Introduction: the Frankfurt School and the Problem of Religion

Notes

Introduction: The Frankfurt School and the Problem of Religion

1 Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research (1973); Rolf Wiggershaus, The Frankfurt School: Its History, Theories and Political Significance (1988). 2 Although early Critical Theorists frequently used the Left–Right opposition that dominated the political landscape during the first half of the twentieth century to position their work, it is important to note that to some extent they seem to have been aware of the fact that their work also undercut various of the distinctions related to that opposition. Indications of this are, for example, Benjamin’s esteem for thinkers such as Max Kommerell and Carl Schmitt or Max Horkheimer’s alignment of the ‘true’ revolutionary with the ‘true’ conservative in ‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen, wird verschwinden’ (‘What we call “meaning” will disappear’, MHGS VII, 354). 3 Cf. Willem van Reijen, ‘Konservative Rhetorik in der “Dialektik der Aufklärung” ’, pp. 204–6. 4 Cf. Raymond Geuss, ‘Liberalism and its discontents’, pp. 332–6. 5 Thomas Nipperdey, Religion im Umbruch: Deutschland 1870–1918, esp. pp. 124–57; Mitchell G. Ash, Gestalt Psychology in German Culture (1890–1967), pp. 1–322; Peter Berghoff, Der Tod des politischen Kollektivs; Manfred Gangl, Gérard Raulet (eds), Intellektuellendiskurse in der Weimarer Republik; Steve Giles, Maike Oerkel (eds), Counter–Cultures in Germany and Central Europe, pp. 87–169, 193–239; Anne Harrington, Reenchanted Science; Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism; Jacob Katz (ed.), The Role of Religion in Modern Jewish History; Hans G. Kippenberg, Brigitte Luchesi (eds), Religionswissenschaft und Kulturkritik; Thomas Rohkrämer, Eine andere Moderne?; Stefanie von Schnurbein, Justus H. Ulbricht (eds), Völkische Religion und Krisen der Moderne. 6 See the case made for this possibility in James Bohman, ‘Wahrheit, Ideologie, Religion’. 7 Benjamin, The Arcades Project, p. 471 (N8,1), cf. WBGS V.1, 588–9; Horkheimer, The Eclipse of Reason, p. 186; MHGS III, 247–8 (‘Zu Bergsons Metaphysik der Zeit’, ‘On Bergson’s metaphysics of time’). On this issue, see also Margarete Kohlenbach, Walter Benjamin: Self-Reference and Religiosity, pp. x–xii. 8 Cf. AB, 90 (Adorno, Letter to Walter Benjamin, 17 December 1934). 9 Geertz, ‘Religion as a Cultural System’, quotations, pp. 89–91, 94, 98, 109, 119. 10 For the problems involved in any definition of ‘religion’, see for instance Georg Simmel, ‘On the Sociology of Religion’, pp. 275–6, 286–7, or, more recently, Stephen J. Hunt, Religion in Western Society, pp. 1–13, or Volkhard Krech, Religionssoziologie, esp. pp. 75–8. 11 In his Weimar Culture, Peter Gay discusses ‘the hunger for wholeness’ as a characteristic feature of the period. See also Theodore Ziolkowski, ‘Der

190 Notes 191

Hunger nach dem Mythos’, Jost Hermand, Frank Trommler, Die Kultur der Weimarer Republik, pp. 151–61, and the contemporary discussion in Erich Unger, Wirklichkeit, Mythos, Erkenntnis (‘Reality, myth, knowledge’), pp. 3–39. 12 MHGS VII, 387–8 (‘Die Sehnsucht nach dem ganz Anderen’, ‘The longing for the totally Other’). 13 Isaac Breuer, Concepts of Judaism, p. 35. For the historical context of Breuer’s stance, see the editor’s introduction, esp. pp. 3–4, for the selection and the various translations and retranslations of the texts collected in this volume, the editor’s introduction, pp. 24–5. 14 Cf. Breuer, Concepts of Judaism, p. 35. 15 See for instance DE 9, 16, 27–8, 124, 139, and SW II, 216–17 (‘Surrealism’), SW I, 395 (‘Outline of the Psychophysical Problem’). Benjamin uses the one term ‘Einsamkeit’, translated in SW I and SW II by ‘solitariness’ and ‘solitude’ respectively, in both texts. 16 See Geertz, ‘Religion as a Cultural System’, p. 89, and the largely functionalist discussion of religious conceptions, pp. 98–108. 17 Geertz, ‘Religion as a Cultural System’, pp. 89–90. 18 As the context makes clear, the ritual aspect is represented in Geertz’s definition by the reference to an ‘aura’ of factuality. Geertz, ‘Religion as a Cultural System’, pp. 109–18. 19 Cf. for instance SW I, 295 (‘Announcement of the Journal Angelus Novus’), WBGS II.2, 680–1 (‘Franz Kafka: Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer’), SW I, 245, 252, note 4 (‘Critique of Violence’). 20 Cf. Geertz, ‘Religion as a Cultural System’, pp. 109–18. 21 MHGS VII, 351 (‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen’). 22 Cf. Geertz, ‘Religion as a Cultural System’, pp. 89–90, 94.

1 Max Horkheimer’s Supposed ‘Religious Conversion’: A Semantic Analysis

1 Michael R. Ott, Max Horkheimer’s Critical Theory of Religion, pp. 81–3; Gérard Raulet, ‘Kritik der Vernunft und kritischer Gebrauch des Pessimismus’, pp. 31–51; Hans Günter Holl, ‘Religion und Metaphysik im Spätwerk Max Horkheimers’; Gunzelin Schmid Noerr, Gesten aus Begriffen, pp. 153–97; Hans-Walter Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 316–20; Juan José Sánchez, Wider die Logik der Geschichte, pp. 11–12, 124–5. 2 Cf. Raulet, ‘Kritik der Vernunft’, p. 36. 3 Cf. Schmid Noerr, Gesten, p. 9. 4 Fritz Kuhn, ‘ “Begriffe besetzen”: Anmerkungen zu einer Metapher aus der Welt der Machbarkeit’, pp. 96–105; Josef Klein, ‘Kann man “Begriffe besetzen”?’, pp. 57–62; Josef Klein, ‘Wortschatz, Wortkampf, Wortfelder in der Politik’, pp. 3–50. 5 Horkheimer, ‘On the Problem of Truth’, p. 215. 6 Cf. Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 318–19. 7 Horkheimer, ‘The Jews and Europe’, p. 78. 8 Cf. Horkheimer, Kritische Theorie: Eine Dokumentation, ed. Alfred Schmidt, vol. I, pp. 361–76 and Horkheimer, Kritische Theorie der Gesellschaft, ed. Marxismus-Kollektiv, vol. I. 192 Notes

9 Horkheimer, ‘Thoughts on Religion’, p. 129. 10 ‘Thoughts on Religion’, p. 131. See also Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, p. 168. 11 MHGS I, 140 (‘Sehnsucht’). See also Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 125–31. 12 Schmid Noerr, Gesten, pp. 153–73. See also Holl, ‘Religion und Metaphysik’, pp. 131, 141–2. 13 ‘Materialism and Metaphysics’, p. 44; ‘Materialism and Morality’, p. 36 (trans. modified), MHGS III, 136–7. 14 Schmidt, ‘Nachwort des Herausgebers’, p. 365. 15 Horkheimer, Dawn and Decline, p. 219. See also Matthias Lutz-Bachmann, ‘Humanität und Religion: Zu Max Horkheimers Deutung des Christentums’, p. 121. 16 Schmid Noerr, ‘Nachwort des Herausgebers’, p. 462. 17 Wolfgang Kraushaar, ‘Die Anti-Elite als Avantgarde’, p. 3. 18 Dawn and Decline, pp. 60, 91. See also Sánchez, Wider die Logik, pp. 33–7, 69–73; Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 37–41, 172–3; and Holl, ‘Religion und Metaphysik’, pp. 129, 138. 19 Dawn and Decline, p. 84. 20 Lutz-Bachmann, ‘Humanität und Religion’, p. 108; Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 318–19. 21 ‘Theism and Atheism’, p. 49 (trans. modified), MHGS VII, 185. See also Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 318–19. 22 ‘Theism and Atheism’, pp. 48–9. Cf. MHGS VII, 194 (‘Religion und Philosophie’). 23 MHGS VII, 349–50 (‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen’). 24 MHGS VII, 194 (‘Religion und Philosophie’). See also Jürgen Habermas, ‘Remarks on the Development of Horkheimer’s Work’, pp. 60–1, and Holl, ‘Religion und Metaphysik’, p. 141. 25 ‘Materialism and Morality’, p. 33. 26 ‘Theism and Atheism’, p. 47. 27 MHGS VII, 140–1 (‘Die Aktualität Schopenhauers’, ‘Schopenhauer’s contemporary relevance’). Cf. MHGS VII, 232 (‘Pessimismus heute’, ‘Pessimism today’). 28 MHGS VII, 251–2 (‘Schopenhauers Denken im Verhältnis zu Wissenschaft und Religion’, ‘Schopenhauer’s thought in relation to science and religion’). Cf. MHGS VII, 194 (‘Religion und Philosophie’). 29 MHGS VII, 350–1 (‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen’); MHGS VII, 393–5 (‘Die Sehnsucht nach dem ganz Anderen’, ‘The longing for the totally Other’); ‘Theism and Atheism’, p. 50. See also Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 288–300. 30 MHGS VII, 238–9 (‘Bemerkungen zur Liberalisierung der Religion’, ‘Remarks on the liberalisation of religion’). 31 Dawn and Decline, p. 101. See also Ott, Max Horkheimer’s Critical Theory, pp. 75, 123–4 and Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 257–66. 32 MHGS VII, 434 (‘Die Zukunft der Kritischen Theorie’, ‘The future of Critical Theory’); MHGS VII, 238–9 (‘Liberalisierung’); MHGS VII, 293–4 (‘ “Himmel, Ewigkeit und Schönheit” ’, ‘ “Heaven, eternity and beauty” ’); MHGS VII, 350–2 (‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen’). See also Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 257–63. 33 MHGS VII, 293–4 (‘ “Himmel” ’). Notes 193

34 MHGS VII, 311–13, quotation, 312 (‘Die Funktion der Theologie in der Gesellschaft’, ‘The social function of theology’). 35 MHGS VII, 187, 194 (‘Religion und Philosophie’); MHGS VII, 386 (‘Die Sehnsucht nach dem ganz Anderen’). Cf. Lutz-Bachmann, ‘Humanität und Religion’, p. 114. 36 Cf. Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, p. 294. In the worst case the distinction is completely ignored, cf. Ott, Max Horkheimer’s Critical Theory, pp. 13, 94, 103–5. 37 Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 290–300, quotation, p. 298. 38 Cf. Bloch, The Principle of Hope and Moltmann, Theology of Hope. 39 MHGS VII, 433–4 (‘Die Zukunft der kritischen Theorie’). See also MHGS VII, 389 (‘Die Sehnsucht nach dem ganz Anderen’), MHGS VII, 352–3 (‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen’), as well as Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert, ‘Die Vermittlung von Gottesfrage und Offenbarung im gesellschaftlichen Handeln’, pp. 276–7. 40 Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 267–71. 41 Dawn and Decline, p. 148. 42 MHGS VII, 380 (‘Verwaltete Welt’, ‘A world subjected to administration’); MHGS VII, 347–8 (‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen’); MHGS VII, 403 (‘Die Sehnsucht nach dem ganz Anderen’). See also Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 237–8 and Holl, ‘Religion und Metaphysik’, p. 139. 43 MHGS VII, 340–1 (‘Dokumente – Stationen’); MHGS VII, 415–16 (‘Neues Denken über Revolution’, ‘New thoughts on revolution’); MHGS VII, 345–7 (‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen’). 44 MHGS VII, 352 (‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen’). See also Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 255–62, and Ott, Max Horkheimer’s Critical Theory, p. 119. 45 MHGS VII, 387 (‘Die Sehnsucht nach dem ganz Anderen’). Cf. Raulet, ‘Kritik der Vernunft’, p. 44. 46 MHGS VII, 194 (‘Religion und Philosophie’). Cf. MHGS VII, 431–4 (‘Die Zukunft der Kritischen Theorie’). See also Holl, ‘Religion und Metaphysik’, p. 140. 47 MHGS VII, 276–83, quotation, 276 (‘Erinnerung an Paul Tillich’, ‘In memo- riam Paul Tillich’); MHGS VII, 350 (‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen’). 48 Cf. Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, p. 320, and Sánchez, Wider die Logik, p. 284. 49 Post, Kritische Theorie und metaphysischer Pessimismus, pp. 80–2. Cf. Sánchez, Wider die Logik, pp. 284–5. 50 Nörtersheuser, Max Horkheimer, pp. 226–33. 51 Cf. Claus Grossner, ‘Anfang und Ende der Frankfurter Schule’, and Michael Westarp, ‘Kritische Theorie in der Sackgasse’. 52 Cf. the extensive collection of newspaper articles in the Max Horkheimer Archive, Frankfurt/M. (MHA XXII, 91–101). 53 See Kraushaar (ed.), Frankfurter Schule und Studentenbewegung, Ingrid Gilcher- Holtey (ed.), 1968, and Alex Demirovic, ‘Der nonkonformistische Intellek- tuelle’, pp: 856–909. 54 Dawn and Decline, p. 57. 55 Rudolf Siebert, From Critical Theory to Critical Political Theology; Volker Spülbeck, Neo-Marxismus und Theologie; Siegfried Wiedenhofer, Politische Theologie. 56 Roger Garaudy, Johann Baptist Metz, Karl Rahner, From Anathema to Dialogue: the Challenge of Marxist-Christian Cooperation; Erich Kellner (ed.), Christentum und Marxismus heute; Wolf-Dieter Marsch, ‘Marxismus und Christentum’. 194 Notes

57 Moltmann, Theology of Hope; Moltmann, The Crucified God; Wiedenhofer, Poli- tische Theologie. 58 Metz, Theology of the World; Kurt Lüthi, Theologie als Dialog mit der Welt von heute; Wiedenhofer, Politische Theologie. 59 Moltmann, ‘Die Zukunft als neues Paradigma der Transzendenz’, p. 9. 60 Rahner, ‘Zur Theologie der Hoffnung’, p. 77. 61 Metz, ‘“Politische Theologie” in der Diskussion’, pp. 268, 280–1. 62 Metz, ‘ “Politische Theologie” ’, pp. 286–8; Metz, ‘Erlösung und Emanzipation’, pp. 125–7; Metz, Moltmann, Leidensgeschichte. On Metz and the Frankfurt School, see Spülbeck, Neomarxismus und Theologie, pp. 231–4, and Wiedenhofer, Politische Theologie, pp. 40–3. 63 Moltmann, The Crucified God, p. 321. 64 Cf. Moltmann, Theology of Hope and Horkheimer, ‘Für eine Theologie des Zweifels’.

2 On the Usefulness and Uselessness of Religious Illusions

1 ‘[…] if there be any single domain of human experience that presents us with something unmistakably specific and unique, peculiar to itself, assuredly it is that of the religious life’ (Rudolf Otto, The Idea of the Holy, p. 4). 2 Otto, Idea of the Holy, pp. 8–11. 3 Idea of the Holy, pp. 12–30. 4 Sigmund Freud, The Future of an Illusion, pp. 28–9. 5 Friedrich Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human, pp. 60, 70–7 (§§ 108, 132–41); Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morality, pp. 100–1 (3rd essay, § 16). At other places, for instance The Gay Science, pp. 210–11 (§ 353), Nietzsche analyses religion as the interpretation of a form of life. 6 Nietzsche, Genealogy of Morality, pp. 56–8 (2nd essay, § 13). 7 Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, pp. 108–28 (§§ 186–203). For further discussion of the methodological issues here, see Raymond Geuss, ‘Nietzsche and Genealogy’. 8 Freud, Future of an Illusion, pp. 33–5. 9 Future of an Illusion, pp. 33, 45. 10 For the best analytical account of the concept of a need, see David Wiggins, Needs, Values, and Truth, pp. 1–57. 11 Nietzsche, Human, All Too Human, pp. 75–7 (§ 141); Nietzsche, Gay Science, p. 131 (§ 151). 12 Freud, Future of an Illusion, pp. 36–42. 13 Future of an Illusion, p. 50. 14 Future of an Illusion, p. 52. 15 Bronislaw Malinowski, ‘Magic, Science and Religion’. 16 Horkheimer, ‘Traditional and Critical Theory’, pp. 206–7. 17 Horkheimer, ‘Thoughts on Religion’, esp. pp. 129, 131. 18 MHGS VII, 213–23 (‘Über den Zweifel’, ‘On doubt’), 224–32 (‘Pessimismus heute’, ‘Pessimism today’), 233–9 (‘Bemerkungen zur Liberalisierung der Religion’, ‘Remarks on the liberalisation of religion’), 240–52 (‘Schopenhauers Denken im Verhältnis zu Wissenschaft und Religion’, ‘Schopenhauer’s thought in relation to science and religion’). Notes 195

3 Emerging ‘Orders’: The Contemporary Relevance of Religion and Teaching in Walter Benjamin’s Early Thought

1 ‘We / don’t know, you know, / we / don’t know, do we?, / what / counts’ (trans. Michael Hamburger, Poems of Paul Celan, pp. 156–7). 2 For a detailed discussion of Benjamin’s religiosity that also considers texts where Benjamin does not explicitly deal with religion, see Margarete Kohlenbach, Walter Benjamin: Self-Reference and Religiosity. 3 SW I, 104 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 163. 4 Benjamin, The Arcades Project, p. 470, cf. WBGS V.1, 587–8 (N7a,1). In the translation of N7a,1 in The Arcades Project, Benjamin’s term ‘Aktualität’ is rendered by ‘the present instant’ while in the present chapter ‘Aktualität’ is consistently translated as ‘contemporary relevance’. 5 See ‘Paralipomena to “On the Concept of History” ’, SW IV, 405, and WBGS I.3, 1243 (Ms 474); see also The Arcades Project, pp. 462–3 and 473 (N3,1 and N9,7). 6 WBGS VI, 46 (‘Erkenntnistheorie’). 7 For the importance of ‘On the Program of the Coming Philosophy’ for the further development of Benjamin’s thought, see for instance Gérard Raulet, Walter Benjamin, pp. 4–11 and Howard Caygill, Walter Benjamin: The Colour of Experience, pp. 1–33. 8 Scholem, Walter Benjamin: The Story of a Friendship, p. 55. 9 GB I, 73 (Letter to Ludwig Strauss, 10 October 1912). 10 Cf. ‘ “Experience” ’, SW I, 3–5, and Benjamin’s later comments on this text, quoted by the editors in WBGS II.3, 902. 11 Cf. GB I, 63 (Letter to Strauss, 11 September 1912), where the phrase ‘serious about today’ applies to ‘men of letters’ (‘Literaten’), whom the ‘Dialog über die Religiosität der Gegenwart’ calls the ‘bearers of the religious spirit in our time’ (WBGS II.1, 29). The letters to Ludwig Strauss of 11 September, 10 October, 21 November 1912 and 7–9 January 1913 accompany the composition of ‘Dialog über die Religiosität der Gegenwart’, sharing several features with it. They are therefore valuable for the explanation of individual passages. 12 Cf. in particular WBGS II.1, 29 about the necessity of creating the appropri- ate preconditions for ‘spiritualising the conventions’. I will return to this passage later. 13 WBGS II.1, 32, 24. For Benjamin’s concern with the ‘honesty of dualism’, see Astrid Deuber-Mankowsky, Der frühe Walter Benjamin und Hermann Cohen, pp. 317–40. 14 Deuber-Mankowsky, Walter Benjamin und Hermann Cohen, p. 340. 15 Characteristically, Benjamin’s interest in the cultic element persists through the different phases of his thought, despite all the profound changes in his intellectual paradigms. In ‘On Some Motifs in Baudelaire’ (written in 1939) it recurs in the context of Baudelaire’s correspondances that are said to ‘encompass a concept of experience which includes cultic elements’. Cf. SW IV, 333 (trans. modified), WBGS I.2, 638. Of course, as Benjamin’s com- ment suggests, modern man finds it extremely difficult to relate to such an experience: ‘Only by approaching these elements was Baudelaire able to 196 Notes

fathom the full meaning of the breakdown which he, as a modern man, was witnessing.’ However, even the historical materialist Benjamin regards the survival of cultic elements in the mutilated experience of modernity as an indispensable resource, which he incorporates under the heading of ‘remembrance’ in his own theory of the experience of history. 16 WBGS II.1, 29. On this issue, see also Kohlenbach, Self-Reference, 51–2. 17 WBGS II.1, 28. See also GB I, 64 (Letter to Strauss, 11 September 1912): ‘I will say no more about the literary intelligentsia (as an idea) than that they are called to be for the new social consciousness what “the poor in spirit, the enslaved and the humble” were for the first Christians’. 18 GB I, 63 (Letter to Strauss, 11 September 1912, emphasis P. F.). Deuber- Mankowsky (Walter Benjamin und Hermann Cohen, p. 378) has underlined the connection between Benjamin’s characterisation of the literary intelligentsia and Alois Riegl’s concept of ‘artistic will’ (‘Kunstwollen’), which was to become important for Benjamin later. 19 See GB I, 71 (Letter to Strauss, 10 October 1912): ‘To be completely personal, I find among them [the Jews] a strictly dualistic world view that I find (not by chance!) in myself and in the Wickersdorf view of life. Buber also speaks about this dualism.’ On the interrelations between ‘Jews’ and ‘literary intelligentsia’ in Benjamin’s thought around 1912 see Deuber-Mankowsky, Walter Benjamin und Hermann Cohen, pp. 282–383. 20 Cohen, ‘Innere Beziehungen der Kantischen Philosophie zum Judentum’ (‘The internal relations of Kant’s philosophy to Judaism’). 21 Walter Benjamin und Hermann Cohen, p. 322. 22 WBGS II.1, 34 (‘Dialog über die Religiosität der Gegenwart’). 23 Cohen, Ethik des reinen Willens, 2nd edition, p. 444. 24 SW I, 105 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 164. 25 SW I, 106. However, in ‘On the Program’ we no longer read about ‘dualism’ in this context, but about the ‘trichotomy of the Kantian system’: ‘the trichotomy of the Kantian system is one of the great features […] which is to be preserved, and it, more than any other, must be preserved’ (SW I, 106). This passage and the related problem of causality through freedom reveal most clearly the influence on Benjamin of Felix Noeggerath’s doctoral dissertation Synthesis und Systembegriff in der Philosophie: Ein Beitrag zur Kritik des Antirationalismus (‘Synthesis and the concept of system in philosophy: a contribution to the critique of antirationalism’). See Tamara Tagliacozzo, Esperienza e compito infinito nella filosofia del primo Benjamin, pp. 374–6. 26 SW I, 102 (emphasis P. F.). Following established conventions ‘epistemological’ here – and throughout the present chapter – stands for the German ‘erkenntnistheoretisch’. However, in the ‘Addendum’ to ‘Program’ Benjamin maintains that all philosophy is ‘Erkenntnistheorie’ or ‘theory of knowledge, but just that – a theory, critical and dogmatic, of all knowledge’ (SW I, 108, WBGS II.1, 169). Here the term Erkenntnistheorie, rather than referring simply to epistemology or a specific philosophical discipline, indicates the ‘rehabilitation of philosophy’ as Erkenntnistheorie that had marked neo- Kantianism in the nineteenth century. (Cf. Herbert Schnädelbach, Philosophy in Germany 1831–1933, 103–6.) For the history of the term, see Klaus Christian Köhnke, ‘Über den Ursprung des Wortes Erkenntnistheorie – und dessen vermeintliche Synonyme’, Köhnke, The Rise of Neo-Kantianism, Notes 197

