nationliveboth or byapplyinggroup to the Azarbaijanis term the who inthe (those sameshare the religion. they because only Azerbaijan of intheRepublic with those same bethe viewedas not which the inhabitants of the above-mentioned provinces have their own place and could in identity Iranian an forming elements basic the among are Iran) of Republic (Islamic state common a to belongingness as well as religion common the that state could northwestern provinces as well as the majority of the rest of the Iranian population, one Islam is the religion indominant Iran,thus, beingshared among of the inhabitants the Turkish or Turkic identity, since majority the of Muslims in are Sunni.Turkey Shi'a common the of favor in speak not does affiliation religious common the while identity, in those inTurkey, the in Republic of Azerbaijan and of north the Iran have a common ispeople extremely share, toTurkishinclose spoken Turkey meanand thus could that (Shi'a Islam) and their Turkic language. However, on one hand, the language, that these religion is in common have they What Iran. and Azerbaijan of Republic the of citizens historical a nor origins sense identity of common civic can beviewed among the F. L. Jones and Philip Smith, “Individual and Social Bases of National Identity. A over distinct Azerbaijani distinct over self-perception. butrarely identity, Azerbaijani of precedence andtakes inseparable element a substantial forms identity Turkic Azerbaijan… of Republic the successor, its and Azerbaijan Soviet both in population Azerbaijani the of identity collective showsThis book Azerbaijani identity that has been form predominantthe of Brendais among of Shaffer who "Azerbaijani" those authors, speak an ethnic European Sociological Review European Sociological 91 However, neither the shared the neither However, , Vol. 17, No. 2 52 CEU eTD Collection 93 river, who were supposedly sharing the same identity, however, as Atabaki writes: Arax the across "brethren" their and Azerbaijanis Iranian the among ideology common introduce itAzerbaijanis as an evidence in Baku.when aboutabilingualspeaking publishednewspaper,by a group of Iranian Shaffer of givesthe Shaffer, byBrenda used tool of a misguiding importance the emphasizes particularly onlyexistence a part of the Atabaki Touraj river. titlethe across people identity, whichunites same the collective of someof the paperkind andspeakinga distinct about Azerbaijani identity especially and itwhen thatassuming is oftries mutual to resultssupport andobtainedlacksway, also her by she of support the existence the assumptions any of positive isolated in arather but Iran in situation by general and region broader the within not them empirical research and interviews with the local people when 94 of SlavicStudies, Azerbaijani Identity 92 historical recalling data", as a predominantly biased and unbalanced one, including "selective amnesia in which were farfrom being of her methodology supportive ideas.Theauthor’s was seen Touraj Touraj Atabaki, of Review Ibid. Brenda Shaffer, decontextualize history. decontextualize Brethren in […]. subtitle the attachment territorial toIranian reference of Iran). By referring to the title only as identity. collective primary their many for and in Iran, Azerbaijanis the of most among identity collective significant a remained has identity Azerbaijani Iran, In This book, however,This book, was followed byanumber of and reviews comments, … 92 is an excellent example of how a political agenda can dehistoricize and Vol. 63, No.1(Spring, 179. 2004), Azarbayjan, Joz’-i la-yanfakk-i Iran Borders and Brethren by Brenda Shaffer, 93 Shaffer is criticized for looking at events andinterpreting events lookingat for is criticized Shaffer Borders andBrethren:Iran the Challengeof 94 The American Association for the Advancement for The AmericanAssociation , 4-5. Azarbayjan (Azerbaijan, aninseparable part , she omits the direct Borders and 53 CEU eTD Collection Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Encyclopaedia Iranica 99 98 2009). 97 502.2003), Azerbaijani Identity 96 95 state, nationalstate, and ethnic even conflicting” family. dialect), language which belongs Iranian tothe branchwithin the Indo-European languageit is (or Iran,of Azari the parts contemporary middle agesinthenorthern Audrey introduces Altstadt peoplethe shedevotedher into, book followingthe way: name,a geographical and Turk,whichismoreethnicityto related and ethnic identity. already: in title its implication amajor contains Republic, of Azerbaijani emergence the after the and historical for hisground arguments. wherework, hegoesoncriticizing book by Shaffer’s necessary theoretical providing and then leads to a conclusion, which implies that the existence or non-existence of the of non-existence or existence the that implies which a conclusion, to leads then and not or Azari,people, existed called a question,whether Azari,raises which spoke the Ehsan Yarshater, “Azerbaijan vii. The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan,” Ibid., xix. Audrey L. Altstadt, Mangol Bayat, Review of Brenda Shaffer, 99 The distinction that Brenda Shaffer makes between three forms of identity: What callsan she language""apparently has indeedIranian existed until late the isterm for inappropriate today’s Azerbaijani andthe theirlanguage.Turks thus, Atropaten; in spoken was Azeri called language Iranian apparently An sources. bysomeWestern "Azeri" or by Soviet Azerbaijani were called