pp. 36–66, and for its importance in Benjamin, esp. in the Convolute N of The Arcades Project, Pierfrancesco Fiorato, ‘Teoria della conoscenza e concetto di storia’. 27 SW I, 102 (emphasis P. F.). 28 Cor, 112 (trans. modified), GB I, 422. 29 Cf. Kants Theorie der Erfahrung, p. 660. 30 SW I, 105 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 164. 31 SW I, 105. To recognise the ‘mechanical’ one-sidedness of neo-Kantianism, Benjamin need not have read Kants Theorie der Erfahrung. The fact, however, that once he had written ‘On the Program’ he was still interested in reading this work casts some doubts on Scholem’s report on this entire process in The Story of a Friendship. See Fiorato, ‘Die Erfahrung, das Unbedingte und die Religion: Walter Benjamin als Leser von Kants Theorie der Erfahrung’. 32 The elements that Benjamin offers the reader for a closer definition of the positive side of the relationship between knowledge and experience are sparse. His positive characterisation of the epistemological foundation in question does not seem to go beyond the reference to a process of ‘referring’ (see above) or, elsewhere, ‘envisioning’: ‘It is a question of finding, on the basis of Kantian typology, prolegomena to a future metaphysics and, in the process, of envisioning this future metaphysics, this higher experience’ (SW I, 102, emphasis P. F.). 33 Holzhey, Cohen and Natorp, vol. I, p. 133. 34 Cohen and Natorp, vol. I, p. 131. The quotations in this passage relate to Cohen, Kants Begründung der Ethik, 1st edition, pp. 27 and 47. 35 Cohen, Kants Begründung der Ethik, 2nd edition, p. 35 (emphasis P. F.). 36 Cohen, Logik der reinen Erkenntnis, p. 59. 37 Logik der reinen Erkenntnis, p. 585. 38 Logik der reinen Erkenntnis, p. 21. 39 SW I, 107–8 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 168. 40 Cf. ‘das darreichende Faktum’, WBGS VI, 53 (‘Über die transzendentale Methode’). 41 SW I, 105 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 164. 42 WBGS VI, 39 (‘Zum verlornen Abschluss der Notiz über die Symbolik in der Erkenntnis’, ‘On the lost conclusion of the note about symbolism in knowledge’). 43 Cohen, Religion of Reason Out of the Sources of Judaism, p. 72. 44 See my discussion of Cohen’s notion of revelation in Fiorato, ‘ “Das Erbe des Allmächtigen aus der Höhe”: Offenbarung und Tradition in einer “Religion der (problematischen) Vernunft” ’. 45 WBGS VI, 53 (‘Über die transzendentale Methode’, emphasis P. F.). 46 SW I, 109 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 170. The terms ‘original concept’ (‘Urbegriff’) and ‘primary concept’ (‘Stammbegriff’) are used by Kant in his ‘metaphysical deduction’ with reference to the categories. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, pp. 114–16 (KrV B 107–8, 111). 47 In this context the term ‘immediately’, emphasised by Benjamin himself, proves central. It encapsulates the problem of how to provide a foundation for the concept of religious experience that his entire project struggles to resolve. Benjamin himself explicitly stresses the problematic nature of his notion of immediacy when he writes that in ‘a purely metaphysical respect, 198 Notes

the primary concept of experience is transformed into the totality of experience in a sense quite different from the way it is transformed into its individual specifications, the sciences – that is, immediately, where the meaning of this immediacy vis-à-vis the former mediacy remains to be determined’ (SW I, 109–10, trans. modified, WBGS II.1, 170, latter emphasis P. F.). 48 WBGS VI, 51 (‘Die unendliche Aufgabe’, ‘The infinite task’, dated December 1917 by the editors). 49 Scholem, The Story of a Friendship, pp. 60–1. 50 SW I, 217 ‘The Theory of Criticism’, 1921–23. 51 See Holzhey, Die Vernunft des Problems. 52 SW I, 294–5 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 244.

4 Religion, Experience, Politics: On Erich Unger and Walter Benjamin

1 Cor, 173 (Letter to Gershom Scholem, January 1921). On most occasions Unger uses ‘psychophysiological’ to characterise the problem in question, whereas Benjamin prefers ‘psychophysical’. For Unger’s terminological distinction between the two expressions, see Unger, Das psychophysiologische Problem und sein Arbeitsgebiet (‘The psychophysiological problem and its field of research’), pp. v–vi. 2 Cor, 172 (Letter to Scholem, January 1921). 3 See, also for literature on the topic, Michael Grossheim, ‘ “Die namenlose Dummheit, die das Resultat des Fortschritts ist”: Lebensphilosophische und dialektische Kritik der Moderne.’ 4 See for instance Herbert Schnädelbach, Philosophy in Germany 1981–33, pp. 139–60, Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair, and, more recently, Anne Harrington, Reenchanted Science, Cornelia Klinger, Flucht Trost Revolte, and Thomas Rohkrämer, Eine andere Moderne? 5 See, also for what follows, Unger, Das Problem der mythischen Realität, pp. 5–11. On Unger, Goldberg and the circle around Goldberg in general, see Judith Friedlander, ‘Religious Metaphysics and the Nation-State’, Manfred Voigts, Oskar Goldberg, and Voigts, ‘Walter Benjamin und Erich Unger’. According to Esther J. Ehrman, Unger (1887–1950) came from a ‘wholly assimilated’ background and met Goldberg (1885–1952), who first taught him Talmud, as his fellow-student at the liberal Berlin Friedrichs-Gymnasium. Goldberg both moved in early Expressionist circles and took part in the life of Berlin’s Jewish neo-Orthodox community. The characterisation of Unger, in Scholem’s Encyclopaedia Judaica article on Goldberg, as Goldberg’s ‘most important disci- ple’ may conceal the philosophical rigour and independent-mindedness of Unger’s work. These attitudes will have contributed to his final break with Goldberg over the latter’s book Maimonides (1935). For the Jewish contribution to German Expressionism in general, see Hanni Mittelmann, ‘Expressionismus und Judentum’, for the anti-modernist and modern aspects of Jewish neo- Orthodoxy in Wilhelmine Germany – which can help to explain the puzzling combination of modernist and archaic features in Goldberg’s and Unger’s thought – Mordechai Breuer, Modernity Within Tradition. Notes 199

6 For the later Unger’s insistence, against Goldberg, on a strict methodological separation between Pentateuch exegesis and philosophy that may amount to the abandonment of the earlier goal of proving the Pentateuch to be literally true, see Unger, ‘Introductory Remark’ (unpublished manuscript, Unger estate, Deutsches Literaturarchiv Marbach, box 4) and Unger, Das Lebendige und das Goettliche (‘The living and the divine’, written 1941–44), pp. 3–4, 36–8, 64–5. 7 SW I, 105 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 164 and SW I, 100–1. For ‘Lehre’ (‘teaching’, ‘doctrine’) as a central concept in Benjamin’s religious thought, see Scholem, Walter Benjamin: The Story of a Friendship, pp. 55–6. 8 Cf. Vernon Pratt, Religion and Secularisation, pp. 1–24. 9 For the use of ‘Erfahrung’ (‘experience’) in early twentieth-century science, philosophy and ordinary German, see Paul F. Linke’s discussion in his ‘Das Recht der Phänomenologie’, pp. 167–71, with which Benjamin was familiar. 10 Cf. SW I, 95 (‘On Perception’), and Unger, ‘Mythos und Wirklichkeit’ (‘Myth and reality’), p. 89. 11 Both Goldberg and Unger – to various degrees and in various ways – considered the possibility of an ‘experimental’ confirmation of mythic beliefs. See Voigts, Oskar Goldberg, pp. 32–7, 173–9; Goldberg, Die Wirklichkeit der Hebräer, esp. pp. 5–6, 16–17, 94, 117–18; Unger, Das psychophysiologische Problem, pp. 4–7, 19–20, and Unger, Die staatslose Bildung eines jüdischen Volkes, pp. 24–30. The later Unger (Das Lebendige, pp. 7–8, 31, 52–61) denies that religious ‘truth’ can be demonstrated by experiments or the natural sciences but retains the idea of a pragmatic confirmation of religious speculation. 12 See, also for what follows, SW I, 93–6 (trans. modified) or WBGS VI, 33–8. 13 Cohen, Logik der reinen Erkenntnis, 1st edition, pp. 127–8, 161–2; Cohen, Kants Theorie der Erfahrung, 3rd edition, pp. 275–6, 785–7; Natorp, ‘Kant und die Marburger Schule’, p. 201. 14 Cf. SW I, 103–5 (‘On the Program’). 15 Implicitly, ‘speculation’ and deduction’ may be part of Benjamin’s require- ment that the structure of true experience ‘is to be developed’ from that of pure knowledge (SW I, 104). 16 SW I, 96 (emphasis M. K., trans. modified), WBGS VI, 37. 17 Benjamin’s rejection of ‘the correctness of cognitions’ as a criterion for the evaluation of empirical beliefs amounts to an abandonment of the correspondence notion of truth, at least for the empirical realm. However, he does not deal with the decisive question of how a possible, ‘transcendental, but speculative’ version of that notion or, indeed, an alternative notion of truth can be substantiated that would justify his view of religion as true experience. 18 Benjamin’s early notes on perception as ‘Lesen’ (‘reading’, ‘gathering’) belong to this ‘anthropological’ dimension of his work, as do his later ones on the ‘mimetic faculty’, his interest in Ludwig Klages’s cosmic physiognomy and his notion – for instance in ‘Franz Kafka: Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer’ (WBGS II.2, 680–1) – of forgotten ‘laws’ that connect the human body to higher and wider ‘orders’. 19 SW I, 104 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 163. 20 Compare the following passage from ‘On Language as Such and on the Language of Man’ (1916): ‘the present argument […] follows it [the Bible] in presupposing language to be an ultimate, inexplicable and mystical reality, per- ceptible only in its development’ (SW I, 67, trans. modified, WBGS II.1, 147). 200 Notes

Here ‘development’ characterises the sole access to a mystical ‘knowledge’ that agrees with its object in remaining necessarily inexplicable. 21 SW I, 109. Benjamin qualifies the statement that religion is given to philosophy only as teaching by the adverb ‘zunächst’ (‘for the time being’, ‘in the first instance’). For Benjamin’s related use of ‘zunächst’ in ‘On Language’, see Margarete Kohlenbach, Walter Benjamin: Self-Reference and Religiosity, pp. 5 and 46–7. 22 SW I, 105 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 164. 23 SW I, 104 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 163. 24 Cf. Kohlenbach, Self-Reference, pp. 24–8, 83–90, 94–5, 106–9, 114–16, 179–80, 186–8. 25 Gustav Wyneken, Benjamin’s mentor before the First World War, uses the name ‘Kant’ in a similar manner. Wyneken, ‘Was ist Jugendkultur?’, pp. 125–6. 26 WBGS VI, 39 (‘Zum verlornen Abschluss der Notiz über die Symbolik in der Erkenntnis’, ‘On the lost conclusion of the note about symbolism in knowledge’). 27 See Unger, Gegen die Dichtung (‘Against literature’), esp. pp. 112–16, 134, 140–5 and Unger, ‘Verteidigung eines Werkes gegen seinen Autor’ (‘Defence of a work against its author’). In the latter essay, Unger rejects the appeal to Kantian philosophy by which Salomon Friedlaender tries to support his philosophy of ‘creative indifference’, which both Unger and Benjamin held in great esteem. 28 Gegen die Dichtung, pp. 131, 136, 141. 29 Gegen die Dichtung, pp. 104–5, 110. See also Unger, Wirklichkeit, Mythos, Erkenntnis (‘Reality, myth, knowledge’), pp. 148–51, 222–3 and the related reflections in Unger’s letter to Kurt Breysig of 7 February 1915. This letter deals with issues that are likely to have figured in a lost article by Unger that Benjamin intended to include in the first issue of Angelus Novus. Cf. GB II, 232–3 (Letter to Richard Weissbach, 21 January 1922). 30 Gegen die Dichtung, pp. 110–11, 144–51, Wirklichkeit, Mythos, Erkenntnis, pp. 156–62, 169–71. For Unger’s non-Aristotelian understanding of the general concepts that are subjected to philosophical ‘concretisation’ as universalia in re, see Gegen die Dichtung, pp. 104–12. For the importance, in his thought, of an unrestricted yet rational use of the imagination, see his essay ‘The Imagination of Reason’. 31 This choice is far from accidental. As we shall see in section II of the present chapter, the concretisation of Volksgeist is central to Unger’s 1921 conception of ‘politics’, in which Volksgeist to a large extent agrees with Goldberg’s notion of Volksgott (‘national god’, ‘tribal god’). Unger’s attempt to derive from Goldberg’s interpretation of the Pentateuch a conception of the relationship between individual and ‘Volk’ puts to the test Max Horkheimer’s claim that the Jewish tradition preserves ‘the true relationship between individual and Volk’ (MHGS XIV, 401, ‘Individuum und Volk’). For Unger’s abandonment of the notion of Volksgeist after the Holocaust, see his ‘A Restatement of Judaism’, pp. 63 and 58. 32 For what follows, see Gegen die Dichtung, pp. 151–9. 33 For Unger’s use of ‘cause’, which seems to combine a concept of archetype with religious connotations of ‘creation’, see Politik und Metaphysik, p. 27, and Das Lebendige, pp. 34–8. Notes 201

34 Gegen die Dichtung, p. 122. 35 Gegen die Dichtung, p. 154. 36 The classical doctrine of psychophysical parallelism tries to resolve the mind–body problem by assuming that for each mental event there is a corresponding physical event – and vice versa, in some radical versions – and that the two kinds of event exist in parallel, without any psychophysical interaction or causation between them. For basic information on the meaning, history and problems of ‘psychophysical parallelism’ see H. Hildebrandt, ‘Parallelismus, psychophysischer’, M. Kurthen, ‘Parallelismus’, Arthur S. Reber, ‘Parallelism, psychophysical’ or Stuart Sutherland, ‘Psychophysical parallelism’. 37 Unger was familiar with the argument in Heinrich Rickert’s Psychophysische Causalität und psychophysischer Parallelismus (pp. 62–6) that to the extent that theories of psychophysical parallelism not only deny psychophysical interaction but also aim to replace theories of psychophysical causality, they necessarily imply the Romantic belief in a pervasively animate cosmos. Unger’s postulate discussed above can be described as his realisation of this problematic implication of a problematic doctrine. (Cf. Unger, Das psychophysiologische Problem, p. ix.) 38 Cf. Gegen die Dichtung, p. 144. 39 Unger, ‘Use and Misuse of the Unknown’, p. 240. In this essay, Unger devel- ops criteria for a ‘rational mysticism’, in the unpublished manuscript ‘The Content of Judaism’ (Unger estate, Deutsches Literaturarchiv Marbach, box 2), he characterises Judaism as a ‘mystical rationalism’. 40 Unger, Das Problem der mythischen Realität, p. 33. See also Unger, ‘Modern Judaism’s Need for Philosophy’. 41 Kohlenbach, ‘Walter Benjamin, Gustav Wyneken and the Jugendkulturbewe- gung’, pp. 137–45. 42 See for instance SW I, 267–8 (‘Riddle and Mystery’), SW I, 164–5 (The Concept of Criticism in German Romanticism), SW I, 351 (‘Goethe’s Elective Affinities’), The Origin of German Tragic Drama, p. 31, as well as the apparent rejection of the mysterious in Benjamin’s 1929 essay ‘Surrealism’ that paradoxically insists on the knowledge of ‘the everyday as impenetrable’ (SW II, 216). Benjamin shares the emphasis on ‘mystery’ as something in itself valuable with Klages. This may explain the fact that in 1930 he vehemently prefers the first volume of Klages’s Der Geist als Widersacher der Seele (‘The spirit as the enemy of the soul’) to Unger’s Wirklichkeit, Mythos, Erkenntnis and criti- cises the latter book precisely for its discursive and explicative representa- tion. Cf. Klages, Vom Wesen des Bewusstseins, pp. 84–5 and GB III, 537–8 (Letter to Scholem, 15 August 1930, partly trans. in Cor, 366–7). 43 In Gegen die Dichtung, Unger uncompromisingly denies the cultural value of art and literature on the grounds that they bind those powers of the imagination to the enjoyment of illusion that are needed for the philosophical construction of the world as a possible place of religious experience. Perhaps a cultural-historical approach to Adorno’s Aesthetic Theory could reconstruct Adorno’s negativist idea of art as the paradoxical combination of an Ungerian rejection of art with a substantial dose of aestheticism. 44 See Unger, ‘Use and Misuse’, esp. p. 243. 45 Cf. the editors’ comments in WBGS II.3, 943, and Uwe Steiner, ‘Der wahre Politiker: Walter Benjamins Begriff des “Politischen” ’, pp. 49, 66–7. 202 Notes

46 Gegen die Dichtung, pp. 148–9. 47 For what follows, see Politik und Metaphysik, pp. 26–33. 48 Das psychophysiologische Problem, pp. 23, 33–7; Wirklichkeit, Mythos, Erkenntnis, pp. 257–8. 49 Cf. Unger, Das Problem der mythischen Realität, pp. 11–13, 28. 50 Politik und Metaphysik, p. 22. 51 For a differentiated assessment of Goldberg’s closeness to völkisch ideology, see Christian Hülshörster, Thomas Mann und Oskar Goldbergs ‘Wirklichkeit der Hebräer’. Jacob Taubes (‘From Cult to Culture’, pp. 390–2) both explains Thomas Mann’s fascination by Goldberg and interprets Goldberg’s thought – in basic agreement with Adorno and Horkheimer’s Dialectic of Enlightenment – as an unintended confirmation of ‘the morphological congruity between magical ritualism and technical “know-how” ’. In his ‘Constitution and Spirit of the German Universities since the National-Socialist Revolution’, Unger presents an argument in favour of the dissociation of Lebensphilosophie from its appropriations by the Nazis. 52 Die Wirklichkeit der Hebräer, pp. 68–75. 53 Unger, Das Problem mythischer Realität, pp. 25, 30. The peculiar affirmation of mythic or pagan reality in view of its negation is not particular to Goldberg and Unger. In a similar way, the Protestant ‘phenomenologist’ of religion and cultural critic Gerardus van der Leeuw welcomed both Lucien Lévy-Brühl’s work on so-called primitive mentality and Stefan George’s new paganism. Paganism, as van der Leeuw argued, is at least a position with which Christianity can engage in a common religious arena, whereas Positivism does not even recognise that arena. The fact that increasingly Unger engaged directly with science and contemporary neo-Positivism bears witness to his intellectual integrity. For van der Leeuw, see the contributions in Hans G. Kippenberg and Brigitte Luchesi (eds), Religionswissenschaft und Kulturkritik, and esp. Kippenberg’s introduction, pp. 16, 18, 26–7. 54 Unger, Die staatslose Bildung, esp. pp. 8, 22, 27–8, 30–2; GB II, 242 (Letter to Scholem, 26 February 1922). Unger’s posthumously published discussion of universalism – in ‘Erich Unger’s “Der Universalismus des Hebräertums” ’ (with English translation) – is somewhat burdened by the polemical contro- versies between Scholem and Goldberg. 55 Die Wirklichkeit der Hebräer, p. 70. 56 Politik und Metaphysik, pp. 7–8. 57 Politik und Metaphysik, pp. 9–15. For Benjamin’s ‘political’ notion of ‘presence of mind’ in relation to Unger, see Kohlenbach, Self-Reference, pp. 172–7. 58 Politik und Metaphysik, pp. 7–8. 59 Politik und Metaphysik, pp. 9, 14–16. Perhaps it was his criticism of the post-Expressionist ‘Activism’ advocated by Kurt Hiller under the heading of ‘logocracy’ that led Unger to consider any parapsychically unmodified intellectual opposition against Realpolitik as necessarily ineffective. In principle, however, a psychophysiologically hyped-up ‘reason’ is as much a merely formal and empty yardstick where political options are concerned as is, according to Unger, Hiller’s logos. Thus the contemporary watchword ‘psychocracy’ – which agrees with some of Unger’s intentions and was adopted, for instance, by Hermann Hesse – stood for opposite political orientations, ranging from Gusto Gräser’s pacifism to Emil Gustav Paulk’s Notes 203

(alias Paul Keminski’s) imperialist goals. (Ulrich Linse, ‘Asien als Alternative?’, pp. 353–9.) Cf. Politik und Metaphysik, pp. 13–22, and, for Benjamin’s related criticism of Hiller, SW I, 251 (‘Critique of violence’), WBGS III, esp. 352 (‘Der Irrtum des Aktivismus’, ‘The error of Activism’) and SW II, 772–3 (‘The Author as Producer’). 60 Politik und Metaphysik, pp. 17, 22, 32; Wirklichkeit, Mythos, Erkenntnis, pp. 274–5. 61 Politik und Metaphysik, p. 14. 62 Politik und Metaphysik, p. 12. 63 Cf. Politik und Metaphysik, pp. 49–51. In his ‘Der Krieg’ (‘War’) of 1915–16, Unger prefers the ‘clean’ cruelty of ‘ancient’ genocides to the ‘rotten-smelling humanity’ of modern liberalism, which he considers responsible for the First World War. If at all, ‘world peace’ would arise from the former rather than the latter. This complex position combines an explicit, Nietzschean affirmation of cruelty with an implicit, hypothetical recognition of universal peace as a goal. (‘Der Krieg’, esp. pp. 54–5.) 64 SW I, 244–7. Benjamin’s conception of the proletarian general strike as a ‘pure means’ does not contradict the judgement above, given that he replaced the previous equation of ‘pure means’ with ‘nonviolent means’ with a suspension of the means–ends relationship in favour of a notion of pure medium that agrees with ‘the nonmediate function’ of divine violence (Cf. SW I, 248–50, 252). For his problematic use of ‘means’, in this context, see Bettine Menke, Sprachfiguren, pp. 42–5, Werner Hamacher, ‘Afformative, Strike’, esp. p. 129 (note 13), and Kohlenbach, Self-Reference, p. 205 (note 35). 65 Benjamin maintains that if ‘the fear of mutual disadvantages that threaten to arise from violent confrontation’ could at all motivate political action, then it could do so only if those higher ‘orders’ were recognised, for an illustration of which he then refers to Unger’s reflections concerning the psychophysiological discovery of supra-individual corporeity. (Cf. SW I, 245, 252 (note 4), and Unger, Politik und Metaphysik, pp. 22–4.) This reference to Unger suggests that in the ‘biological’ orientation of Unger’s notion of politics Benjamin saw the contemporary alternative to Hobbes’s ‘mechanical’ conception of sovereignty. 66 In spite of Unger’s non-dialectical conception of myth and modernity, his thought may be closer to Hegel’s than is Benjamin’s. (Cf. for instance Wirklichkeit, Mythos, Erkenntnis, pp. 132–42, 174–7, 287, 302–4, Das Lebendige, pp. 19–20, and Unger, ‘Ethics, Nature and Reality’, p. 60.) In the meetings of the Berlin ‘Philosophical Group’, which he organised before his emigration, Unger gave a lecture on Hegelian dialectics as a principle of mysticism. For the great thematic variety in the Group’s work – that included contributions by thinkers as different as Karl Korsch, Carl Schmitt and Hans Reichenbach – see the list of lectures entitled ‘Philosophische Gruppe /Berlin: Aus den Vorträgen 1927–1932’ (Unger estate, Deutsches Literaturarchiv Marbach, box 5). 67 SW I, 249–50. Benjamin illustrates the notion of divine violence with reference to God’s destruction of the Kohathites and their leader Korah (Num. 4: 15–20, Num. 16), on which Goldberg also comments. (Cf. Die Wirklichkeit der Hebräer, pp. 194–5.) Both commentators appeal to the notion of a ‘higher’ life. 204 Notes

68 SW I, 252 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 202–3. 69 See, also for what follows, Unger, ‘Der Krieg’, esp. pp. 58–60. Georges Sorel, too, links revolutionary violence to war. However, Benjamin’s quotations from the corresponding passages disregard this connection in Sorel, from which any reference to divine violence is absent. Cf. Sorel, Refléctions sur la violence, pp. 208–12, esp. pp. 211–12 and SW I, 245–6. 70 As regards the First World War, Unger is positive that its hatred rests on economic competition and not on spiritual antagonism, or different ‘gods’. 71 Most probably, Benjamin knew Unger’s ‘Der Krieg’, the first part of which appeared in the same issue of the journal Der Neue Merkur as Benjamin’s ‘The Life of Students’. In his ‘Theories of German Fascism’, Benjamin refers to Unger in the context of cultic concepts of war. Benjamin’s own characterisation of the First World War as an event that had absorbed all of ‘the material and spiritual substance’ of the Volk may be derived from Unger’s understanding of mythic reality. Benjamin’s explicit derivation of that characterisation from the alleged ambiguity of the expressions ‘to win’ and ‘to lose a war’, at any rate, is problematic. See SW II, 314–15, WBGS III, 241–3, and the editorial comments in Unger, Vom Expressionismus zum Mythos des Hebräer- tums, p. 53 and WBGS II.3, 917. 72 For what follows, see SW I, 393–5 (trans. modified), WBGS VI, 78–81. 73 The fact that Benjamin considers Körper a substance strongly limits the significance of Paul Häberlin, his teacher at the University of Bern, for Benjamin’s psychophysical reflections. In Häberlin, neither Körper nor Leib refers to anything real or essential, and only ‘soul’ – a concept that does not figure in Benjamin’s ‘Outline’ – is considered a substance. See Häberlin, Der Leib und die Seele, esp. pp. 64–5, 105–6, 137, 143, 166, and, for a different assessment, Steiner, ‘Von Bern nach Muri’, esp. p. 486. 74 Cf. the similarly problematic relationship between the messianic and the historical in Benjamin’s so-called Theologico-Political Fragment (SW III, 305–6). For an interpretation of Benjamin’s notion of politics as emphatically ‘secular’, see Steiner, ‘Der wahre Politiker’, esp. pp. 54–5, 75, 79. 75 Benjamin adopts the watchword ‘organisation of pessimism’ from Pierre Naville, but clearly leaves less distance than Naville between pessimism and surrealism on the one hand and communism on the other. (Cf. Naville, ‘La Révolution et les intellectuels’, pp. 66–8, 76–7, 83, 88, 93–4, and Naville, ‘Mieux et moins bien’, pp. 104–7, 110–23.) Benjamin’s ‘anthropological’ interpretation of the watchword is not derived from Naville. If the editors’ deciphering ‘Ungersche [?] Dichtungen’ in Benjamin’s notes for the surrealism essay is correct (cf. WBGS II.3, 1023), and if the phrase refers to Erich Unger, Benjamin thought of Unger as a precursor of surrealism – or at least as someone who was close to its precursors – during his work on the essay. (Cf. GB III, 340, Letter to Franz Blei, 29 February 1928.) The reference to Unger in Benjamin’s Drug protocol of 29 September 1928 (WBGS VI, 585) relates to major issues in Unger’s thought: the problematic function of literature, the problem of universalist humanism, and the importance of animals. The reference may also evoke the sexual context of the dramatic scenes ‘Die Gehemmten’ (‘The inhibited’), which Unger published in the Expressionist journal Der Sturm in 1910. 76 Politik und Metaphysik, pp. 19–24. Notes 205

77 SW I, 395. By understanding technology as a medium in which mankind’s new ‘body’ can be created, Benjamin responds to a ‘task’ which Unger, too, identified. This is the task of complementing the concluded development of ‘men as a species’ by the development of ‘mankind as a species’. Cf. SW I, 487 (One-Way Street) and Unger, ‘Ethics, Nature and Reality’, pp. 15, 86, Das Lebendige, pp. 151–73, ‘Gott, Mensch und Evolution’ (God, man and evolution’), p. 187. Like the Benjamin of ‘On Language’, Unger interprets ‘technology’ as a spiritual phenomenon. For Unger, modern technology can be intensified by the inclusion of the ‘bio-technology’ of ritual practice, but also offers compensatory gratifications that hinder the ‘biological fulfilment’ to be found in rites and ‘philosophical experiment[s]’. Cf. SW I, 62 and Unger, Wirklichkeit, Mythos, Erkenntnis, pp. 72–3, 172, 270, as well as ‘Erich Unger’s “The Natural Order of Miracles” ’, pp. 176, 183. 78 SW II, 217 (trans. modified), WBGS II.1, 309–10. 79 See Monika Fick, Sinnenwelt und Weltenseele, pp. 118–19. 80 Cf. Fick, Sinnenwelt, pp. 105–29, Unger, Das Lebendige, pp. 79, 85, 89–92, 123 (note), 127, and ‘Erich Unger’s “The Natural Order of Miracles” ’, pp. 147–8, 155–6, 179 (note). 81 WBGS II.3 1040 (‘Paralipomena zu Surrealismus’). For the significance of Indian religions in Goldberg and Unger, see Voigts, Oskar Goldberg, pp. 29–36, Unger, Das psychophysiologische Problem, pp. 18, 35–7, and ‘Erich Unger’s “The Natural Order of Miracles” ’, p. 179.

5 Allegory, Metonymy and Creatureliness: Walter Benjamin and the Religious Roots of Modern Art

1 Paul Hamilton, ‘Historicism and Historical Criticism’; Robert Holub, ‘Modernism, Modernity, Modernisation’; Alex Callinicos, ‘Marxism and Literary Criticism’; Andrew Edgar, ‘Adorno and the early Frankfurt School’. 2 Herbert Jhering, Theaterstadt Berlin, p. 116. For the relationship, in the German cultural context, between metropolitan life and aesthetic conceptions of modernity, see David Frisby, Fragments of Modernity. 3 Letter to Herbert Blumenthal (also called ‘Belmore’), 6–7 July 1914, Cor, 71. 4 Letter to Gershom Scholem, 22 October 1917, Cor, 101. 5 Klee, ‘Creative Credo’, p. 76. 6 Cor, 71. 7 Kandinsky, Concerning the Spiritual in Art, esp. pp. 19, 28–9, incl. note 6, 34–6, 41–5, 49–51. 8 Marc, Briefe, Aufzeichnungen und Aphorismen, vol. I, p. 84. Marc here summarises his concerns in his notes of 1912–13, including his ideas about the relationship between art and religion. 9 ‘Creative Credo’, p. 79. For a contemporary discussion of the religious aspects of modern art, see Gustav Friedrich Hartlaub, Kunst und Religion. 10 Cf. Pinthus, ‘Versuch eines zukünftigen Dramas’, p. 391. See also Georg Fuchs, Revolution in the Theatre (1909), esp. pp. 33–7, 47, 66–102, 155. 11 Schlemmer, ‘Man and Art Figure’, esp. pp. 17–22, 27, 44–5; Schlemmer, Briefe und Tagebücher, p. 330. On this issue see also Horst Denkler, Drama des Expressionismus. 206 Notes

12 The understanding of ‘language’ sketched above moreover agrees with some of the basic assumptions in Benjamin’s ‘On Language as Such and on the Language of Man’ (1916). For a detailed discussion, see Margarete Kohlenbach, Walter Benjamin: Self-Reference and Religiosity, pp. 1–60. 13 This is especially true of ‘The Metamorphosis’ and the beginning of The Trial. Paul Celan’s poetry, too, represents an extreme case of a rigorously metony- mical language. 14 Cf. DK 82 B 11 (14) or Kathleen Freeman, Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers, p. 133. Aristotle’s notion of catharsis and his notion of metaphor as epiphorá share basic assumptions with Gorgias’s analogy. 15 In this, Expressionism contrasts sharply with the ‘metaphorisation’ of the war in later right-wing representations, for instance in the title of Ernst Jünger’s Storms of Steel. 16 Otto, The Idea of the Holy (1917), esp. pp. 9–11, 20–2, 49–51, 88–92; Otto, Religious Essays, pp. 32–7, 48–9. 17 See Peter Szondi, An Essay on the Tragic. 18 By associating ‘the dead’ of catastrophic history with ‘wreckage’, in ‘On the Concept of History’ Benjamin honours both this experience of modern war- fare and the semantic difference – perhaps clearer in German than in other languages – between ‘Trümmer’ (‘wreckage’, ‘debris’) and ‘Ruinen’ (‘ruins’). See SW IV, 392, WBGW I.2, 697 and, for an important contemporary source, Georg Simmel, ‘The Ruin’. 19 Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Troades; Paul Stachel, Seneca und das deutsche Renais- sancedrama. 20 Zickel, ‘Ist ein expressionistisches Drama möglich?’, pp. 97–9. 21 Szondi, Theory of the Modern Drama, pp. 63–5. 22 See Hans-Jürgen Schmitt (ed.), Die Expressionismusdebatte. 23 Die Troerinnen, p. 9. 24 R. Samuel, ‘Deutsche Literatur des Expressionismus’, col. 840. 25 Theodor W. Adorno (Alban Berg, pp. 5–6, 84–8) pointed out that it was thanks to Berg’s Expressionist poetic intuition that the chronological hiatus separating the composition of his opera Wozzek from Büchner’s play could be filled. 26 Hölderlin, ‘Ground for “Empedocles” ’, esp. pp. 53–7. 27 Cf. Benjamin’s own related comments in The Arcades Project, pp. 150 (F1,1), 155 (F2a,5), 156 (F3,4), 160 (F4,5), 456 (N1,2), 461–3 (N2a,1–3, N3,1), 473 (N9,2). 28 Rosenzweig, The Star of Redemption, pp. 76–80. 29 The Star, p. 80. 30 The Star, p. 81. 31 However, the following observation is worth noting: Oedipus – in Sophocles’s Oedipus at Colonus – is himself finally reconciled while bringing about reconciliation, and he is ‘elevated to the company of the gods, […] and […] deemed worthy of the honor of a special sacrificial ceremony’. Goethe, ‘On Interpreting Aristotle’s Poetics’, pp. 198–9. 32 See, also for literature on this topic, Max Pensky, Melancholy Dialectics, Stavros Arabatzis, Allegorie und Symbol and Klaus Garber, ‘Antiklassische Ästhetik aus antiempfindsamem Geist’. 33 Cf. Benjamin, The Origin of German Tragic Drama, p. 160. Notes 207

34 Origin, p. 160 (trans. modified), WBGS I.1, 337. 35 Origin, p. 161. 36 Origin, p. 162. 37 Origin, pp. 162–3. Benjamin cites Herbert Cysarz on German Baroque literature, but the Italian debate ranging from the criticism of Torquato Tasso’s linguistic ‘mannerism’ to Emmanuele Tesauro’s Cannocchiale aristotelico (1654) is no less relevant. 38 Origin, pp. 164–5. 39 Origin, p. 165. This passage shows that in spite of the distinction between tragedy and Trauerspiel, in the debate on allegory the problem of myth is again raised for discussion. Within the confines of the present chapter, I can- not pursue this line of thought, which leads to Friedrich W. J. Schelling’s ‘tautegorical’ understanding of myth. 40 Origin, p. 166. 41 Origin, p. 166. 42 See Sigrid Weigel, Body – and Image – Space, E. D. Yeats, ‘Translating the Symbolising in the Symbolised’, and Carol Jacobs, In the Language of Walter Benjamin. 43 Origin, p. 166 (trans. modified), WBGS I.1, 343. 44 Origin, p. 175. 45 Origin, p. 177. 46 Origin, p. 177 (emphasis B. M.). 47 Origin, p. 178. 48 Origin, p. 178 (trans. modified), WBGS I.1, 354. 49 Origin, p. 182 (trans. modified), WBGS I.1, 358. 50 Origin, p. 183. 51 Origin, p. 187. 52 Origin, p. 187 (trans. modified), WBGS I.1, 362–3. 53 Origin, p. 201. 54 The theme of the corpse is of great importance in Homer’s epic even prior to tragedy. See Erwin Rohde, Psyche, pp. 3–43, and Simone Weil, The Iliad, esp. pp. 3–7, 14, 16. 55 Origin, p. 217. 56 Origin, p. 224. 57 Origin, p. 232. 58 See Benjamin’s writings on Brecht in SW II-IV. For an interpretation of Benjamin’s engagement with Epic Theatre as religiously motivated, see Kohlenbach, Self-Reference, pp. 161–9. For the Benjaminian motif of resurrection in the context of modern, non-Brechtian literature, see James A. Hunsen, ‘The Uncreating Conscience: Memory and Apparitions in Joyce and Benjamin’ and Barnaba Maj, ‘La resurrezione dei morti e l’Anticristo nella teoria benjaminiana della storia: Da motivi di James Joyce e Herman Melville’. 59 See Werner Letschka, ‘ “Geburt der Utopie aus dem Geist der Destruktion”: Anmerkungen zu allegorischen Strukturen in der Geschichtsphilosophie Blochs und Benjamins’, and Heinz Drügh, Anders-Rede: Zur Struktur und historischen Systematik des Allegorischen. 60 See Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, ‘Corps perdus, corps retrouvés: Trois exemples de deuils de guerre’. 208 Notes

6 Law and Religion in Early Critical Theory

1 DE, 20. In my use of the term ‘legal subject’ here I expressly refer to the Kantian and neo-Kantian understanding of this idea, which associates the status of the person as a subject of law with this subject’s rational capacity for self-legislation, and with its resultant power to deduce and insist on the legal conditions of necessary political order. The legal subject, in this sense, is distinct from the later Positivist use of the term, which limits the legal subject to a formal bearer of private rights and entitlements, which is guaran- teed minimal concessions of legal protection, but is not implicated in legislation, nor called upon to sanction legislation. 2 SW I, 243–4, 246 (‘Critique of Violence’). 3 Pollock, Stadien des Kapitalismus, p. 26. 4 Neumann, ‘The Change in the Function of Law in Modern Society’, p. 40. Cf. Alfons Söllner, Geschichte und Herrschaft, p. 130. 5 Kirchheimer, ‘Changes in the Structure of Political Compromise’. 6 Adorno, Negative Dialectics, p. 388. 7 See Michael Theunissen, Negative Theologie der Zeit, pp. 89–130. 8 Marx, ‘On the Jewish Question’. 9 Marx, ‘Verhandlungen des 6. rheinischen Landtags: Debatten über das Holz- diebstahlsgesetz’, p. 119. 10 Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morality, p. 43 (2nd essay, § 4). 11 For example, Gierke, Das deutsche Genossenschaftsrecht, vol. II: Geschichte des deutschen Körperschaftsbegriffs, p. 24. 12 Preuß, ‘Die Persönlichkeit des Staates, organisch und individualistisch betrachtet’. 13 Simmel, Das individuelle Gesetz, p. 226. 14 Dilthey, Introduction to the Human Sciences, esp. pp. 236–8. 15 This is expressed most clearly by Paul Natorp, but the hostility to metaphysics is also clear in the works of Hermann Cohen. See: Natorp, ‘Kant und die Marburger Schule’, p. 198, and Cohen, Ethik des reinen Willens, 1st edition, p. 18. 16 Weber, Economy and Society, vol. I, pp. 636–7. 17 Tillich, ‘On the Idea of a Theology of Culture’. 18 See especially Gogarten, Ist Volksgesetz Gottesgesetz? (1934). 19 Heidegger, ‘Einleitung in die Phänomenologie der Religion’, p. 49. 20 Heidegger, ‘Origin of the Work of Art’, p. 77. 21 Cf. Lukács, History and Class Consciousness, p. 109. 22 See, for example, Axel Honneth, The Fragmented World of the Social, p. 78. 23 Neumann, ‘On the Precondition and Legal Concepts of an Economic Consti- tution’, p. 51; Kirchheimer, ‘Legality and Legitimacy’, p. 147. See also Joachim Perels, Kapitalismus und politische Demokratie, p. 9. 24 Kirchheimer, ‘Verfassungswirklichkeit und politische Zukunft der Arbeiter- bewegung’. 25 Kirchheimer, ‘Marxismus, Diktatur und Organisationsform des Proletariats’, p. 112; Neumann, ‘Change in the Function of Law’, p. 66. 26 Kirchheimer, ‘Weimar – und was dann? Analyse einer Verfassung’, p. 21; Neumann, ‘The Concept of Political Freedom’. 27 Neumann, ‘Precondition and Legal Concepts’, pp. 49–51. Notes 209

28 Schmitt, Verfassungslehre, pp. 209–10. 29 Verfassungslehre, p. 76. 30 Schmitt, Political Theology, pp. 5–11. 31 Neumann, ‘Change in the Function of Law’, pp. 61–2. 32 Close to my argument here is Gert Schäfer, see his ‘Ein Intellektueller an der Seite der Arbeiterbewegung’, p. 55. 33 Neumann, ‘Concept of Political Freedom’, p. 184. 34 Kirchheimer, ‘Constitutional Reform and Social Democracy’, p. 192. 35 Neumann expressly announced his intention of reformulating Schmitt’s conception of legality and legitimacy in ‘economic and sociological’ terms. See Rainer Erd (ed.), Reform und Resignation: Gespräche über Franz Neumann, p. 79. 36 Benjamin, The Arcades Project, p. 471 (N8,1). For Benjamin’s view of the relationship between politics and religion as a ‘paradoxical’ identity, see his letter to Gershom Scholem of 29 May 1926, Cor, 300–1. 37 Benjamin, The Arcades Project, pp. 474–5 (N9a6–8, N10, 3, N10a,1–3). 38 TWAGS VIII, 366–7 (‘Spätkapitalismus oder Industriegesellschaft? Einleitungs- vortrag zum 16. Deutschen Soziologentag’). 39 Adorno, Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason, p. 54. 40 Adorno, Kant’s Critique, p. 54. 41 Kant’s Critique, p. 55. 42 Adorno, Negative Dialectics, p. 232. 43 Negative Dialectics, p. 231. 44 Negative Dialectics, p. 393. 45 Kant’s Critique, pp. 174–7, 179. 46 Kant’s Critique, p. 178. 47 Kant’s Critique, p. 178. 48 Kant’s Critique, p. 176. 49 Kant’s Critique, p. 222. 50 Kant’s Critique, p. 110. 51 Kant’s Critique, pp. 111, 112; Negative Dialectics, p. 397. 52 Negative Dialectics, p. 397. 53 Kant’s Critique, p. 112. 54 Cf. SW I, 249 (‘Critique of Violence’). 55 Negative Dialectics, p. 408.