imperial andperiod until asTurks 1937. Thereafter, they languageand their Anotherimmediately relativelyin 1992, appeared recent publication, which The AzerbaijaniTurks An article by G. Asatrian about the existence of group, Iranianethnic existenceof an Asatrian aboutthe Anarticle byG. The Turks of Azerbaijan were classified as Tatars or Muslims in the Muslims or Tatars as classified were Azerbaijan of Turks The 96 Borders and Brethren by Mangol Bayat in another, more detailed review of same the of review more detailed in another, Bayat Mangol by by Brenda Shaffer, The Azerbaijani Turks 95 - islabeled “congruent, and atdifferenttimes competing, Borders andBrethren: Iran andtheChallengeof , 1989; available atwww.iranica.com (accessed April15, 97 - which consists of two elements: Azerbaijan, which is which Azerbaijan, elements: two of consists which - Middle East Journal, , 8. . Vol. 57, No. 3 (Summer, 98 54 CEU eTD Collection sovereign, anything else being adeviation from its properstatus" united and anation-state, view wasalways rightfully groundless that Azerbaijan developedone Azerbaijani Soviet nationalists inthe by the historically era… the "resembles which events, the of interpretation an providing and direction, opposite Afghanistan, kilometers of for thousands stretches which asaterritory Azeri Homeland" "Greater defining the from the Georgian town of Rustavi to the mountains in western van der Leeuw, 103 102 Martin’s Press, 2000). 101 G. Asatrian for(Yerevan: Caucasian IranianCentre 1998),25-33. Studies, 100 priests Persian ancient calling the of issues, includingasignificanterrors numberof (technical and grammatical),such as for anumber mocked even and hascriticized beenlargely book the However, research. scholarly objective a clearly expect could one therefore biases, or with prejudice be could perceivednot member of asan Azerbaijani society "in-group" the overloaded he thus and foreign is book the of author the that fact the from be deriving probably of the Azerbaijani Republic. Azerbaijani of the Charles journalist, van derLeeuw, years aDutch inBaku,thecapital spent several who leastbacktwo thousand for at yearsin way, an by uninterrupted wasintroduced ideaof major the supporters identity, Azerbaijani of which, asthebook an offers, goes as Azeri.just appears which erroneously identity, ethnic Azerbaijani newly-built the to related means no by is people Azari Muriel Atkin, Review of Ibid.,19. Chalres vanderLeeuw, li in Azari?” GarnikNarod “Sushestvuet Asatrian, Finally, a much less serious work, which, however, pretends to be one of the 102 introducing historic events in a rather mixed and sometimes completely sometimes and mixed rather in a events historic introducing Russian Review Azerbaijan: Quest Identity:for AShortHistory Azerbaijan: QuestforIdentity: AShort History 101 , Vol. 69, No. 4 , Vol. 69,2001),(Oct. 663-664. Its importance to the Azerbaijani nationalists could nationalists Azerbaijani the to importance Its Magyars 100 instead of Etyudi poIranskoy Etnologii magi 103 on on pages 39 and 42, etc. (St. by Charles , ed. 55 CEU eTD Collection facingmajor hardships with signs offailure toreach a convincing conclusion. quest,as the vanput byCharles imageforLeeuw, an der anddefinitionof"us"is still or thesearch while centuries, for several been have suffering fellow Azerbaijanis the Republic as has of beenintroduced oppressive Iran the regime, underwhichsupposedly dangerous has "other" often been the Armenians,ascribed to whilethe Islamic and imageof the"us".The forathreatening material building a major contributing as "others" the find shape and to have managed intelligentsia as well as the nationalistic resistant national consciousness and identity, leadership the of Azerbaijanithe Republic Azarbaijan.Azerbaijan and of thesupporters within Azerbaijanithe identity in "Southern" With an in ideology nation-building aspirationin contemporary trends major the of some illustrate for establishing a powerful nation-state based on a The importance to emphasize some of these works is explained by the needto by is the explained some of works these emphasize The importance to 56 CEU eTD Collection incomprehensible andthatgiven situation currentthe when politicalthe partiesorsides showdialogue West trying with the thethat "languages" they mutually speak to that are a establishing callsconceals thereformist of amessageto It Iran. within debate conservatives" vs. "reformists the to reference satiric a was article The newspaper. run of a state- section children's inthe cartoons of some publication the after burst out that Azarbaijani aswell demonstrations, wasabout resources international organizations as misrepresented. or exaggerated isdeliberately areclaiming nationalists the in many what that note cases to necessary be would it but periphery, the and center inthe both citizens its of needs central governmentis doing all that is possiblein order to satisfy the cultural and social the that or groundless completely is Iranians Azarbaijani the among find can one that any meangrievances not of kind that this course nowhere. does made Of upof extent for canmanage thesake alargenumbers of raiselarge of groups causesto people the to their own. However, even in that case there is still the danger that certain individuals or have more chances to get familiar modern bemanipulations, events alsobut subjectto can of larger masses the course, with the "primarydifferent source" and make judgments the due to samephenomenon the to approaches absolutely incompatible to subject sources of or and of disputes beamatter past canoften from distant the events historical Discussing just differentwith symbolsexisting data,eventsor is so-calledcontroversy" "cockroach the in Iran. manipulate leaders interpretationsnationalist how of example good a as serves which discontent, of of the same sources. Interpreting The "cockroach controversy" that drew the attention of numerous media numerous of attention drew the that controversy" The "cockroach One of the most recent cases a of chain of mass demonstrations and expressions CONCLUSION 57 CEU eTD Collection http://www.iranian.com/News/2006/May/Images/soosk.jpg; accessed 26May http://www.iranian.com/News/2006/May/Images/soosk.jpg; 2009. 