7 Jewish Law and Tradition in the Early Work of Erich Fromm

1 Rainer Funk (Erich Fromm: The Courage to be Human, p. 296, n. 11) contends that, in addition to disagreements about ‘Freudianism’ and the Institute’s tendency to disown dissident former members, Fromm’s Marxism may have become an embarrassment to a politically reconstructed School. Douglas Kellner (‘Erich Fromm joins the Institute for Social Research’, p. 481) claims that between 1928 and 1938 Fromm became one of the most influential members of the Institute. 2 For an attempt to sort the members into camps, see Zoltan Tarr, Judith Marcus, ‘Erich Fromm und das Judentum’, p. 214. 210 Notes

3 On Nobel, see Franz Rosenzweig, ‘Nehemia Anton Nobel’, Leo Baeck, ‘Nehemia Anton Nobel’ and, more recently, Rachel Heuberger, ‘Orthodoxy versus Reform’, Martin Jay, ‘The Free Jewish School’, pp. 395–6, and David Ellenson, ‘Gemeindeorthodoxie in Weimar Germany’. 4 Fromm, Beyond the Chains of Illusion, p. 9. 5 Funk, Courage, p. 2. 6 On Rabinkow and the Talmudisches Seminar zu Heidelberg, see Georg Herlitz, Bruno Kirschner (eds), Jüdisches Lexikon, vol. IV.2, col. 1219, Peter Honigmann, ‘Jüdische Studenten zwischen Orthodoxie und moderner Wissenschaft’, esp. pp. 87–9, Mordechai Breuer, Modernity Within Tradition, pp. 368, 371, 476 (n. 53), Michael Brenner, The Renaissance of Jewish Culture in Weimar Germany, pp. 71, 88, and Gershom Scholem’s comments – from 1918 – in Scholem, Briefe, vol. I, pp. 141, 159, 185. 7 Honigmann, ‘Jüdische Studenten’, p. 87. 8 Fromm, You Shall Be as Gods, p. 13. Cf. Fromm, ‘Reminiscences of Shlomo Baruch Rabinkow’, p. 105, and Funk, Erich Fromm: His Life and Ideas, p. 54. 9 You Shall Be, p. 13. 10 Cf. Scholem, ‘Martin Buber’s Interpretation of Judaism’, p. 231. 11 Funk, Life, p. 42; Funk, Erich Fromm, p. 34. The Karaite sect emerged in the eighth century CE. Its name (from kara, ‘to read’) reflects its reliance on Scripture and rejection of rabbinic tradition. Modern scholars view with scepticism the idea – followed by Fromm – that Anan ben David’s failure to become exilarch in Babylon initiated the movement. 12 Scholem, From Berlin to Jerusalem, p. 156; Kellner, ‘Erich Fromm’, p. 481. 13 ‘He [Rabinkow] took a great interest and was very helpful in my doctoral dissertation’ (Fromm, ‘Reminiscences’, quoted in Funk, Life, p. 54). 14 The central text is Weber’s 1921 article ‘Prinzipielles zur Kultursoziologie’ (trans. Fundamentals of Culture-Sociology). 15 See, for example, Fromm, Gesetz, p. 70. 16 Gesetz, p. 18. 17 Gesetz, p. 19. 18 Gesetz, p. 20. 19 Gesetz, p. 20. 20 Gesetz, pp. 20–1. 21 Gesetz, p. 16. 22 Gesetz, p. 16. 23 Gesetz, p. 171. 24 David Vital, Zionism: The Formative Years, pp. 349–50. 25 Gesetz, p. 15. Given his close acquaintance with figures from Eastern Europe, it is perhaps surprising, though perfectly commonplace for the time and context, that Fromm does not mention Yiddish at this point. For a later reference to Yiddish, see Gesetz, p. 132. 26 Cf. Gesetz, pp. 18, 40. See also You Shall Be, p. 13, and Funk, Courage, pp. 188–95. 27 Gesetz, pp. 64–5. 28 As will emerge, Karaism anticipated this change, yet Babylon as a geograph- ical centre of Judaism at the time ensured that Karaism remained a sect. 29 Gesetz, p. 21. 30 Gesetz, pp. 22–5, quotation, p. 25. Notes 211

31 Gesetz, p. 25. 32 Gesetz, p. 27. 33 Gesetz, p. 26. 34 Gesetz, pp. 29–30, quotation, p. 29. 35 Gesetz, p. 96. 36 Gesetz, pp. 32–3. 37 Gesetz, p. 32. Cf. You Shall Be, p. 179. 38 Gesetz, p. 40. 39 Gesetz, p. 32. On the symbolical or direct impact of particular laws and rituals, see Gesetz, pp. 34–9. 40 Gesetz, pp. 161–6. 41 Gesetz, p. 58. 42 Gesetz, p. 57. 43 Gesetz, p. 58. 44 Gesetz, p. 59. 45 Gesetz, p. 61. 46 For Buber’s notions of ‘relation’ and ‘exclusiveness’ see, for example, Buber, I and Thou, pp. 16–21. 47 Cf. Gesetz, p. 63. For Scholem’s related reflections on Jewish law and revelation, see his ‘Revelation and Tradition as Religious Categories in Judaism’, p. 289. See also Ephraim Urbach, The Sages, vol. I, p. 330, and Günter Stemberger, Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash, pp. 238–9. 48 Gesetz, p. 65. 49 Gesetz, p. 85. 50 Gesetz, p. 92. 51 Gesetz, pp. 93, 145. 52 Gesetz, pp. 70–9. 53 Gesetz, p. 152. 54 Gesetz, pp. 145–50. 55 Gesetz, pp. 153–4. Almost identical are Scholem’s comments in ‘On the Social Psychology of the Jews in Germany 1900–1933’, pp. 16–17. 56 Gesetz, p. 113. 57 See Paul R. Mendes-Flohr, ‘Werner Sombart’s The Jews and Modern Capitalism’. 58 See, also for what follows, Gesetz, pp. 17, 47–8, 53–4, 172. 59 Gesetz, pp. 36–8, 141–2, 147–9; ‘Der Sabbat’; ‘The Sabbath Ritual’; You Shall Be, pp. 193–9. 60 On the shift from a Kultusgemeinde to a Kulturgemeinde, see Brenner, Renaissance, pp. 54–65. For related attempts at communal renewal, see Brenner and Derek J. Penslar, In Search of Jewish Community. 61 Gesetz, p. 127. 62 See, for example, Hannah Arendt, ‘Portrait of a Period’, Arendt, ‘The Jew as Pariah’. On the limited social integration, see Scholem, ‘On the Social Psychology’, pp. 18–20. 63 Gesetz, p. 175. 64 Gesetz, pp. 161–2. With the expression ‘auto-emancipation’ Fromm probably alludes to Leon Pinsker’s ‘Auto-Emancipation’ (1882). 65 Cf. Steven E. Aschheim, Brothers and Strangers, Jack Wertheimer, Unwelcome Strangers, and Trude Maurer, Ostjuden in Deutschland. 66 Gesetz, pp. 158–9. 212 Notes

67 Gesetz, p. 160. 68 For a classic liberal use of the same figure, see H. Graetz, History of the Jews, vol. V, pp. 291–2. 69 Gesetz, pp. 54, 161–6, 170–4, 183. 70 Gesetz, pp. 167–8. 71 Cf. Alexander Eliasberg, ‘Der Chassidismus’, pp. 48–52. Among the few texts that avoid idealisation or vilification is Binjamin Segel’s Die Entdeckungsreise des Herrn Dr. Theodor Lessing zu den Juden (1910). 72 Gesetz, p. 184. For a similar anti-antinomian interpretation of Hasidism, see Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, pp. 21–3. 73 Gesetz, pp. 186–7. 74 Fromm’s critique in ‘The Dogma of Christ’ draws on Adolf von Harnack’s idea of an original Christianity (‘Urchristentum’), since replaced by scholarly emphasis on situating early Christianity in its Jewish context. 75 Fromm, Psychoanalysis and Religion, pp. 65–98. 76 Psychoanalysis and Religion, p. 21. 77 See, for instance, Psychoanalysis and Religion, pp. 107–13. 78 See, for example, Fromm’s argument about the need to ‘break incestuous ties’, Psychoanalysis and Religion, pp. 79–83. 79 See also Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory. 80 Psychoanalysis and Religion, pp. 49–53, 102. 81 You Shall Be, pp. 42, 47. 82 Psychoanalysis and Religion, pp. 113–14; You Shall Be, pp. 42–52. Cf. ‘If I could define my position approximately, I would call it that of a monotheistic mysticism’ (You Shall Be, p. 19). 83 Psychoanalysis and Religion, p. 47; You Shall Be, p. 14. 84 Cf. Psychoanalysis and Religion, p. 76.

8 Critical Theory and the New Thinking: A Preliminary Approach

1 See Stéphane Mosès, ‘Walter Benjamin and Franz Rosenzweig’. 2 Berman’s work, above all the seminal Law and Revolution, marks a development of the ‘new thinking’ that emerged from Rosenstock-Huessy’s teaching in the United States after his emigration. For Berman’s acknowledgement of the debt to ‘new thinking’, see Berman, ‘Law and History after the World Wars’. 3 ‘We were impressed by the opposition to the idea of totality in Franz Rosenzweig’s Stern der Erlösung, a work too often present in this book to be cited’ (Levinas, Totality and Infinity, p. 28). Levinas particularly praised the anti-Hegelianism of Rosenzweig’s ‘new’ thinking, but distinguished his own ‘presentation and development’ of its approach by his use of Husserlian phenomenology. For further insight into Levinas’s appreciation of Rosenzweig, see Levinas, ‘Franz Rosenzweig’ (1964) and Levinas, ‘The Philosophy of Franz Rosenzweig’ (1982). 4 ‘The New Thinking’, pp. 127–8. See also the invaluable edition edited and translated by Alan Udoff and Barbara E. Galli, Franz Rosenzweig’s New Thinking. Notes 213

5 ‘Transposed Fronts’, p. 150. ‘[that is]’ is part of the quoted text. 6 For the background to this claim, see Andrea Poma, The Critical Philosophy of Hermann Cohen, and Pierfrancesco Fiorato, Geschichtliche Ewigkeit. 7 Notably the translation of Jehuda Halevi, itself available in English in the exemplary edition by Barbara Ellen Galli in Galli, Franz Rosenzweig and Jehuda Halevi. 8 Adorno’s Negative Dialectics opens with an echo of Marx’s ‘Theses on Feuerbach’: ‘Philosophy, which once seemed obsolete, lives on because the moment to realise it was missed’ (p. 3). 9 Rose, ‘From Speculative to Dialectical Thinking – Hegel and Adorno’. 10 ‘Urzelle’ to the Star of Redemption’, p. 65. ‘[the fact]’ is part of the quoted text. 11 ‘Urzelle’, p. 59. ‘[mind]’ is part of the quoted text. 12 Quoted in Rosenzweig, Philosophical and Theological Writings, pp. 51–2, note 11, quotation, p. 52. 13 Rosenzweig was intemperately disappointed by Rudolf Ehrenberg’s failure to understand this. In his review of The Star for Die Frankfurter Zeitung, Ehrenberg had professed ‘regret’ at what he saw as a modish appeal ‘from philosophy to life’.

9 Does Dialectic of Enlightenment Rest on Religious Foundations?

1 In the current English translations of ‘Unheil’ by ‘disaster’ or ‘calamity’ the religious meaning of ‘Unheil’ is no longer obvious. 2 DA, 7, DE, 1. 3 For the difference between theology and religion, see Chapter 2 above. 4 See Chapter 10 below. 5 DA, 5, DE, xviii. See also DA, 27–8 and DE, 20. 6 Hegel’s Science of Logic, p. 100. Cf. Georg W. F. Hegel, Wissenschaft der Logik, vol. I, p. 86. 7 DE, 20, cf. DA 27–8. 8 Cf. DE, 1–2, 33–4. 9 For Adorno and Horkheimer’s claim that in the enlightened world human relationships ‘have themselves been bewitched’ by the objectification of mind, see DE, 21. 10 DE, 31 (trans. modified), DA, 38–9. 11 Wittgenstein, Tractatus logico-philosophicus, p. 90 (5.62). 12 Cf. the editor’s note, DE, 258. 13 The German conjunction used by Adorno and Horkheimer is ‘indem’ (DA, 38). 14 ‘Invocation of the sun is idolatry. Only in the gaze upon the tree withered in its heat does there remain alive a presentiment of the majesty of the day which will not scorch the world on which it shines’ (DE, 182, trans. modified, DA, 196). 15 For the parallels between Dialectic of Enlightenment and Heidegger’s anti- metaphysical ontology, see also the similar point made by Michael Theunis- sen in his Kritische Theorie und Gesellschaft, p. 18. 16 DE, 17 (trans. modified), DA, 24–5. 214 Notes

17 For a related juxtaposition of Critical Theory and Judaism, see Horkheimer’s observations in his conversation with Helmut Gumnior ‘Die Sehnsucht nach dem ganz Anderen’ (‘The longing for the totally Other’), MHGS VII, 387–90. 18 I am indebted to a remark made in discussion by Michael Wolff, which led me to take seriously the line of argument developed in this paragraph.

10 Secularisation, Myth, Anti-Semitism: Adorno and Horkheimer’s Dialectic of Enlightenment and Cassirer’s Philosophy of Symbolic Forms

1 Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle, De l’origine des fables, p. 390. 2 Cassirer, Mythical Thought, p. 235. 3 Fontenelle, ‘Histoire des oracles’, p. 126. 4 Fontenelle, De l’origine des fables, p. 396. 5 De l’origine des fables, p. 395. 6 De l’origine des fables, p. 390. 7 De l’origine des fables, p. 388. 8 De l’origine des fables, p. 389. 9 Cassirer, Mythical Thought, p. 235. 10 Mythical Thought, p. 235. For what follows, see Mythical Thought, pp. 235–7. 11 Mythical Thought, p. 237 (trans. modified), Cassirer, Das mythische Denken, p. 283. 12 Cf. Mythical Thought, p. 254. 13 Mythical Thought, pp. 241, 245. 14 Mythical Thought, p. 239. 15 DE, 17 (trans. modified), DA, 24. 16 Horkheimer, Eclipse of Reason, p. 180. 17 Eclipse of Reason, p. 180. 18 Mythical Thought, p. 241. 19 Mythical Thought, pp. 250–1. 20 Mythical Thought, p. 252. 21 Mythical Thought, p. 254. 22 Mythical Thought, pp. 258–9. 23 Cf. Cassirer, The Individual and the Cosmos, pp. 102, 120–1. 24 Cf. Odo Marquard, Farewell to Matters of Principle, esp. p. 105, and Jacob Taubes, ‘Zur Konjunktur des Polytheismus’, p. 460. 25 On this issue see Gérard Raulet, Gehemmte Zukunft, p. 145. 26 Blumenberg, Work on Myth, p. 28. 27 Cassirer, The Myth of the State, p. 280. 28 The Myth of the State, p. 297. 29 For the expression ‘Mimesis ans Tote’ see DA 53, cf. DE 44. For the discussion of reason as a form of mimesis in general, see also DE, 6–7 and 148–9. 30 Cf. the following passage: ‘Civilization replaced the organic adaptation to otherness, mimetic behavior proper, firstly, in the magical phase, with the organized manipulation of mimesis, and finally, in the historical phase, with rational practice, work.’ DE, 148. 31 Cf. Cassirer, Mythical Thought, pp. 227–8. Notes 215

32 This view is shared by Martin Jay, who comments on the title ‘Elements of Anti-Semitism’ as follows: ‘A difficulty arises here from Adorno and Horkhei- mer’s refusal to structure the various theses that they propose in a hierarchi- cal order. […] Instead Adorno and Horkheimer mapped out a kind of decentralised structure in which the various explanatory factors were placed alongside each other without conceptual mediation’ (Jay, ‘Frankurter Schule und Judentum’, p. 448). However allusive it may appear, the psychological and psychoanalytical explanation of anti-Semitism predominates – see the reflections on projection and paranoia below – and represents the real back- bone of the essay. It stems on the one hand from Adorno’s In Search of Wagner (1939), which in turn drew on the category of sado-masochism developed by Erich Fromm in his contributions to the work of the Institute, and on the other hand from the investigations into the attitude of American workers to Jews, carried out from 1943 with the support of the Jewish Labor Committee, and Studies in Prejudice, realised with the support of the American Jewish Committee from 1944. The contributions to Studies in Prejudice had a prima- rily psychological orientation. (On the psychoanalytical explanation see also Lars Rensmann, Kritische Theorie über den Antisemitismus, esp. chapter 2.) Jay’s explanation of the departure from the historical-materialist line of interpretation and the partial return, in Dialectic of Enlightenment, to the views of Horkheimer’s ‘The Jews and Europe’ is that in the empirical studies of the Institute Horkheimer and Adorno played down the Marxist approaches for the sake of their sponsors, making concessions to the American liberal ideology and perhaps even deliberately writing the ‘philosophical prehistory of anti-Semitism’ – that is, ‘Elements of Anti-Semitism’ – in German. 33 Cf. for instance the following observation: ‘Although the rules may not arise from rational reflection, rationality arises from them’ (DE, 147). Of course there are also passages in Weber that make Weber’s influence on Adorno and Horkheimer’s view of mythical thought appear plausible. However, not only is the famous essay ‘Science as a Vocation’ (emphasis G. R.) itself based on the idea of a reversal of the process of disenchantment, but Weber conceives the ‘enterprise’ of the professional magician as both rational magic and the old- est ‘profession’, as Hauke Brunkhorst has shown. Cf. Weber, Economy and Society, vol. I, pp. 424–5, and Brunkhorst, ‘Skepsis und Solidarität’, pp. 50–4. 34 The same holds for Adorno and Horkheimer’s discussion of the prehistory of subjectivity. 35 On the relationship between the theses on anti-Semitism and Lowenthal and Guterman’s Prophets of Deceit and the study The Authoritarian Personality (both published in 1949–50 as parts of the five-volume collective work Studies in Prejudice) see Jay, ‘Frankfurter Schule und Judentum’, p. 444. 36 Jay (‘Frankfurter Schule und Judentum’, p. 444) points out that the results of the 1943 investigation into the attitude of American workers to Jews were not published ‘due to numerous organisational and theoretical difficulties’. 37 MHGS V, 353 (‘Einige Betrachtungen zum Curfew’, 1942). 38 Cf. esp. the third section of ‘Elements’, DE, 141–4. 39 TWAGS XX.1, 370 (‘Zur Bekämpfung des Antisemitismus heute’). 40 ‘The reshaping of the heathen ritual of sacrifice not only took place in wor- ship and in the mind but determined the form of the labor process. In providing the schema for the latter, sacrifice becomes rational. The taboo is 216 Notes

transformed into the rational organization of the work process. It regulates administration in war and peace, sowing and harvesting, food preparation and slaughter. Although the rules may not arise from rational reflection, rationality arises from them. The effort of primitive peoples to free themselves from immediate fear engendered among them the institution of ritual; this was refined by Judaism into the sanctified rhythm of family and national life’ (DE, 146). This account calls to mind Max Weber’s view that Judaism, like Protestantism, is an ‘inner-worldly’ religion. Nevertheless, for Weber the ethics of Judaism lacks precisely ‘the hallmark of the inner-worldly type of asceticism’, namely that unique and ‘integrated relationship to the world from the point of view of the individual’s conviction of salvation (certitudo salutis)’ which, as the centre, ‘nurtures all else’ (Weber, Economy and Society, vol. I, p. 620). As we shall see, for Dialectic of Enlightenment too this point constitutes the contrast between Judaism and Christianity. However, in respect of the relationship between Jewish ethics and the ‘spirit’ of capitalism Adorno and Horkheimer’s position differs from Weber’s, for Weber argues – against Werner Sombart’s The Jews and Modern Capitalism – that ‘the Jews stood on the side of the politically and speculatively oriented adven- turous capitalism; their ethos was, in a word, that of pariah-capitalism’ (Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, pp. 165–6). 41 It is in this context that the mathematical formula is called ‘the most subli- mated form of mimicry’ (DE, 149). 42 DE, 147–8 (trans. modified), DA 161. 43 DE, 42 (trans. modified), DA 50. 44 TWAGS IX.2, 375 (‘Starrheit und Integration’). 45 Detlev Claussen, Grenzen der Aufklärung, p. 23. 46 DE, 154. The thesis of the Jew as the victim of a paranoid projection had been strongly asserted by Leo Lowenthal and Norbert Guterman in their Prophets of Deceit. 47 DE, 155 (trans. modified), DA, 169. Cf. the quotation from Critique of Pure Reason: ‘In this way his [man’s] objective world has been constituted as a product of that “art which is concealed in the depths of the human soul, whose real devices nature is hardly likely ever to allow us to discover, and to have open to our gaze” ’ (DE, 154, trans. modified, DA, 168). Horkheimer’s programmatic essay ‘Traditional and Critical Theory’ (1937) already referred to this passage, in order to explain the dependence of knowledge on social organisation. In a note written between 1949 and 1952 Horkheimer once more pointed out that the task of Critical Theory was to write ‘a critique of reason, like Kant, except that […] the mechanism which turns the material into a “unified” experience’ would have to consist in ‘the social schematism’ instead of the intellect and the pure forms of intuition (Horkheimer, Dawn and Decline, p. 116). Similarly, the last, seventh section of ‘Elements’ attrib- utes the lack of a synthesis to the changes in the late industrial methods of production: ‘In the world of mass production, the stereotypes of its patterns replace the categorical work of the mind. Judgments are no longer based on a genuine synthesis but on blind subsumption’ (DE, 166–7, trans. modified, DA, 180). In this respect the seventh section, which was added on belatedly, rounds off ‘Elements’ by providing the psychoanalytical explanation of anti-Semitism, which has already been phylogenetically expanded through Notes 217

the theory of the return of myth, with a historical-materialist basis, almost in the manner of Herbert Marcuse. The section thereby decisively distances itself from the psychological approach prevailing in the empirical American investigations of the Institute. ‘Paranoia no longer pursues its goal on the basis of the individual case history of the persecutor’ (DE, 171), for the late industrial methods of production entail that the persecutor, as an individual, is in the process of disappearing. 48 DE, 154 (trans. modified), DA, 167. 49 For Adorno and Horkheimer’s radicalisation of Cassirer the psychological, ethnological and anthropological references of Dialectic of Enlightenment are important. On this issue see Raulet, ‘Interdisciplinarité ou essayisme?’, esp. pp. 131–42, Raulet, ‘La théorie critique et l’ethnologie’ (unpubl. contribution to the research project ‘Anthropologische und enthnologische Diskurse der Zwischenkriegszeit’ of the Groupe de recherche sur la culture de Weimar, Paris, Maison des Sciences de l’Homme/CNRS), as well as Stefano Cochetti, Mythos und ‘Dialektik der Aufklärung’. Bibliography

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Bold type is used for references to the explanation or translation of non-English terms. Multiple occurrences on the same page are noted only once. For ‘Frankfurt School’, see ‘Critical Theory’, ‘Institute of Social Research’ and / or individual names, concepts or titles. absolute, the, 21, 62, 71, 150, 176 aestheticism, 201 (n. 43) abstraction, 88, 92–3, 161–2, 177 critique of, 51, 52, 54, 94 action, see practice agnosticism, 35 Activism, 202–3 (n. 59) Akademie der Arbeit, 146 Adler, Max, 116 Aktualität, see relevance, Adorno, Theodor W., 5, 9, 10, 25, 26, contemporary 27, 29, 40, 104, 114, 120, 122–6, alienation, 3, 50, 111, 143 146, 148, 153, 165 metaphysical, 125 Aesthetic Theory, 201 (n. 43) from nature, 161 Alban Berg, 206 (n. 25) self-, 50 The Authoritarian Personality, 182, allegorisation, of historical reality, 187, 215 (n. 35) 86, 99 ‘Zur Bekämpfung des allegory, 88–9, 90, 92–9 Antisemitismus heute’, 184, and abstraction, 92–3 215 (n. 39) Baroque, 95, 97–9, 176 Dialectic of Enlightenment, 3–4, 6, as hypónoia, 90, 93 7–8, 11–12, 19, 20, 80, 104, and metaphor, 89–90, 98 122–3, 157–70, 171–2, 173–6, and metonymy, 85–6, 89–90, 93, 99 177–89, 202 (n. 51), 208 (n. 1) and personification, 98–9 The Jargon of Authenticity, 147 rhetoric of, 95–9 Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason, 123, and symbol, 89–90, 95–6, 97–8 124–5, 209 (n. 53) and time, 96 Kierkegaard: Construction of the alterity, see otherness Aesthetic, 151 American Jewish Committee, Negative Dialectics, 8, 153, 188, 215 (n. 32) 208 (n. 6), 209 (n 42–4), 209 Anan ben David, 210 (n. 11) (n. 52), 209 (n. 55), 213 (n. 8) animals, 204 (n. 75) In Search of Wagner, 215 (n. 32) anthropology, 6, 8, 69, 82–3, 142, ‘Spätkapitalismus oder 149, 173–4, 199 (n. 18), Industriegesellschaft? 204 (n. 75), 217 (n. 49) Einleitungsvortrag zum 16. anthropomorphism, 29, 143 Deutschen Soziologentag’, anti-Semitism, 2, 139, 171, 181, 182, 209 (n. 38) 183–8 ‘Starrheit und Integration’, anxiety, 32, 33, 158, 160, 180, 216 (n. 44) 183, 185 Aeschylus, 90 Arabatzis, Stavros, 206 (n. 32) aestheticisation, 94, 118 Arendt, Hannah, 211 (n. 62)

234 Index 235 argument, see justification, limits of, 121–2, 124–5 argumentative political, 103, 105 Aristotle, 10, 89, 90, 94, 97, 206 of practice, 7, 123 (n. 14) and reason, 105, 106–7, 109, 120, Aron, Betty, see under Adorno, ‘The 121–2, 123–4, 125–7 Authoritarian Personality’ of science, 56 art, 6, 8, 40, 51, 86, 180, 201 (n. 43) of the subject, 104, 123, 125 as anticipatory, 52 and Kunstwollen, 196 (n. 18) Bacon, Francis, 160 and language, 89 Baeck, Leo, 210 (n. 3) modern, 85–99 ban on graven images, 8, 24, 166–8, neo-religious reception of, 53 170, 175–6 and pantheistic feeling, 52 Barlach, Ernst, 86 and religion, 75–6, 85–99, 141, Baroque, 91, 95, 97–9, 176, 207 (n. 37) 205 (n 8–9) and Expressionism, 86, 91–2, 93 see also Baroque; Cubism; Trauerspiel, 85, 91, 93, 98–9, Expressionism; literature; 207 (n. 39) music; Naturalism; painting; Barth, Karl, 111 poetry; theatre; Weimar Baudelaire, Charles, 195–6 (n. 15) Classicism behaviour, 20, 29–30 asceticism, 77, 139, 215–16 (n. 40) habitual, 31, 139 Aschheim, Steven E., 211 (n. 65) beliefs, 6–7, 9, 30, 31, 35 Ash, Mitchell G., 190 (n. 5) and behaviour, 29–30 atheism, 20–1, 35, 130 empirical formation of, 35, 38 atheistic religion, 131, 143 justification of, 29–30, 61, Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane, 199 (n. 11), 199 (n. 17) 207 (n. 60) and myth, 173 aura, 5, 9, 191 (n. 18) religious, 5, 6–7, 8, 30, 33, 34, 35, authority, 92, 108 130, 132, 134–5, 140, 142, authoritative attitudes, 62, 71, 199 (n. 11) 78, 113 Belmore, Herbert (Herbert decisionistic conception of, 113 Blumenthal), 205 (n. 3) legislative, 120 Benjamin, Walter, 5, 6, 8, 9–10, 27, legitimate legal, 115–16 45–63, 64–71, 74–6, 77, 79–84, and modern reason, 108 85–6, 87, 91, 92, 93, 94, 104, 120, pre-Enlightenment modes of, 113, 124, 126, 145, 176, 190 (n. 2), 126–7, 141 200 (n. 27), 200 (n. 29), transcendent, 21 202 (n. 57) autonomy, 7, 121–2, 125, 126–7, 128, ‘Announcement of the Journal 162, 196 (n. 25) Angelus Novus’, 46, 47, 52, 53, of consciousness, 73 55, 63, 71, 191 (n. 19) formal-legal, 104–5, 109, 116, 120, The Arcades Project, 47, 190 (n. 7), 123–4, 125–6 195 (n 4–5), 196–7 (n. 26), as different from freedom, 103, 104, 206 (n. 27), 209 (n 36–7) 107, 122–4, 126–7, 131 ‘The Author as Producer’, of human thought, 103, 105, 121, 202–3 (n. 59) 125, 126, 142 ‘Capitalism as Religion’, 46 of knowledge, 67, 69, 123 The Concept of Criticism in German and law, 108, 120 Romanticism, 201 (n. 42) 236 Index

Benjamin, Walter – continued ‘The Theory of Criticism’, ‘On the Concept of History’, 47, 198 (n. 50) 98, 195 (n. 5), 206 (n. 18) ‘Über die transzendentale ‘Critique of Violence’, 76, 79–81, Methode’, 59, 197 (n. 40), 120–2, 191 (n. 19), 202–3 197 (n. 45) (n. 59), 208 (n. 2), 209 (n. 54) ‘Die unendliche Aufgabe’, ‘Dialog über die Religiosität der 198 (n. 48) Gegenwart’, 11, 46–7, 48–54, ‘Zum verlornen Abschluss der 55, 195 (n. 11), 196 (n. 22) Notiz über die Symbolik in Drug protocol of 29 September der Erkenntnis’, 197 (n. 42), 1928, 204 (n. 75) 200 (n. 26) ‘Erkenntnistheorie’, 195 (n. 6) Berg, Alban, 206 (n. 25) ‘ “Experience” ‘, 195 (n. 10) Berghoff, Peter, 190 (n. 5) ‘Franz Kafka: Beim Bau der Berlin, 52, 75–6, 86, 198 (n. 5) Chinesischen Mauer’, Berlin, Isaiah, 87 191 (n. 19), 199 (n. 18) Berman, Harold J., 146, 153 ‘Goethe’s Elective Affinities’, ‘Law and History after the World 201 (n. 42) War’, 212 (n. 2) ‘Der Irrtum des Aktivismus’, Law and Revolution, 212 (n. 2) 202–3 (n. 59) Bible, 65, 138 ‘On Language as Such and on the Genesis, 75 Language of Man’, 75, 199–200 Ex. 20: 4, 166–8 (n 20–1), 205 (n. 77), 206 (n. 12) Num. 4: 15–20, 203 (n. 67) ‘Moscow Diary’, 166 Num. 16, 203 (n. 67) One-Way Street, 205 (n. 77) Pentateuch, 65, 75, 77, 83, 134, The Origin of German Tragic Drama, 199 (n. 6), 200 (n. 31) 47, 85, 86, 89, 91, 95–9, Prophets, 129–30, 134, 139, 176 201 (n. 42) Bildungsbürgertum, 129 ‘Outline of the Psychophysical biology, 148 Problem’, 81–2, 191 (n. 15), see also thought, socio-biological 204 (n. 73) Blei, Franz, 204 (n. 75) ‘Painting, or Signs and Marks’, 86 Bloch, Ernst, 22–3, 24, 26, 193 (n. 38) ‘On Perception’, 67, 70, 71, Blumenberg, Hans, 179, 214 (n. 26) 199 (n. 10) Blumenthal, Herbert (Herbert ‘On the Program of the Coming Belmore), 205 (n. 3) Philosophy’, 9–10, 46, 48–9, body, 8, 73, 77, 81–2, 83–4, 90, 91, 53–62, 65–6, 67–71, 76, 77, 97, 199 (n. 18), 204 (n. 73) 195 (n. 7) ‘the bodily collective’, 8, 82, 84 ‘Riddle and Mystery’, 201 (n. 42) experience of, 73, 74, 77, 78 ‘The Role of Language in Trauerspiel and images of Christ, 87 and Tragedy’, 86 of mankind, 81–2, 97, 205 (n. 77) ‘On Some Motifs in Baudelaire’, and metonymy, 90, 97 195–6 (n. 15) and mimesis, 180, 187 ‘Surrealism’, 8, 82–4, 201 (n. 42), and mind, 32, 68, 72–4, 78, 81, 204 (n. 75), 205 (n. 81) 162, 181 [Theologico-Political Fragment], and myth, 181 204 (n. 74) and new physis, 82–4, 205 (n. 77) ‘Theories of German Fascism’, suppression of the, 110, 123, 181, 204 (n. 71) 184–5, 187 Index 237 body – continued Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, 6, 158, see also creatureliness; mind–body 172, 173–9, 181, 214 (n. 31) problem; politics, and the Catholicism, 2, 20, 26, 110 body; presence of mind causality, 105, 124, 143, 178, Bohman, James, 190 (n. 6) 201 (n 36–7) Bölsche, Wilhelm, 52 through freedom, 196 (n. 25) Bossuet, Jacques-Bénigne, 177 cause, 73, 74, 173, 200 (n. 33) bourgeoisie, 8, 92, 105, 123, 138, first, 56, 108 151, 153 Caygill, Howard, 195 (n. 7) Bildungsbürgertum, 129 Celan, Paul, 45, 206 (n. 13) Brecht, Bertolt, 95, 99, 207 (n. 58) certainty, 54, 71, 81, 185, 215–16 Brenner, Michael, 210 (n. 6), (n. 40) 211 (n. 60) certitudo salutis, 185, 215–16 (n. 40) Breuer, Isaac, 7 charity, 22 Breuer, Mordechai, 198 (n. 5), Christ, images of, 86–7, 93 210 (n. 6) Christianity, 22, 24, 40, 112, 151, Brunkhorst, Hauke, 215 (n. 33) 161, 176, 185–6, 202 (n. 53) Bruno, Giordano, 178 and anti-Semitism, 2, 185 Buber, Martin, 130, 137, 141, 147, Christian congresses: Second 196 (n. 19), 211 (n. 46) Vatican Council, 20, 26; 1965 Büchner, Georg, 93, 95 Protestant Church Congress Buddhism, 24, 30, 33 (Cologne), 20 and Judaism, 6–7, 132, 136, 142, calculation, 103, 105, 161, 162 147–8, 173, 176, 185–6, Calderon de la Barqua, Pedro, 86 212 (n. 74), 215–16 (n. 40) Callinicos, Alex, 205 (n. 1) and Marxism, 26–7, 28 Campanella, Tommaso, 178 and myth, 185–6 capitalism, 8, 93, 105, 114, 115, 119, and stoicism, 91 122–3, 142, 183–4 Christian theology, 1–2, 3, 6–7, 26, authoritarian, 105, 107, 114, 115 27, 36, 92–3, 111, 113, 151, 186 and circulation, 184 Urchristentum, 142, 196 (n. 17), and fascism, 17, 114 212 (n. 74) and Jews, 138–9, 140, 183–5, see also Catholicism; Christ, images 215–16 (n. 40) of; Christians; Protestantism; modern, 104, 138–9, 216–17 religion (n. 47) Christians, 20, 111, 142, 196 (n. 17), monopoly, 115 212 (n. 74) and Protestantism, 139, 215–16 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 90 (n. 40) civilisation, see culture and religion, 142, 215–16 (n. 40) clairvoyance, 68–9 as religion, 46 class, see bourgeoisie; state-, 104 class-consciousness; domination, Cassirer, Ernst, 147, 182, 184, 185, class; politics, and social class; 188, 189, 217 (n. 49) religion, and social class; The Individual and the Cosmos proletariat; society, and class in Renaissance Philosophy, class-consciousness, 112 214 (n. 23) Claudel, Paul, 7 The Myth of the State, 179–80, 214 Claussen, Detlev, 216 (n. 45) (n 27–8) Cochetti, Stefano, 217 (n. 49) 238 Index

Cohen, Hermann, 49, 54, 58–9, and corporeity, 73, 78 61, 62, 67, 130, 133, 134, as dependent, 73 147, 148 dialectical development of, 150 Der Begriff der Religion im System der empirical, 57, 58, 67–9, 70, 73 Philosophie, 56 historical, 95, 111–12 Ethik des reinen Willens, 196 (n. 23), individual, 72–3 208 (n. 15) mythical-religious, 173–6 ‘Innere Beziehungen der Kantischen object-relatedness of, 73–4 Philosophie zum Judentum’, pure, 58, 68 196 (n. 20) subject nature of, 57–8 Kants Begründung der Ethik, 197 transcendental, 58, 67–9, 73–4 (n 34–5) unity of, 58 Kants Theorie der Erfahrung, 56, 58, conservatism, 3, 23, 137–8, 141, 197 (n 29–30), 199 (n. 13) 190 (n. 2) Logik der reinen Erkenntnis, see also preservation 197 (n 36–8), 199 (n. 13) consolation, 36, 37, 40, 50, 167 Religion of Reason Out of the Sources constancy, 91 of Judaism, 148, 197 (n. 43) contemplation, 10, 136, 141 collective, the, 7–8, 82, 84 contemporary relevance see relevance, common sense, 75 contemporary communism, 8, 23–4, 79, 82–4, control 204 (n. 75) of economic power, 82 Communist Manifesto, 84 of matter, 78, 122–3 see also Marxism; materialism, over nature, 188 historical over organic functions, 77, 78 community, 7, 94, 109, 118–19, over temporal experience, 108–9 120, 134, 139, 142, 152 self-, 123 and myth, 179 social, 110, 123 and human life, 116–20 the uncontrollable, 27, 31, 123–4 and religion, 51, 77, 135, 136, corpse, 91, 99 138–9, 140, 151–2, 153 correspondances, 195–6 (n. 15) see also collective, the; society, cosmos, 9, 148–9, 199 (n. 18) social integration; solidarity; counter-cultures, 3 ‘Volk’ creation, 88, 92, 105, 127, 200 (n. 33) compassion, 18–19, 20, 21, 22 creature-consciousness, 90 compromise, 79, 80, 117 creature-feeling, 90, 91 Comte, Auguste, 174 creatureliness, 79, 83, 85, 90, 91, 92, concepts, 58, 72, 88, 95, 200 (n. 30) 93, 94, 98, 99 of function, 81–2, 177, 179 Creuzer, Friedrich, 95–6 of substance, 81–2 Critical Theory, 16, 24, 29, 65, ‘work of’, 169 103–9, 103–9, 142–3, 144, concretisation, 72–4, 76–7, 83 145, 146–7, 148–9, 152, conformism, 7, 8, 142 153, 198 (n. 3) consciousness, and critique of religion, 2, 3–4, absence of, 73, 74, 77 19–20, 40, 131, 144, 185–6 altered states of, 64, 68–9, 78 reception of, 1–3, 6, 15, 17–18, 20, as autonomous, 73 25–8, 114–15, 191 (n. 8) class-consciousness, 112 and religion, 1–10, 24, 40–1, 75–6, creature-consciousness, 90 116, 118–22, 124, 125, 126–7, Index 239