104 "Azarbaijani of being of tired harassment, Persian chauvinism anddiscriminative jokes against the Turks". A numbersBBC of people in Tabriz and other cities in reportIran to go out to the streets with claims stated for large became mayyeta reason asitcartoon this As simple actions. seem, further that "The cartoon vernacular. showed daily in the a Iranians other young all among in Tehran used largely however, is, which boy dialect, Turkic of Azarbaijani the word single a with andreplies language" "cockroach "–ing"). The cockroachis be andseemsconfused unabletounderstand to the "soosk" meaningword in "cockroach" forms different additionalwith endings such as usesthePersian English language, "language" whichinfactresembles strange (the in a cockroach speak tothe to is shown boy the pictures of Onone the cartoon. the with the foreigners? Cockroaches, a boy and afrog are among the "acting characters" in "talk" to going they are how other, each understand to able even not are debate the of Pic. 1 The full page of the newspaper is available online at However, as it can be seen on Pic. 2, asitcan beon Pic. seen However, 104 the cockroach "speaks" Farsiduring the "speaks" cockroach the Pic. 2 58 CEU eTD Collection Iran!"; "Farsi- language of Ankara- "Tabriz, Armenians!"; Baku, Iran!"; "Death of "Farsi-language dogs!"; to to "Death capital!"; be the should Tabriz become One, Arax] should side [of and that language!"; has isnotasleep,it given "Azerbaijan its identity side away!"; "This byaforeign be replaced it cannot immortal, is language Turkish "The far away!"; cultural autonomy. help!";"Turkey, "Ouris in Turkey Tabriz blood, is watching from demanding numerous own just Turkic moreothers languagetherewerealso than among many of those defending the rights of the Azarbaijani Iranians to speak their http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1068797.html;accessed 26 May 2009. Among Azeris," 107 106 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5008420.stm May (accessed 26, 2009). 105 arrested. from response Iranian andthe people died, several whilemany were authorities, others and editor. cartoonist the the aswell arrest as ban mediasource) a state-run to casein Republic Islamic the rare is a bannewspaper (it the sureto made government note Iranian the to that worth also language? theirjusticetowards demand respect and of Farsi-speakingto population the part the for a basis also is Persian in sentence further the that mean it would unrests, such cause was able to in Turkic dialect the a word necessarily. If speak Azeri cockroach saying: "What?" inAzeri, replied confusedcockroach the but in a cockroach Persian, speaking to Jean-Christophe Peuch, "Iran: Cartoon Protests Point to Growing Frustration Growing to Point Protests Cartoon "Iran: Peuch, Jean-Christophe Ibid. "Iranian Paper Banned over Cartoon," The slogans that were used at the demonstrations are of particular interest, since Regardless of the cause and the reasons, the riots were still oppressed by a harsh Ironically, the author of the cartoons was himself an Azarbaijani Iranian. It is 107 Radio Free Europe/RadioLiberty 105 The boy, however, does not speak Persian there, nor does the 106 BBC News BBC (May 31, 2006); available at (May 23, 2006); available at 59 CEU eTD Collection ponse.htm ponse.htm (accessed May 26, 2009). http://www.azargoshnasp.net/recent_history/atoor/responseasgharzadeh/asghrazadehres 108 least peacefully than the violent methods prevailing at the current stage. current atthe methods prevailing theviolent peacefully than least manner,thoughtful many issues be possibly those solvedof mucheasily could at or and a considerate in approached If of affairs. state current with the discontent expressmanyfor social cultural, areobviouslyto their there or somereasons Iranians Whether individuals. certain deeds"of "treacherous or conspiracy" asa"foreign simply number of variouspeople with demands and anxieties, thatbe should not interpreted as whether nationalistraiseleadership wrong,is rightof groups, or able the significant to emergeany momentproved, and at need amore which If careful approach. the acartoon with example simple the as can, which issues the of many on eyes its closing aspirations. pan-Turkish they that have any andrefusing Iran" "establishing a democratic used in by the nationalists, the whose leaders havebeen "struggling for justice", where the Persians and where we are!"- such were some of the slogans most frequently A list of the slogans is available in Persian at As afinal it shouldremark be added that the Iranian governmenthas been 108 60 CEU eTD Collection Abrahamian, Ervand. 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