Critical Theory – continued deception, 161, 163, 173 141–4, 148, 153, 157–70, priestly, 186 175–6, 183–4, 185–6 self-, 65, 121 and rhetoric, 95–9, 149, 157, 162, decisionism, 71, 111, 113 169–70 deduction, 67, 197 (n. 46) criticism, 85, 93 and ‘development’, 70, 199 (n. 15), critique of religion, 29, 34–8 199–200 (n. 20) and Critical Theory, 2, 3–4, 19–20, degeneration, 140–1 40, 131, 144, 185–6 deism, 35 Enlightenment, 29–30, 34–5, 106–7, Demirovic, Alex, 193 (n. 53) 144, 160, 172–3 democracy, 79–80, 116, 117, 135, 142 Freudian, 3, 35–8, 129, 144 radical, 118–19, 141 Marxist, 2, 3, 4, 129, 131, 144 Denkler, Horst, 205 (n. 11) Nietzschean, 3, 37–8 Derrida, Jacques, 146, 152, 153 Cubism, 86 Descartes, René, 160 cult, 50–1, 173, 195–6 (n. 15) despair, 10, 50, 78–9, 167 and conventions, 51 determinate negation, see negation, and war, 204 (n. 71) determinate culture, 36, 67, 139, 179–80, 201 (n. 43) Deuber-Mankowsky, Astrid, 50, 54, ancient, 91, 173, 203 (n. 63) 195 (n 13–14), 196 (n 18–19) ancient Greek, 91, 148–9, 173 dialectic, 23, 95, 117, 119–20, 125, and barbarism, 168–9, 171, 179–80, 126–7, 158, 159–60, 176, 187–8 182–3, 184–5 in allegory, 99 and counter-cultures, 3 and critique, 160 critique of, 5, 6, 8, 78–9, 141–2, and determinate negation, 124, 160–2, 202 (n. 53), 214 (n. 30) 126, 176 European, 82 Hegelian, 149, 150, 158, 159, 165, and Kultursoziologie, 132–3, 176, 203 (n. 66) 210 (n. 14) of inwardness, 92 modern Jewish, 130, 131, 145–6 of mimesis, 187–8 non-Western, 5, 67–8, 173–4 and mysticism, 203 (n. 66) oriental, 77, 83 of myth and reason, 180 pre-modern, 5–6, 173–4, negative, 9, 124, 126, 148, 152, 215–16 (n. 40) 153, 188 Torah im derekh eretz, 139 religious, 97 traditional, 128–9, 139, 142–3 and ‘redemption’, 176 and subcultures, 3 of remembrance of nature, 180–1 and ‘cultural system’, 5, 9 transcendental, 54 Western, 5, 79, 130 and umschlagen in, 159 and Youth Culture Movement, 9, and zurückschlagen in, 159 49, 75–6, 196 (n. 19) Dilthey, Wilhelm, 110, 208 (n. 14) see also tradition disenchantment, 3–4, 8, 105, Cysarz, Herbert, 207 (n. 37) 165, 167, 175, 184, 185–6, 215 (n. 33) dead, the, 9, 91, 99, 206 (n. 18) dogmatisation, 131, 136, 137–8, 143 death, 82, 90, 91, 93–5, 167 dogmatism, 74–6, 78–9, 131, 134 and meaning, 85, 87, 93 and scientific world views, 66 see also finitude, of ‘Dasein’; see also philosophy, dogmatic; mimesis, ‘Mimesis ans Tote’ theology, dogmatic 240 Index domination, 2, 35, 77, 123–4, 126, Enlightenment, 8, 29, 39, 40, 41, 161–2, 183, 184–5, 187, 188 105–6, 119, 122–5, 131, 177–8 capitalist, 123 critique of, 103–7, 117–18, 122–5, class, 181, 183 126–7, 130, 160–2, 169–70 communal, 119 and critique of religion, 29–30, and disunity, 163 34–5, 106–7, 144, 160, 172–3 legal, 114–15, 123–4 and deism, 35 and myth, 3, 77 a different, 127, 181 over nature, 77, 110, 122, 123, and experience, 57, 71, 107 180–1, 184–5, 187, 188 and fear, 158, 160, 180, 183 political, 114, 122, 161–2 humanism of the, 126–7 and rationality, 106, 122–4, 126, and hypostatisation of utopia, 161–2, 181, 182–3, 184–5, 186 163–7, 167–8 and religion, 2, 4, 19–20, 35, 77, and ‘installing men as masters’, 129, 183, 186 158, 160 totalitarian, 145, 183 Kantian, 107, 113, 123–5 doubt, 27 and law, 8, 105–6, 108–9, 117–18 Drügh, Heinz, 207 (n. 59) and myth, 80, 158–9, 162, 171–2, dualism, 50, 52, 54, 195 (n. 13), 177–9, 180, 182–3 196 (n. 18), 196 (n. 25) and nominalism, 175 and ‘progress’, 177 Ebner, Ferdinand, 147 radicalisation of, 112–13, 115 Eckhart (Meister), 177 rejection of, 112–13, 115, 117–18, economy, 79, 104–5, 116, 123, 140–1, 119, 126 151, 216–17 (n. 47) and reversion to barbarism, 171, and competition, 77, 204 (n. 70) 182–3, 184–5 and interests, 78, 104, 105, 115, and reversion to mythology, 80, 138–9, 140 158–9, 162, 177–9, 182–3 exchange, 109, 116, 124 enlightened thought, 158, 178 and power, 78, 82 as ‘totalitarian’, 29, 123, 161 socialisation of, 116, 119 Ensor, James, 86 state-capitalist regulation of, 104 epistemology, 49, 54–5, 58–9, 61–3, ecstasy, 52, 77, 99 67–70, 72, 122–5 Edgar, Andrew, 205 (n. 1) and conformity to laws, 58, 61, education, Jewish adult, 145–6 103–4, 177, 178, 215 (n. 33), Ehrenberg, Hans, 147, 148 215–16 (n. 40) Ehrenberg, Rudolf, 147, 148, 151, Erkenntnistheorie, 70, 196–7 213 (n. 13) (n. 26) Ehrman, Esther J., 64 (note), and ‘experience’, 54–5, 57–8, 198 (n. 5) 70–1, 72, 197 (n. 32), Eliasberg, Alexander, 212 (n. 71) 197–8 (n. 47) Ellenson, David, 210 (n. 3) and law, 58, 103–4, 122–5 emancipation, 8, 26, 121, 127 and psychology, 68 ‘auto-emancipation’, 140, 211 (n. 64) ‘purification of’, 56–7 formal, 140 see also knowledge; neo- Jewish, 130, 131, 133, 139 Kantianism; transcendental and law, 104 philosophy and practice, 2, 3, 4 Erd, Rainer, 209 (n. 35) of thought, 105, 121–2 eschatology, 27, 78, 82 Index 241 esoterics, 61 and transcendental consciousness, essence, 33–4, 148–9 68, 73–4 Hegel’s logic of, 149 see also beliefs, empirical formation and ‘religion’, 2, 5, 30, 31, 33–4 of; consciousness, empirical; eternity, 49, 51, 99, 152 everyday, the; everyday life; ethics, see morality observation, empirical; religion, ethos, 5, 6, 133, 134, 140, 215–16 as experience (n. 40) exploitation, 3, 103, 115, 117 Euripides, 86, 91 expression, 31, 95, 97, 99, 174, everyday, the, 32, 36, 69, 152, 175, 178 201 (n. 42) Expressionism, 85–6, 90, 198 (n. 5), everyday life, 31, 38, 49, 51, 52, 66, 204 (n. 75) 98, 131, 152, 215–16 (n. 40) and Activism, 202–3 (n. 59) existence, 61–2, 81 and Baroque, 86, 91–2, 93 experience, 36, 37, 49, 51, 54–5, and the First World War, 87, 90, 91 57–60, 62, 66–7, 72, 74, 105, Expressionist painting, 86–9, 93 106–7, 129, 134, 199 (n. 9), and Prague, 89 216–17 (n. 47) and religion, 85, 92–3, 99 of the body, 73, 74, 77, 78 Expressionist sculpture, 86, 88 ‘concrete totality of’, 61–2, 79 Expressionist theatre, 86, 88–9, Enlightenment concept of, 57, 90–3 71, 107 Expressionism Debate, 92 epistemological foundation of, 54–5, 57–8, 71–2, 197 (n. 32), faith, 40, 64, 65, 75, 76, 138, 140, 197–8 (n. 47) 144, 167 vs. faith, 65 in humanity, 92 first, 72 as remembrance, 27 vs. ignorance, 173 in science, 38 Kant’s concept of, 66, 67–8 fascism, 17, 161, 183 and knowledge, 55–8, 61–2, 66–7, see also Holocaust, the; National 68–9, 107, 173, 197 (n. 32) Socialism; Third Reich, the and language, 59–60 fate, 112, 178 ‘mechanical’, 49–50, 57, 59, 74 Federal Republic of Germany, 1–2, 4, and metaphysics, 55–6, 57, 59–60, 7, 15–16, 26–7, 28, 184, 185–6, 66, 71–2, 73–4, 107, 108–9, 215 (n. 39), 216 (n. 44) 121–2, 124–5 feeling, 18, 51–2 modern, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74–5, creature-, 90, 91 195–6 (n. 15) religious, 18–19, 31–2, 136, 137, new, 55, 64, 72–3, 84 138, 140 religious, 8, 49, 54–5, 56–8, 59–60, Feuerbach, Ludwig, 143, 147 64–74, 76–84, 106–7, 121, Fick, Monika, 205 (n 79–80) 124–5, 197–8 (n. 47) finitude, of Dasein, 147 scientific, 58, 66 Fiorato, Pierfrancesco, 196–7 (n. 26), second, 72, 84 197 (n. 31), 197 (n. 44), 213 (n. 6) sense, 65, 67 First World War, 53, 81, 85–6, 87, and social organisation, 216–17 90, 91, 129, 203 (n. 63), (n. 47) 204 (n 70–1) symbolic, 174 Fontenelle, Bernard Le Bovier de, as temporal, 48, 55, 58–9, 108–9 172–3 242 Index forms, Funk, Rainer, 209 (n. 1), 210 (n. 5), spiritual, 172, 173 210 (n. 8), 210 (n. 11), 210 symbolic, 172, 173–6, 177–80, 189 (n. 13), 210 (n. 26) Foucault, Michel, 33, 41 future, the, 27, 48, 49, 52, 55, 152 Frank, Jacob, 140 Frankfurt am Main, 130–1, 145, 146, Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 161 213 (n. 13) Gangl, Manfred, 190 (n. 5) freedom, 23, 24, 54, 97, 103, 108, Galli, Barbara E., 212 (n. 4), 213 (n. 7) 115, 121, 126–7, 128–9, 185 Garaudy, Roger, 193 (n. 56) as different from autonomy, 103, Garber, Klaus, 206 (n. 32) 104, 107, 122–4, 126–7, 131 Gay, Peter, 190–1 (n. 11) causality through, 196 (n. 25) Geertz, Clifford, 5, 6, 8, 9 cognitive, 6–7, 103 genius, 71 formal, 107, 122–4, 126, 138 George, Stefan, 202 (n. 53) of interpretation, 6–7, 131, 137, 138 German Idealism, 145, 147, 148, 188 and nature, 54, 97, 118–19, 144, 178 Gethmann-Siefert, Annemarie, Freeman, Kathleen, 206 (n. 14) 193 (n. 39) Freie Volksbühne, 52 Geuss, Raymond, 190 (n. 4) Freies Jüdisches Lehrhaus, 130, Gierke, Otto von, 110, 208 (n. 11) 131, 145 Gilcher-Holtey, Ingrid, 193 (n. 53) Frenkel-Brunswick, Else, Giles, Steve, 190 (n. 5) The Authoritarian Personality, 182, Glatzer, Nahum, N., 129 187, 215 (n. 35) God, 18, 21, 27, 35, 56, 62, 65, 66, Freud, Sigmund, 3, 32, 35, 36, 37–8, 70–1, 75, 77–8, 80–2, 99, 134–5, 129, 139, 144 136, 141, 148, 150–1, 167, The Future of an Illusion, 194 (n. 2), 176, 177 194 (n 8–9), 194 (n 12–14) see also atheism; deism; gods; law, Friedlaender, Salomon, 200 (n. 27) divine; monotheism; Friedlander, Judith, 198 (n. 5) pantheism; power, divine; Frisby, David, 205 (n. 2) spirit, divine; theism; violence, Fromm, Erich, 128–44, 215 (n. 32) divine Beyond the Chains of Illusion, 210 gods, 29, 30, 33, 35, 51, 71, 77–8, (n. 4) 80, 81, 91, 176, 200 (n. 31), 206 ‘The Dogma of Christ’, 141, 212 (n. 31) (n. 74) Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 89, Escape from Freedom, 142 93, 94, 206 (n. 31) Das jüdische Gesetz, 129, 131–44 Gogarten, Friedrich, 111, 208 (n. 18) Psychoanalysis and Religion, 212 Gogh, Vincent van, 86–7 (n 75–8), 212 (n. 80), 212 Goldberg, Oskar, 65, 75, 77, 78, 80, (n 82–4) 82, 198–9 (n 5–6), 199 (n. 11), ‘Reminiscences of Shlomo Baruch 200 (n. 31), 202 (n. 51), 202 Rabinkow’, 210 (n. 8), 210 (n 53–4), 203 (n. 67), 205 (n. 81) (n. 13) Gorgias, 90, 97, 206 (n. 14) ‘Der Sabbat’, 141, 211 (n. 59) Gormann-Thelen, Michael, 145 (note) ‘The Sabbath Ritual’, 211 (n. 59) Graetz, H., 212 (n. 68) You Shall Be as Gods, 210 (n 8–9), Gramsci, Antonio, 86 210 (n. 26), 211 (n. 37), 211 Gräser, Gusto, 202–3 (n. 59) (n. 59), 212 (n. 82) Gropius, Walter, 88 Fuchs, Georg, 205 (n. 10) Grossheim, Michael, 198 (n. 3) Index 243

Grossner, Claus, 193 (n. 51) history, 16, 58–9, 81–2, 85–6, 94, 96, Gumnior, Helmut, 214 (n. 17) 99, 132, 136–7, 140, 173, 182–3, Guterman, Norbert, 182 195–6 (n. 15), 204 (n. 74) Prophets of Deceit, 215 (n. 35), and the body, 81–2, 90, 97 216 (n. 46) as catastrophic, 78, 94, 206 (n. 18) Häberlin, Paul, 204 (n. 73) facies hippocratica of, 96–7 Habermas, Jürgen, 41, 192 (n. 24) experience of, 86, 92, 129, Halevi, Jehuda, 148, 213 (n. 7) 195–6 (n. 15) Hamacher, Werner, 203 (n. 64) metonymy of, 97, 99 Hamann, Johann Georg, 59 modern, 78 Hamilton, Paul, 205 (n. 1) myth as early form of, 172, 173 happiness, 10, 36, 50, 52, 183, 184 and nature, 96–8, 151 Harnack, Adolf von, 212 (n. 74) and necessity, 50, 53 Harrington, Anne, 190 (n. 5), as Passion of the world, 97–8 198 (n. 4) as ‘prehistory’ (‘Urgeschichte’), 179 Hartlaub, Gustav Friedrich, and ‘religion’, 3, 16, 33–4 205 (n. 9) as writing, 98 Hasenclever, Walter, 92 compare natural history Hasidism, 130, 132, 133, 136, Hobbes, Thomas, 160, 203 (n. 65) 139–41, 142 Hofmannsthal, Hugo von, 86 Hauptmann, Gerhard, 86 Hölderlin, Friedrich, 93, 94 Hebbel, Christian Friedrich, 86 Holl, Günter, 24, 191 (n.1), Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 40, 192 (n. 12), 192 (n. 18), 192 92, 93, 129, 148–51, 153, 158, (n. 24), 193 (n. 42), 193 (n. 46) 159, 165, 169, 176, 203 (n. 66), Holocaust, the, 3, 183, 187, 212 (n. 3) 200 (n. 31) Phenomenology of Spirit, 150, 160 Holub, Robert, 205 (n. 1) Science of Logic, 149, 159, 213 (n. 6) holy, the, see sacred, the Heidegger, Martin, 112, 147, 148–9, Holzhey, Helmut, 57–8, 197 (n. 34), 161, 165–6, 208 (n 19–20), 198 (n. 51) 213 (n. 15) Homer, 207 (n. 54) Heidelberg, 130, 131, 132, 210 (n. 6) honesty, 50, 52, 54, 195 (n. 13) Heilsgeschichte, 82, 95, 98 Honigmann, Peter, 210 (n 6–7) Helmont, Jan Baptist van, 83 Honneth, Axel, 208 (n. 22) Herlitz, Georg, 210 (n. 6) hope, 16, 19, 22–5, 26, 27, 167, 169 Hermand, Jost, 190–1 (n. 11) Horkheimer, Max, 1, 5, 6–7, 8, 10, Hertz Levison, Maria, 15–28, 29, 39, 40, 104, 114, 122, The Authoritarian Personality, 182, 126, 129, 146, 157–70, 171–2, 187, 215 (n. 35) 173–6, 177–89, 194 (n. 64), 200 Hesse, Hermann, 202–3 (n. 59) (n. 31) Heuberger, Rachel, 210 (n. 3) ‘Die Aktualität Schopenhauers’, hierocracy, 79, 117 192 (n. 27) Hildebrandt, H., 201 (n. 36) ‘Bemerkungen zur Liberalisierung Hiller, Kurt, 202–3 (n. 59) der Religion’, 192 (n. 30), Hirsch, Emanuel, 111 192 (n. 32), 194 (n. 18) Hirsch, Samson Raphael, 136 ‘Zu Bergsons Metaphysik der Zeit’, historicism, 110 190 (n. 7) historicity, 58–9, 97 Dämmerung, 20, 21 244 Index

Horkheimer, Max – continued Späne, 17 Dawn and Decline, 192 (n. 15), 192 ‘Theism and Atheism’, 20–1, 192 (n. 18), 192 (n. 19), 192 (n. 31), (n. 26), 192 (n. 29) 193 (n. 41), 193 (n. 54), ‘Zu Theodor Haeckers Der Christ und 216–17 (n. 47) die Geschichte’, 18 Dialectic of Enlightenment, 3–4, 6, ‘Thoughts on Religion’, 18, 194 7–8, 11–12, 19, 20, 80, 104, (n. 17) 122–3, 157–70, 171–2, 173–6, ‘Traditional and Critical Theory’, 177–89, 202 (n. 51), 208 (n. 1) 17, 194 (n. 16), 216–17 (n. 47) ‘Dokumente – Stationen’, 193 ‘Über den Zweifel’, 194 (n. 18) (n. 43) ‘Verwaltete Welt’, 193 (n. 42) The Eclipse of Reason, 20, 161, 175, ‘Was wir “Sinn” nennen, wird 190 (n. 7), 214 (n 16–17) verschwinden’, 20, 190 (n. 2), ‘Einige Betrachtungen zum Curfew’, 191 (n. 21), 192 (n. 23), 192 215 (n. 37) (n. 29), 193 (n. 39), 193 (n. 42), ‘Erinnerung an Paul Tillich’, 193 193 (n. 43), 193 (n. 44), (n. 47) 193 (n. 47) ‘Eva’, 19 ‘Die Zukunft der Kritischen ‘Die Funktion der Theologie in der Theorie’, 192 (n. 32), 193 Gesellschaft’, 193 (n. 34) (n. 39), 193 (n. 46) ‘Für eine Theologie des Zweifels’, Horkheimer Dispute, 15–16, 20, 25–8 27, 194 (n. 64) Hülshörster, Christian, 202 (n. 51) ‘ “Himmel, Ewigkeit, Schönheit” ’, humanism, 51, 82, 122, 126–7, 143, 192 (n. 32), 192 (n. 33) 173, 204 (n. 75) ‘Individuum und Volk’, 200 (n. 31) humanistic religion, 131, 143 ‘The Jews and Europe’, 17, 183, humanity, 33, 53, 82, 92, 106, 107, 184, 191 (n. 7), 215 (n. 32) 108, 122, 125, 168–9, 187 ‘Materialism and Metaphysics’, 192 and barbarism, 168–9 (n. 13) and social being, 104, 179 ‘Materialism and Morality’, 19, social nature of, 116–19 192 (n. 13), 192 (n. 25) see also mankind ‘Neues Denken über Revolution’, Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 131 193 (n. 43) Hunsen, James A., 207 (n. 58) ‘Pessimismus heute’, 192 (n. 27), Hunt, Stephen J., 190 (n. 10) 194 (n. 18) Husserl, Edmund, 212 (n. 3) ‘On the Problem of Truth’, 191 (n. 5) ‘Religion und Philosophie’, 192 idealism, 112, 177, 188 (n. 24), 192 (n. 28), 193 (n. 35), German Idealism, 145, 147, 193 (n. 46) 148, 188 ‘Schopenhauers Denken im ideologisation, 27 Verhältnis zu Wissenschaft ideology, 2, 103, 129, 142 und Religion’, 192 (n. 28), of German Judaism, 138 194 (n. 18) liberal, 104–5, 109, 115, 123, 131, ‘Sehnsucht’, 18, 19, 192 (n. 11) 215 (n. 32) ‘Die Sehnsucht nach dem ganz and religion, 2, 4, 19–20, 144, Anderen’, 191 (n. 12), 193 185–6, 190 (n. 6), 202 (n. 51) (n. 29), 193 (n. 35), 193 (n. 39), völkisch, 202 (n. 51) 193 (n. 42), 193 (n. 45), 214 idolatry, 143 (n. 17) illumination, profane, 83 Index 245 illusion, 35, 38, 201 (n. 43) inwardness, 92, 94, 142, 150–2, 153 and magic, 178 irrationality, crowd irrationality, 129 and religion, 35, 37, 129, 144, 201 (n. 43) Jacobs, Carol, 207 (n. 42) see also modernity, illusions of Jacobson, Roman, 89 image space, 83–4 Jaspers, Karl, 111 imagination, 72, 75, 125, 178, 200 Jay, Martin, 1, 210 (n. 3), 215 (n. 35), (n. 30), 201 (n. 43) 215 (n. 36) immanence, 26–7, 124–6, 133, 152, Jewish Labor Committee, 215 (n. 32) 178, 180 Jews, 54, 78, 130, 145, 183, 184–5, immediacy, 62, 70, 137, 151, 197–8 196 (n. 18), 198 (n. 5), 215 (n. 47), 203 (n. 64) (n. 32), 215 (n. 36) imperialism, 202–3 (n. 59) and capitalism, 138–9, 140, 183–5, indifference, 215–16 (n. 40) ‘creative’, 200 (n. 27) Jewish committees: American of subject and object, 69, 70–1, 74 Jewish Committee, 215 (n. 32); individual, the, 73, 77, 81, 97, 123, Jewish Labor Committee, 215 131, 132, 135, 136, 138, 140, (n. 32) 142–3, 147, 151, 216–17 (n. 47) East European, 130, 139, 140, 210 the bourgeois individual, 8, 151, 153 (n. 25) the perfect individual, 95 Jewish emancipation, 130, 131, and state, 131 133, 139 supra-individual conceptions of, 73, and gender, 135–6, 184–5 77, 142–3 German-Jewish intellectuals, 3, 9, and philosophising, 149, 150–1, 153 54, 129–30, 131, 141, 145–6, and Volk, 77, 81, 132, 200 (n. 31) 196 (n.19), 198 (n. 5) see also individualism; personality; Hebrew, 65, 77 personhood; subject and the German literary individualism, 7, 142, 147, 185 intelligentsia, 196 (n. 19), Institute of Social Research, 1, 17, 198 (n. 5) 115, 129, 131, 144, 145, 146, Lithuanian, 130 209 (n 1–2) and modernisation, 130, 138–9, empirical research of, 182, 215 183–5, 198 (n. 5) (n. 32), 216–17 (n. 47) and re-sacralisation, 3, 130 institutionalist theorists of, 115–20 Jewish schools: Freies Jüdisches and Jewish backgrounds, 6, 8, 24, Lehrhaus, 130, 131, 145; 129, 167, 209 (n. 2) Talmudisches Seminar zu in the USA, 1, 209 (n. 1), 215 Heidelberg, 130 (n. 32), 216–17 (n. 47) ‘the wandering Jew’, 185 intellect, West European, 130, 138–9 and intuition, 54, 67, 216–17 and Yiddish, 210 (n. 25) (n. 47) and Zionism, 134, 139 and sensibility, 53–4 see also anti-Semitism; culture, interpretation, modern Jewish; Fromm, Das freedom of, 6–7, 131, 137–8 jüdische Gesetz; Holocaust, the; and functional re-interpretation, 179 Institute of Social Research, and of psycho-physical phenomena, 32 Jewish backgrounds; Judaism; intuition, 29, 66, 173 law, Jewish; New Thinking, the; and intellect, 54, 67, 216–17 (n. 47) politics, Jewish; society, social 246 Index

Jews – continued religion; tradition, Jewish; integration; tradition, Jewish; Weimar Republic, Jewish Weimar Republic, Jewish ‘renaissance’ ‘renaissance’ judgement, 52, 216–17 (n. 47) Jhering, Herbert, 205 (n. 2) Jugendkulturbewegung, see Youth joy, 140 Culture Movement Judaism, 3–4, 8, 24, 83, 129–30, 132, Jünger, Ernst, 206 (n. 15) 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, justice, 18, 21, 23, 24, 78, 79, 91, 104, 151–2, 153, 175, 176, 183–4, 185, 121–2, 142 200 (n. 31), 215–16 (n. 40) justification, argumentative, 31, 45–6, and ban on graven images, 8, 24, 71, 74–5, 162, 166–70 166–8, 170, 175–6 of beliefs, 29–30, 61, 199 (n. 11), and Christianity, 6–7, 132, 136, 199 (n. 17) 142, 147–8, 173, 176, 185–6, and needs, 35 212 (n. 74), 215–16 (n. 40) and disenchantment, 3–4, 8, 167, Kabbalah, 130, 139, 141 175, 184, 185–6, 215–16 (n. 40) Kafka, Franz, 89, 206 (n. 13) and galut, 133, 134 Kandinsky, Wassily, 87, 88 German, 138–9 Kant, Immanuel, 24, 48, 49, 52, Hasidic, 130, 132, 133, 136, 53–4, 55, 56–7, 59, 60, 61, 64, 66, 139–41, 142 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 106, 107, Karaite, 131, 132, 133, 135, 138, 124–5, 152, 187, 196 (n.25), 200 210 (n. 11), 210 (n. 28) (n. 25), 208 (n. 1), 216–17 (n. 47) as mystical rationalism, 201 (n. 39) Critique of Pure Reason, 152, and myth, 3–4, 65, 77–8, 80, 166–7, 197 (n. 46), 216–17 (n. 47) 175, 183–4, 185–6 see also experience, Kant’s concept national conceptions of, 78, of; Enlightenment, Kantian; 138, 139 neo-Kantianism; philosophy, Orthodox, 7, 65, 75, 76, 129, 130, critical 136, 137–8, 139, 140, 198 (n. 5) Katz, Jacob, 190 (n. 5) and patriarchy, 3–4, 166, 184 Kellner, Douglas, 209 (n. 1), 210 and philosophy, 54, 75, 151–2 (n. 12) rabbinic, 130, 136–8, 139, 141 Kellner, Erich, 193 (n. 56) Reform, 132, 133, 136, 137, Keminski, Paul (Emil Gustav Paulk), 138–9, 140 202–3 (n. 59) and theology, 6–7, 133, 134, Kepler, Johannes, 178 135, 141 Kierkegaard, Søren, 93, 147, 149, and sanctification, 136, 139, 186, 151, 153 215–16 (n. 40) Kippenberg, Hans G., 190 (n. 5), 202 and Talmud, 130, 136–7, 141, (n. 53) 198 (n. 5), 210 (n. 6) Kirchheimer, Otto, 8, 9, 105, 114–15, as ‘true’ practice, 3 115–20, 121, 146, 153 universalist conceptions of, 77–8, ‘Changes in the Structure of 83, 130 Political Compromise’, 208 see also Bible; culture, modern (n. 5) Jewish; Fromm, Das jüdische ‘Constitutional Reform and Social Gesetz; Jews; law, Jewish; Democracy’, 209 (n. 34) Kabbalah; messianism; New ‘Legality and Legitimacy’, 208 Thinking, the; politics, Jewish; (n. 23) Index 247

Kirchheimer, Otto – continued Krause, Ludwig, 130 ‘Marxismus, Diktatur und Kraushaar, Wolfgang, 192 (n. 17), Organisationsform des 193 (n. 53) Proletariats’, 208 (n. 25) Krech, Volkhard, 190 (n. 10) ‘Verfassungswirklichkeit und Kuhn, Fritz, 191 (n. 4) politische Zukunft der Kultursoziologie, 132–3, 210 (n. 14) Arbeiterbewegung’, 208 (n. 24) Kurthen, M., 201 (n. 36) ‘Weimar – und was dann? Analyse einer Verfassung’, 208 (n. 26) language, 89–90, 97, 206 (n. 14) Kirschner, Bruno, 210 (n. 6) absolute, 75 Klages, Ludwig, 199 (n. 18), and art, 89 201 (n. 42) and experience, 59–61 Klee, Paul, 86, 87, 88 functions of, 174, 178 Klein, Josef, 191 (n. 4) and knowledge, 59–60 Klinger, Cornelia, 198 (n. 4) and philosophy, 59–60, 147–8 knowledge, 55, 56–8, 61–2, 65, 67–70, and religion, 59–60, 175, 177 91, 124–5, 167, 197 (n. 46) and revelation, 59, 152 autonomy of, 67, 69, 123 vs. science, 59 and domination, 106, 122–4, 126 and silence, 94 and experience, 55–8, 61–2, 66–7, and teaching, 60–1 68–9, 91, 107, 173, 197 (n. 32) see also expression; speech; as fragmentary, 72, 84 symbolism; writing and ‘God’, 56, 62, 65, 70–1 law, 94, 103–5, 115–17, 128–9, 185 of God, 136, 141 constitutional, 104, 115, 116–19 and language, 59–60 and co-operatively defined and possession, 21, 124 entitlements, 109 mystical notions of, 70, 71, divine, 7, 111, 121, 136–7 200 (n. 29) and emancipation, 104 new concept of, 55, 56–7, 60 and Enlightenment, 8, 105–6, pure, 56, 62, 69, 70, 199 (n. 15) 108–9, 117–18 and social organisation, 216–17 and epistemology, 58, 103–4, 122–5 (n. 47) international, 80 and teaching, 60–2, 70–1 Jewish, 130, 131, 132–8, 139, 140, the unknowable, 31, 124 141, 144, 211 (n. 47) the unknown, 72, 74–5, 84 labour, 116 see also epistemology; neo- and Marxism, 109, 115, 116 Kantianism; transcendental and morality, 116, 117, 128–9, philosophy 131, 133 Kohlenbach, Margarete, 190 (n. 7), and mysticism, 141, 143 195 (n. 2), 196 (n. 16), 200 and myth, 91, 94, 80 (n. 21), 200 (n. 24), 201 (n. 41), national conceptions of, 111, 132–3 202 (n. 57), 203 (n. 64), natural, 116 206 (n. 12), 207 (n. 58) non-instrumental conceptions of, Köhnke, Christian, 196–7 (n. 26) 109, 114, 116–18, 122 Kokoschka, Oskar, 87, 88 legal philosophy, 80, 103–27, Kommerell, Max, 190 (n. 2) 146, 153 Kornfeld, Paul, 92 and politics, 103–27 Korsch, Karl, 203 (n. 66) positive, 128 Kracauer, Siegfried, 129 private, 104, 115–16, 121 248 Index law – continued life force, 77, 83 public, 115 ‘higher’, 203 (n. 67) and rationality, 103–8, 110, 122–5 of mankind, 81–2 and religion, 91, 103–27, 132–8, and mimesis, 180 141, 143–4, 211 (n. 39) and values, 53 Roman, 109, 110 ways of, 16, 50, 53, 54, 86, 128, secularisation of, 108–9, 118, 130, 144, 173–4 119, 120 see also everyday life legal subject, 104, 106, 109, 110, Linke, Paul F., 199 (n. 9) 116, 122–3, 144, 208 (n. 1) Linse, Ulrich, 202–3 (n. 59) and time, 108–9, 113, 126, 136, 137 literature, 15, 201 (n. 43), 204 (n. 75) legal validity, 112, 113, 115, German twentieth-century, 89 116, 119 literary intelligentsia, 53, 195 legal violence, 80, 120–1 (n. 11), 196 (n. 17), 196 (n. 19), compare justice; laws; legitimacy; 198 (n. 5) violence, divine; violence, literary mannerism, 207 (n. 37) mythical modern, 207 (n. 58) laws, 199 (n. 18) mystical, 10 conformity to, 58, 61, 103–4, 177, as ‘valid world order’, 52–3 178, 215 (n. 33), 215–16 (n. 40) see also poetry; theatre natural, 65, 177–8 Lithuania, 130 Lebensphilosophie, 65, 83, 202 (n. 51) logocracy, 202–3 (n. 59) Leeuw, Gerardus van der, 202 (n. 53) longing, 10, 16, 19, 22–4, 25, 26, Left, the, see politics, and Left–Right 27, 40 spectrum for the totally Other, 19, 21, 22, legitimacy, 91, 104, 114, 115, 116–17, 23, 25 118–20, 121, 137 Löwenthal, Leo, 129, 182 Lehre, see teaching Prophets of Deceit, 215 (n. 35), Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, 177 216 (n. 46) Letschka, Werner, 207 (n. 59) Luchesi, Brigitte, 190 (n. 5), 202 Levinas, Emmanuel, 145, 146–7, 150, (n. 53) 152, 153, 212 (n. 3) Lukács, Georg, 91, 112, 208 (n. 21) Levison, Daniel J., see under Adorno, Lüthi, Kurt, 194 (n. 58) ‘The Authoritarian Personality’ Lutz-Bachmann, Matthias, 192 Lévy-Brühl, Lucien, 202 (n. 53) (n. 15), 192 (n. 20), 193 (n. 35) liberalisation, 103, 121 see also religion, liberalised madness, 68, 69, 70 liberalism, 1, 8, 40–1, 79, 103, 104–5, magia naturalis, 83 115, 120–1, 128–9, 131, 138–9 magic, 39, 161, 173, 178, 180, liberal democracy, 116, 117 202 (n. 51), 213 (n. 9) and authoritarian capitalism, and mimesis, 180, 214 (n. 30) 107, 115 as profession, 215 (n. 33) epistemological critique of, 104 as rational, 215 (n. 33) in the USA, 215 (n. 32) and rationalisation, 215 (n. 33), life, 19, 32, 35, 36, 37, 50, 52, 92, 215–16 (n. 40) 93, 94, 116, 152, 173, 186, 213 and science, 178, 216 (n. 41) (n. 13), 215–16 (n. 40) spiritualisation of, 174, 185–6 bodily, 81–2, 85–6 Maimonides, 135, 198 (n. 5) Lebensphilosophie, 65, 83, 202 (n. 51) Maistre, Joseph de, 3 Index 249

Maj, Barnaba, 207 (n. 58) medicine, 146, 148 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 194 (n. 15) melancholy, 71, 91 mana, 173 Mendelssohn, Moses, 131, 141 mankind, 7, 9, 19, 77, 97, 143, 148–9 Mendes-Flohr, R., 211 (n. 57) body of, 81–2, 97, 205 (n. 77) Menke, Bettine, 203 (n. 64) as individuality, 81 messianism, 22, 130, 135, 140, see also humanity 204 (n. 74) Mann, Thomas, 202 (n. 51) messianic socialism, 130 Marc, Franz, 87, 88, 205 (n. 8) metaphor, 72, 90, 206 (n. 14) Marcus, Judith, 209 (n. 2) and allegory, 89–90, 98 Marcuse, Herbert, 114, 129, and metonymy, 89–90, 206 (n. 15) 216–17 (n. 47) and personification, 99 One-Dimensional Man, 161 and symbol, 89–90 Marquard, Odo, 214 (n. 24) metaphysics, 8, 54–5, 56, 57, 67, Marsch, Wolf-Dieter, 193 (n. 56) 71–2, 82, 105, 121, 124–6, 152 martyrdom, 91–2 critique of traditional, 66, 71–2, Marx, Karl, 2, 22, 79, 109, 115, 108, 152, 213 (n. 15) 129, 144 and experience, 55–6, 57, 59–60, Communist Manifesto, 84 66, 71–2, 73–4, 107, 108–9, ‘Debatten über das 121–2, 124–5 Holzdiebstahlsgesetz’, 208 (n. 9) metaphysical need, 32–3, 35–8, 39, ‘On the Jewish Question’, 208 (n. 8) 40–1 ‘Theses on Feuerbach’, 213 (n. 8) new, 72, 74 Marxism, 3–4, 16–17, 19, 23–4, 82, secondary, 108, 109, 111 92–3, 116, 209 (n. 1) metonymy, 85–6 Austro-, 116, 120 and allegory, 85–6, 89–90, 93, 99 and Christianity, 26–7, 28 and body, 90, 97 and critique of religion, 2, 3, 4, 129, and the First World War, 90 131, 144 of history, 97 and law, 109, 115, 116 and metaphor, 89–90, 206 (n. 15) and religion, 22, 26–7, 28 of nature, 97 see also communism; materialism, and symbol, 89–90 historical Metz, Johann Baptist, 27, 193 (n. 56), materialism, 16, 21 194 (n. 58), 194 (n. 61), 194 anthropological, 8, 69, 82–4, (n. 62) 199 (n. 18), 204 (n. 75) mimesis, 180–1, 187–8, 199 (n. 18), historical, 79, 181, 183, 215 (n. 32), 214 (n. 30) 216–17 (n. 47) and ban on graven images, political, see communism 167–8, 175 Maurer, Trude, 211 (n. 65) and body, 180, 187 meaning, 39, 89, 90, 92, 125, 132, magical, 180, 214 (n. 30) 175, 176, 178 Mimesis ans Tote, 180, 181, 188, absolute, 21 214 (n. 29) and death, 93 rational, 180, 214 (n 29–30) of death, 85, 87 and transcendental synthesis, 187 and expression, 178 mimicry, 178, 216 (n. 41) of life, 32, 35–6, 37, 85, 142, mind, see body, and mind; 148, 152 mind–body problem; presence of loss of, 161, 165 mind; spirit 250 Index mind–body problem, 64, 72–4, 181, and law, 116, 117, 128–9, 131, 133 198 (n. 1), 201 (n 36–7) and modernity, 7, 110, 128–9 and politics, 64 and politics, 21, 78, 83, 116, and psychophysical parallelism, 73, 123, 142 74, 201 (n 36–7) and religion, 9, 20, 21, 30, 54–5, 83, and religion, 64 132, 133 miracles, 65, 173, 177 social, 50, 52, 142–3 ‘miracles de raison’, 177 see also charity; compassion; Mittelmann, Hanni, 198 (n. 5) community; constancy; ethos; modernity, 4, 8–9, 39–40, 65, 78, 80, responsibility; solidarity 87, 103, 128–9, 148–9, 183–5, Morrow, William, see under Adorno, 195–6 (n. 15), 198 (n. 5), ‘The Authoritarian Personality’ 203 (n. 63) Moses ben Maimon, 135, 198 (n. 5) modern art, 85–99 Mosès, Stéphane, 212 (n. 1) and circulation, 184 mourning, 23, 25, 152 and the city, 86, 92, 205 (n. 2) of the end of philosophy, 148 and experience, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, metaphysical, 124–5 195–6 (n. 15) music, 206 (n. 25), 141 illusions of, 103, 104, 107, 121, mystery, 165, 201 (n. 42) 123, 124, 126, 131, 178 mysticism, 61, 70, 71, 141, 163–5, and morality, 7, 110, 128–9 199–200 (n. 20), 200 (n. 29) and myth, 80, 178–9, 182–3, mystical communities, 140 203 (n. 66) and dialectic, 203 (n. 66) modern rationality, 103–6, 107–8, and law, 141, 142 108–9, 122–5, 126–7, 160–2, mystical monotheism, 212 182–4 (n. 82) and religion, 2, 5, 9, 65, 131, rational, 75, 201 (n. 39) 144, 172 and rationalism, 177 modern society, 8, 39–40, 80, 103, and revolution, 163 105, 106–7, 122–3, 183–5 and unification, 163–5 modern subject, 108, 109, 123, 144, unio mystica, 71 147, 216–17 (n. 47) mystical writing, 10 and technology, 85, 87, 91 see also Kabbalah see also culture, modern Jewish; myth, 4, 6, 65, 91–2, 94, 96, 165, Enlightenment; experience, 171–5, 178–80, 199 (n. 18), modern; rationality, modern; 207 (n. 39) individualism; Jews, and and body, 181 modernisation and domination, 3, 77 Molière, Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, 86 and enlightenment, 80, 158–9, Moltmann, Jürgen, 22, 26–7, 193 162, 171–2, 177–9, 180, 182–3 (n. 38), 194 (n. 57), 194 (n. 59), functional change of, 174 194 (n. 62), 194 (n. 63), as early form of history, 171, 173 194 (n. 64) and imagination, 178 monism, 50, 51 and modernity, 80, 178–9, 182–3, monotheism, 80, 133, 143, 212 (n. 82) 203 (n. 66) morality, 7, 19, 21, 34, 53–4, 95, 123, ‘myth’ and ‘mythology’, 171–2 134, 196 (n. 25) and norms, 178–9 individualistic conceptions of, 7, and rationality, 171–4, 178–80, 95, 142 182–5 Index 251 myth – continued and history, 96–9, 151 and reality, 65, 77–8, 79, 80, 182–5, inanimate, 83, 161, 180 199 (n. 11), 202 (n. 53), 204 natural laws, 65, 177–8 (n. 71) and magia naturalis, 83 and religion, 3–4, 65, 77–8, 80–1, metonymy of, 97 166–7, 172, 173–6, 180, 181, and miracles, 65, 177 183–4, 185–6 objectification of, 161–2, 178 and repetition, 178 and physis, 82–3, 99, 205 (n. 77) and reversion of history to relentlessness of, 188 nature, 151 and religion, 96–9, 181 and secularisation, 172 remembrance of, 180–1 as ‘spiritual form’, 172, 173 sacred writing in, 97–8 as symbolic experience, 174 and spirit, 50, 52, 54 mythical thought, 172–5, 176, as suffering, 96–9 178–80, 181, 215 (n. 33) temptation of, 185 and time, 95–6 Naville, Pierre, 204 (n. 75) mythical violence, 79, 80, 81, 94 needs, 37, 38–9, 49–50, 53 see also mythology; order; sacrifice; metaphysical need, 32–3, 35–8, ritual 39, 40–1 mythology, 57, 95, 171–2, 207 (n. 39) negation, determinate, 124, 126, 176 ancient, 173 negative dialectic, see Adorno, modern, 65 ‘Negative Dialectics’; dialectic, ‘mythology’ and ‘myth’, 171–2 negative modern mythologies, 183 negativity, 8, 21, 23, 57, 70 nationalist mythologies, 183 Negt, Oskar, 25 [neo-]pagan mythologies, 183 neo-Kantianism, 6, 56–62, 67, 68–9, realist, 65, 199 (n. 11) 110, 111, 112, 120, 197 (n. 31), reversion to, 80, 158–9, 162, 177–9, 208 (n. 1) 182–3 neo-Paganism, 2, 183, 202 (n. 53) see also myth; order Neumann, Franz, 8, 9, 104, 114, 115–20, 121, 146, 153, 209 (n. 35) National Socialism, 1, 2, 24, 65, 114, ‘The Change in the Function of 119, 161, 202 (n. 51) Law in Modern Society’, 208 see also fascism; Holocaust, the; (n. 4), 208 (n. 25), 209 (n. 31) Third Reich, the ‘The Concept of Political Freedom’, Natorp, Paul, 67, 208 (n. 15) 208 (n. 26), 209 (n. 33) natural history, 96–9 ‘On the Precondition and Legal of morality, 34 Concepts of an Economic of religion, 34 Constitution’, 208 (n. 23), Naturalism, 52 208 (n. 27) nature, 18, 36, 92, 105–8, 110, 118, New Thinking, the, 94, 129, 130–1, 122, 148, 178, 180 145–53, 210 (n. 3) alienation from, 161 Newitt, R., animate, 83, 161, 180 The Authoritarian Personality, 182, bodily, 81–2 187, 215 (n. 35) domination over, 77, 110, 122, 123, Nietzsche, Friedrich, 3, 32, 33, 37, 180–1, 184–5, 187, 188 40–1, 92, 147, 149, 151, and freedom, 54, 97, 118–19, 203 (n. 63) 144, 178 Beyond Good and Evil, 194 (n. 7) 252 Index

Nietzsche, Friedrich – continued mythico-religious conceptions of, 5, The Gay Science, 194 (n. 5), 194 6, 8, 9, 32, 105, 199 (n. 18), (n. 11) 203 (n. 65) On the Genealogy of Morality, 110, and ‘teaching’, 55 194 (n 5–6) of the universe, 176 Human, All Too Human, 194 (n. 5), universal, 177 194 (n. 11) ‘world order’, 52–3, 55 Nipperdey, Thomas, 3, 190 (n. 5) organism, 76–7, 79 Nobel, Anton Nehemia, 129, 130, and ‘adaptation to otherness’, 188, 210 (n. 3) 214 (n. 30) Noeggerath, Felix, 196 (n. 25) and formation, 72–3, 80, 83 Nolde, Emil, 87 and functions, 77 nominalism, 175 and processes, 116 non-identity, see under dialectic, and Volk, 72–3, 80, 81 negative compare pessimism, organisation of; norms, 18, 108, 114, 116, 121, 128, society, social organisation 131, 133, 141, 143 orientation, 37–8 and myth, 178–9 absolute, 150 Nörtersheuser, Hans-Walter, 191 and alterity, 153 (n. 1), 191 (n. 6), 192 (n 10–11), need for, 35–6, 37, 142 192 (n. 18), 192 (n 20–1), 192 and revelation, 148, 150, 152 (n. 29), 192 (n 31–2), 193 otherness, 107, 147, 153, 176, 188, (n 36–7), 193 (n. 40), 193 214 (n. 30) (n. 42), 193 (n. 44), 193 (n. 48), the Other, 21, 22, 23, 25, 146 193 (n. 50) Ott, Michael R., 191 (n.1), 192 (n. 31), 193 (n. 36), 193 (n. 44) object, 76, 99, 104, 122–3, 161–2, 165 Otto, Rudolf, 90, 194 (n 1–3) and consciousness, 73–4 and subject, 57, 69, 70–1, 74, 104, pacifism, 202–3 (n. 59) 122–3, 163, 164–5, 187–8 Paganism, 80, 202 (n. 53), compare reification; things, and 215–16 (n. 40) persons neo-Paganism, 2, 183, 202 (n. 53) objectification, compare religions, natural of nature, 161–2 painting, 86–7, 91 and thought, 163, 164–5, 178, abstract, 87–8 180, 187 and spiritual symbolism, compare reification; things, and 87–8, 89 persons pantheism, 50, 51–2 observation, empirical, 29 religious inadequacy of, 52 occult, the, 6, 68–9 parallelism, psychophysical, 73, 74, Oerkel, Maike, 190 (n. 5) 201 (n 36–7) ontology, 61, 98, 108, 112, 124, parapsychology, 68–9, 78 213 (n. 15) past, the, 9, 99, 158 critique of, 145, 146 Paulk, Emil Gustav (Paul Keminski), Opitz, Martin, 91 202–3 (n. 59) order, peace, 93, 129 concept of, 48, 55 universal, 203 (n. 63) ‘future religious orders’, 46, 47, Pensky, Max, 206 (n. 32) 55, 71 Penslar, Derek J., 211 (n. 60) Index 253 perception, 67 and theology, 23, 33, 151 as Lesen, 199 (n. 18) theoretical, 74, 76 Perels, Joachim, 208 (n. 23) and the tragic, 90–5 persecution, 8, 140, 183–5, 186–7, philosophical universality, 47, 63, 188, 216–17 (n. 47) 149, 150 see also Holocaust, the Western, 29–30 personality, 50 see also epistemology; idealism; personhood, 81, 108, 109, 184–5 Judaism, and philosophy; and things, 98–9, 123, 161–2 ‘Lebensphilosophie’; Marxism; supra-individual conception of, 81 materialism; metaphysics; pessimism, 19, 82, 204 (n. 75) neo-Kantianism; New Thinking, cultural and historical, 78–9, the; ontology; phenomenology; 178–80 transcendental philosophy metaphysical, 19 physiognomy, 91 organisation of, 82, 204 (n. 75) cosmic, 199 (n. 18) phenomenology, 146, 212 (n. 3) of nature-history, 98 Philosophische Gruppe, 203 Pinsker, Leon, 211 (n. 64) (n. 66) Pinthus, Kurt, 7 philosophy, 6, 16, 31, 38, 40, 47, 69, Pirandello, Luigi, 86 72, 85, 105, 123, 130, 148, 149, Plato, 90, 97, 112 150–1, 213 (n. 8), 205 (n. 77) plutocracy, 140 absoluteness of, 151 poetry, 51–2, 180 critical, 54, 66, 70, 107, 124–5, epic, 96, 207 (n. 54) 152, 200 (n. 27), 208 (n. 1) German twentieth-century, 89 critique of, 146–7 pogroms, see persecution dogmatic, 66, 70–1 Political Theology, 1–2, 15, 26–8, 113, the end of, 145, 147, 148–9, 153 117–19 history of, 146, 148, 149 politics, 4, 5, 7–9, 24, 26, 27, 78, 82, as individual philosophising, 149, 91, 123, 153, 179 150–1, 153 and the body, 8, 76–7, 78, 83–4, and language, 59–60, 147–8 203 (n. 65) legal, 80, 103–27, 146, 153 and diplomacy, 80 and method, 54–5, 59, 199 (n. 6) Jewish, 78 political, 78, 79, 80, 103–27, and law, 103–27 146, 153 and Left–Right spectrum, 2–3, 82, realisation of, 148, 213 (n. 8) 113, 118, 161, 190 (n. 2) and religion, 23, 56, 65–6, 67, 76–7, and morality, 21, 78, 83, 116, 146, 150–1, 168–70, 200 123, 142 (n. 21), 201 (n. 42) prophetic, 150 of religion, 30, 76, 135, 181 political movements, 6 and science, 58–9 political parties, 4, 118 speculative, 67, 70, 75, 107, 123, and practice, 1–2, 5, 7–9, 27, 76–7, 124, 136, 149, 199 (n. 11), 83, 181, 203 (n. 65) 199 (n. 15), 199 (n. 17) and religion, 2, 4, 5, 9, 10, 15, 16, supremacy of, 60 20–1, 22, 26–8, 40, 64, 67, and ‘system’, 62–3, 150–1, 76–84, 94, 107, 111, 113, 115, 152–3, 188 116–20, 121–2, 126, 130, 132, systematic, 54–5, 56, 59–60, 61–2 135, 138–9, 140, 145–6, 150, and teaching, 61–2, 70–1 179, 181 254 Index politics – continued religious, 4, 6–7, 9, 39, 76–7, 111, religious notions of, 9, 21, 27, 134, 136, 138, 141, 142, 143–4, 28, 76–84, 94, 113, 117–20, 152, 205 (n. 77), 211 (n. 39) 140, 150 social, 4, 5, 31, 181, 215 (n. 33), secular, 5, 9, 78–9, 80, 82, 116, 117, 215–16 (n. 40) 119, 120 symbolic, 7, 136, 143, 189, and social class, 4, 81, 115, 181, 211 (n. 39) 183, 203 (n. 64), 215 (n. 32), and theory, 1–2, 7, 16, 21, 23, 27, 215 (n. 36) 64, 76–7, 79, 136, 142, 148, totalitarian, 145, 183 151–2, 213 (n. 8) see also capitalism; communism; Pratt, Vernon, 199 (n. 8) compromise; conservatism; prayer, 141 democracy; fascism; Federal presence of mind, 78 Republic of Germany; First present, the, 27, 48, 55, 158 World War; hierocracy; see also relevance, contemporary imperialism; legitimacy; preservation, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27 liberalism; Marxism; National self-, 36, 74, 181, 186, 187, 188 Socialism; pacifism; peace; Preuß, Hugo, 110 philosophy, political; plutocracy; progress, 41, 82, 175, 177–80, Political Theology; power; 184, 185 reform; revolution; Second progression, infinite and sacred, 95 World War; Social Democracy; profanation, 51 socialism; sovereignty; Student profane, the, see secularity Movement of the 1960s; Third proletariat, 81, 203 (n. 64), Reich, the; violence; war; 215 (n. 32), 215 (n. 36) Weimar Republic; Wilhelmine Protestant Church Congress (Cologne Germany; Youth Culture 1965), 20 Movement Protestantism, 2, 7, 20, 23, 34, 40, Pollock, Friedrich, 17, 104, 114, 122, 111, 142, 151, 153, 202 (n. 53), 146, 153 215–16 (n. 40) Späne, 17 and capitalism, 139, 215–16 Stadien des Kapitalismus, 208 (n. 3) (n. 40) Poma, Andrea, 213 (n. 6) psychoanalysis, 32, 131 Positivism, 21, 59, 175, 180, and critique of religion, 3, 35, 36, 208 (n. 1) 37–8, 129, 144 and religion, 202 (n. 53) and Erich Fromm, 131, 139, 141–4, Post, Werner, 25, 193 (n. 49) 209 (n. 1) power, 8, 77, 78, 82, 105, 113, 120–1, and ‘Elements of Anti-Semitism’, 140–1, 184 181, 186–8, 215 (n. 32), 216–17 divine, 126 (n. 47) limits of human and political, 91 and religion, 131, 142, 143–4 practice, 3, 6, 7, 9, 19, 24, 26, 27, psychocracy, 202–3 (n. 59) 134–5, 136, 138 psychology, 68, 217 (n. 49) and emancipation, 2, 3, 4 social, 142–3, 144 magical, 39, 173, 202 (n. 51), 214 (n. 30) Quintilian, Marcus Fabius, 90, 98 political, 1–2, 5, 7–9, 27, 76–7, 83, 181, 203 (n. 65) Rabinkow, Salman Baruch, 130–1, rational, 214 (n. 30) 132, 210 (n. 6), 210 (n. 13) Index 255 radicalism, 16, 39–40, 79, 112–13, instrumental, 20–1, 39–41, 106, 115, 119, 141–2, 144, 188 161–2 Rahner, Karl, 20, 27, 193 (n. 56), practical, 53, 105 194 (n. 60) regulatory function of, 103–4, 105, Rang, Florens Christian, 94, 147 112, 120, 123, 124 Ranke, Leopold von, 137 and revelation, 61, 149–50 rationalisation, 103, 121 as secondary metaphysics, 108, and magic, 215 (n. 33), 109, 111 215–16 (n. 40) see also rationality rationalism, 37, 40, 61, 76, 139, 177 Reber, Arthur S., 201 (n. 36) mystical, 201 (n. 39) reconciliation, 157, 165, 181 and mysticism, 177 compare religion, as psychic rationality, 37, 63, 68, 69, 74–5, 78, compensation 183–5 redemption, 18–19, 23, 25, 26, 91, 96, and domination, 106, 122–4, 126, 98, 140, 176 161–2, 181, 182–3, 184–5, 186 reification, 108, 109, 125, 127 goal-, 79, 80, 117, 187 reform, 2, 4, 24, 115 and law, 103–8, 110, 122–5 life reform, 6 and magic, 215 (n. 33), 215–16 reformation, 4, 34–5 (n. 40) regularity, see laws, conformity to and mimesis, 180, 214 (n 29–30) Reichenbach, Hans, 203 (n. 66) modern, 103–6, 107–8, 108–9, Reichmann, Frieda, 131 122–5, 126–7, 161–2, 182–4 Reijen, Willem van, 190 (n. 3) and myth, 171–4, 178–80, 182–5 relativism, 24 and religion, 61, 149–50, 172 relevance, contemporary, 47–8, 50, and sacrifice, 186, 187, 215–16 53, 55, 63, 84, 158, 195 (n. 4) (n. 40) religion, 24, 26, 31, 40, 49, 53, 54–5, and self-destruction, 182–3 62–3, 64, 67–8, 69–71, 75–6, 106, and ‘symbol’, 177 136–7, 143–4, 145–6, 173–6 technical, 161–2 atheistic, 131, 143 value-, 79, 114, 134 religious attitudes, 5, 7, 111, see also justification, argumentative; 134, 142 reason religious beliefs, 5, 6–7, 8, 30, 33, Raulet, Gérard, 190 (n. 5), 191 (n. 1), 34, 35, 130, 132, 134–5, 140, 191 (n. 2), 193 (n. 45), 195 (n. 7), 142, 199 (n. 11) 214 (n. 25), 217 (n. 49) and community, 51, 77, 135, 136, reaction, 111, 113 138–9, 140, 151–2, 153 aesthetic, 52 religious contents, 8, 9, 111, 113, realisation, 64, 76–8, 79, 82 118–19, 124–5, 127 of philosophy, 148, 213 (n. 8) as a cultural system, 5, 9 reality, 74, 99 problem of defining, 5, 16, 31, mathematisation of, 161–2 33–4, 45–6, 61–2, 190 (n. 10) self-transcendence of, 84 and domination, 2, 4, 19–20, 35, see also myth, and reality 77, 129, 183, 186 reason, 59, 78–9, 106–7 and edification, 161, 168 and autonomy, 105, 106–7, 109, religious emotions, 18–19, 31–2, 120, 121–2, 123–4, 125–7 136, 137, 138, 140 formal, 104–5, 106–7, 110, 111, as experience, 31–2, 51, 136, 112, 122, 124, 125, 126, 175 199 (n. 17) 256 Index religion – continued radicalism of, 16, 141–2, 144 religious experience, 8, 49, 54–5, and rationality, 61, 149–50, 172 56–8, 59–60, 64–74, 76–84, and rhetoric, 95–9, 157 106–7, 121, 124–5, 197–8 religious sects, 138, 210 (n. 11), (n. 47) 210 (n. 28) functions of, 9, 20–1, 23, 32–3, 142, and secularity, 26–7, 117, 118–20, 191 (n. 16) 121–2, 125, 126–7, 130, 136–7, humanistic, 131, 143 142, 176 and ideology, 2, 4, 19–20, 144, and social class, 16, 20, 129, 136, 185–6, 190 (n. 6), 202 (n. 51) 139, 140, 141–2, 183 ‘indispensability’ of, 8, 10, 117, and social organisation, 4, 31, 34–5, 118–20, 121–2, 125, 127, 142 132, 181, 184, 215–16 (n. 40) religious institutions, 4, 20, 26, 34–5 systematic classification of, 56 and language, 59–60, 175, 177 and theology, 6–7, 30–3, 133, 134, and law, 91, 103–27, 132–8, 141, 135, 158 143–4, 211 (n. 39) religious thought, 4, 6, 7, 9, 30, liberalised, 131, 135, 138–9, 140, 138, 143, 145–6, 175–6, 141, 143, 144, 192 (n. 30), 192 199 (n. 6), 199 (n. 11) (n. 32), 194 (n. 18) and truth, 6, 20, 33, 65, 75, 143, and metaphysical need, 32–3, 35–8, 163–7, 199 (n. 11), 199 (n. 17) 39, 40–1 universal presence of, 142 and modernity, 2, 5, 9, 65, 131, universalist conceptions of, 77–8, 144, 172 83, 130, 202 (n. 54) and morality, 9, 20, 21, 30, 54–5, see also art, and religion; creation; 83, 132, 133 creatureliness; critique of religious movements, 34–5, 140–1 religion; cult; deism; and myth, 3–4, 65, 77–8, 80–1, Expressionism, and religion; 166–7, 172, 173–6, 180, 181, faith; God; gods; Horkheimer 183–4, 185–6 Dispute; hope; immanence; national conceptions of, 77–8, law, divine; longing; Marxism, 138, 139 and religion; monotheism; and nature, 96–9, 181 mysticism; order; pantheism; new, 9, 10, 45–7, 50, 51, 53, 69 philosophy, of religion; politics, as non-doxastic, 31–3, 134–5 religious notions of; Positivism, and philosophy, 23, 56, 65–6, 67, and religion; psychoanalysis, 76–7, 146, 150–1, 168–70, 200 and religion; reconciliation; (n. 21), 201 (n. 42) redemption; religions; and politics, 2, 4, 5, 9, 10, 15, 16, revelation; resurrection; 20–1, 22, 26–8, 40, 64, 67, sacred, the; sacrifice; 76–84, 94, 107, 111, 113, 115, salvation; secularisation, and 116–20, 121–2, 126, 130, 132, re-sacralisation; teaching; 135, 138–9, 140, 145–6, 150, theism; theology; tradition; 179, 181 transcendence; violence, religious practice, 4, 6–7, 9, 39, divine; violence, religious 76–7, 111, 134, 136, 138, 141, religions, 142, 143–4, 152, 205 (n. 77), archaic, 40 211 (n. 39) historical, 9, 46–7 as psychic compensation, 35, 36, Indian, 24, 30, 33, 83, 205 (n. 81) 37, 46, 129, 144 ‘inner-worldly’, 215–16 (n. 40) Index 257 religions – continued and technology, 202 (n. 51), natural, 68–9, 74, 186 205 (n. 77) non-Western, 5, 30 Rohde, Erwin, 207 (n. 54) Western, 5, 6 Rohkrämer, Thomas, 198 (n. 4) see also Bible; Christianity; Judaism; Romanticism, 6, 142 Paganism; religion romantic thought, 10, 72–3, religiosity, 45–6, 53, 75, 141 83, 95–6 of the future, 50 neo-Romantic reception of quasi-religious attitudes, 79 Hasidism, 130, 141 ‘vagabond’, 3, 4 Rose, Gillian, 149, 213 (n. 9) Rembrandt, R. Harmensz van Rijn, Rosenstock-Huessy, Eugen, 145 (note), 86–7 146, 147–8, 150, 152, 153 remembrance, 5, 9, 23, 24, 195–6 Die Europäischen Revolutionen, 146 (n. 15) Out of Revolution, 146 faith as, 27 Rosenzweig, Franz, 94, 129, 131, of nature within the subject, 180–1 145–6, 147, 148–9, 150–2, 153, Renaissance, 173 212 (n. 3) Rensmann, Lars, 215 (n. 32) Halevi translation, 148 resistance, 26, 40, 142 ‘Nehemia Anton Nobel’, 210 (n. 3) to totality, 146, 150 ‘The New Thinking’, 145–6, 148, responsibility, 8, 104, 108, 110, 142 212 (n. 4) resurrection, 82, 99 The Star of Redemption, 94, 146, revelation, 29, 47, 75, 136–7, 147, 147–8, 151–2, 153, 213 (n. 13) 148, 149–52, 153, 165, 211 ‘Transposed Fronts’, 147, 213 (n. 5) (n. 47) Understanding the Sick and the and language, 61, 152 Healthy, 149 and orientation, 148, 150, 152 ‘Urzelle’ to The Star of Redemption, and reason, 61, 149–50 148, 149–50, 213 (n 10–11) revolt, 80, 92 ruins, 91, 98 revolution, 4, 20, 23–4, 26, 27, 80, 81, and Trümmer, 98, 206 (n. 18) 82–3, 115 and mysticism, 163 sacred, the, 32, 39, 81, 95, 97, 136 spiritual, 88 sacred feeling, 18 theology of, 26–7 and secularity, 21, 32, 91, 97, 136, revolutionary violence, 80–1, 139, 176 204 (n. 69) see also sanctification; secularisation, rhetoric, tradition of, 90 and re-sacralisation see also Critical Theory, and rhetoric sacrifice, 92, 94, 173, 185–6, 187, Rickert, Heinrich, 201 (n. 37) 206 (n. 31) Riegl, Alois, 196 (n. 18) of reason, 185 Right, the, see politics, and Left–Right and rationality, 186, 187, 215–16 spectrum (n. 40) ritual, 7, 8, 9, 31, 75, 77, 94, 136, 142, salvation, 6, 30, 108, 157, 167, 185 143, 173, 181, 185–6, 211 (n. 39) and certitudo salutis, 185, 215–16 and fear, 32, 215–16 (n. 40) (n. 40) magical, 186 and Unheil, 157–8, 213 (n. 1) in National Socialism, 2 Samuel, R. (n. 24) and pogroms, 187 Sánchez, Juan José, 191 (n. 1), 192 (n. and science, 178, 216 (n. 41) 18), 193 (n. 48), 193 (n. 49) 258 Index sanctification, 136, 139, 186, 215–16 Second Vatican Council, 20, 26 (n. 40) Second World War, 23–4 satisfactio vicarians, 186 secularisation, 4, 18, 26–7, 111, 112, scepticism, 35, 50, 67, 70 116, 118–20, 125, 143, 172 Schäfer, Gert, 209 (n. 32) critique of, 103–7, 108–9, 121–2, Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Josef, 125, 126–7, 143–4 150, 207 (n. 39) of law, 108–9, 118, 119, 120 Schlegel, Friedrich, 93 and myth, 172 Schlemmer, Oskar, 88 of religious concepts, 143 Schmid Noerr, Gunzelin, 19, 191 and re-sacralisation, 3, 111, 130, (n.1), 191 (n. 3), 192 (n. 12), 139, 183, 215 (n. 33) 192 (n. 16) of time, 108–9 Schmidt, Alfred, 18, 19 secularity, 32, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, Schmidt-Rottluff, Karl, 87 106–7, 116, 117, 119, 120–1, 122, Schmitt, Carl, 111, 113, 117–19, 125, 126, 143–4, 176 190 (n. 2), 203 (n. 66), 209 and religion, 26–7, 117, 118–20, (n 28–30), 209 (n. 35) 121–2, 125, 126–7, 130, 136–7, Schmitt, Hans-Jürgen, 206 (n. 22) 142, 176 Schnädelbach, Herbert, 196–7 (n. 26), and the sacred, 21, 32, 91, 97, 136, 198 (n. 4) 139, 176 Schnurbein, Stefanie von, 190 (n. 5) and ‘symbol’, 95 Scholem, Gershom, 56, 62, 195 (n. 8), see also politics, secular 197 (n. 31), 198 (n. 49), 198 Segel, Binjamin, 212 (n. 71) (n 1–2), 198 (n. 5), 199 (n. 7), self-alienation, 50 201 (n. 42), 202 (n. 54), 205 self-control, 123 (n. 4), 210 (n. 6), 210 (n. 10), self-deception, 65, 121 210 (n. 12), 211 (n. 47), self-destruction, 182–3 211 (n. 55), 211 (n. 62), self-hatred, 181, 188 212 (n. 72) self-preservation, 36, 74, 181, 186, Schopenhauer, Arthur, 19, 21, 24, 187, 188 147, 149, 151 self-transcendence, of reality, 84 science, 35, 36, 37–8, 66, 68–9, 178, semantic analysis, 15–16, 191 (n. 4) 180 semiotics, 96, 97 applied sciences, 76 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, 91 autonomy of, 56 sensibility, 58 vs. language, 59 and intellect, 53–4 and magic, 178, 216 (n. 41) Siebert, Rudolf, 193 (n. 55) mathematical sciences, 54, 66, 68, Shakespeare, William, 86 161–2, 177, 178 Shaw, George Bernard, 86 natural sciences, 199 (n. 11) Simmel, Georg, 110, 190 (n. 10), in neo-Kantianism, 56, 57–60 206 (n. 18), 208 (n. 13) and philosophy, 58–9 Simon, Ernst, 129 as ritual, 178, 216 (n. 41) Sinzheimer School (of labour social sciences, 4, 6 law), 116 as symbolic experience, 174 sociability, 141 scientific world views, 38, 66 Social Democracy, 104 see also anthropology; biology; social psychology, 142–4 medicine; psychology; socialisation, 188 sociology of the economy, 116, 119 Index 259 socialism, 93 speech, 95, 99, 148, 152 messianic, 130 Spinoza, Baruch de, 160 society, 36, 37, 78, 93, 179 spirit, 50–1, 52, 53, 79, 90, 103, 141, bourgeois, 92, 105, 123, 138 185–6, 195 (n. 11) and change, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, absolute, 40 27, 136 divine, 137 and circulation, 184 spiritual forces, 77 and class, 16, 18, 112, 115, 129, spiritual form, 172, 173 136, 139, 140, 141–2, 181, 183 humanistic, 143 and human nature, 116–20 and nature, 50, 52, 54 social integration, 139, 179, 189, religious, 53 211 (n. 62) spiritual symbolism, 87–8 Islamic, 138 unconscious, 74 liberal, 41, 103, 104–5, 120–1, 131 of utopia, 180 ‘the social mechanism’, 49–50 Volksgeist, 72, 73–4, 76–7, 200 and misery, 50 (n. 31) modern, 8, 39–40, 80, 103, 105, compare body, and mind; 106–7, 122–3, 183–5 mind-body problem non-Western societies, 5–6 spiritualisation, 50–1, 52, 141, 174–5, social organisation, 4, 31, 132, 185–6, 195 (n. 11) 181, 184, 215–16 (n. 40), Spülbeck, Volker, 193 (n. 55), 216–17 (n. 47) 194 (n. 62) and ‘organism’, 72–3, 76–7, 79, 80 Stachel, Paul, 206 (n. 19) social practice, 4, 5, 31, 181, Steiner, Uwe, 201 (n. 45), 204 (n. 73), 215 (n. 33), 215–16 (n. 40) 204 (n. 74) pre-modern societies, 4, 5–6, 173–4, Stemberger, Günter, 211 (n. 47) 215–16 (n. 40) Stern, Fritz, 79, 198 (n. 4) and the private sphere, 80 stoicism, 91 social relationships, 143, 161–2, Strauss, Ludwig, 195 (n. 9), 213 (n. 9) 195 (n. 11), 196 (n 17–18) the social, 32, 50, 144 strike, general proletarian, 81, and symbolism, 179, 189 203 (n. 64) Western societies, 2 Student Movement of the 1960s, sociology, 6, 16, 130 1–2, 7 of culture (‘Kultursoziologie’), Extra-Parliamentary Opposition, 15, 132–3, 210 (n. 14) 17–18, 20, 23, 26, 27, 28 and psychology, 142–4 subcultures, 3 see also thought, socio-biological subject, 8, 57–8, 40, 95, 122–3, 125, solace, see consolation 151, 178, 184–5, 216–17 (n. 47) solidarity, 7–8, 19, 21, 22, 126 autonomy of, 104, 123, 125 solitude, 8 and false projection, 186–8 Söllner, Alfons, 208 (n. 4) legal, 104, 106, 109, 110, 116, Sombart, Werner, 139, 215–16 (n. 40) 122–3, 144, 208 (n. 1) Sophocles, 91, 206 (n. 31) modern, 108, 109, 123, 144, 147, Sorel, Georges, 204 (n. 69) 216–17 (n. 47) soul, 66, 90, 94, 204 (n. 73) and object, 57, 69, 70–1, 74, 104, sovereignty, 118, 203 (n. 65) 122–3, 163, 164–5, 187–8 speculation, see philosophy, ‘remembrance of nature within speculative the’, 180–1 260 Index subject – continued and ‘system’, 62 see also individual, the; inwardness; compare tradition, Jewish personhood; self-preservation; technology, 76, 82–3, 91, 205 (n. 77) things, and persons modern, 85, 87, 91 subsumption, 216–17 (n. 47) and ritual, 202 (n. 51), 205 (n. 77) suffering, 18–19, 23, 30, 36, 37, 90, compare reason, instrumental 92, 93, 94 temporality, 48, 55, 59, 91, 108–9, of nature, 96–9 126, 147, 148–9, 152 and self-preservation, 181, 187 Tesauro, Emmanuele, 207 (n. 37) supernatural, the, 65, 66 theatre, 52, 86 suppression, 4, 8, 53, 123, 129, 131, Brechtian, 95, 99, 207 (n. 58) 161–2, 186 Expressionist, 86, 88–9, 91–3 of natural impulses, 110, 123, 181, see also tragedy; ‘Trauerspiel’ 184–5, 187 theism, 20–1 Surrealism, 83–4, 204 (n. 75) lack of theistic belief, 130 Sutherland, Stuart, 201 (n. 36) theodicy, 32, 35 symbol, 177 theology, 1–2, 5, 33, 34, 35, 78, and allegory, 89–90, 95–6, 97–8 105–6, 108, 109, 111, 113, 149, Classical concept of, 95 157–8 and metaphor, 89–90 apologetic, 6–7 and metonymy, 89–90 Christian, 1–2, 3, 6–7, 26, 35–6, symbolic forms, see forms, symbolic 92–3, 111, 113, 151 symbolism, 97, 98, 172, 173–6, dogmatic, 2, 6–7, 35, 131, 134, 141 177–80, 189 ‘inverse’, 5 and abstraction, 177 and Judaism, 6–7, 133, 134, and experience, 174 135, 141 in Expressionist painting, 87–8, 89 of liberation, 2, 26, 27, 186 and knowledge, 61 Lutheran, 111, 113 and practice, 7, 136, 143, 211 modern, 65, 78 (n. 39) negative, 8, 21, 23 and rationalism, 177 and philosophy, 23, 33, 151 and society, 179, 189 political, 1–2, 15, 26–8, 113, 117–19 Szondi, Peter, 92, 93, 206 (n. 17) and religion, 6–7, 30–3, 133, 134, 135, 158 taboo, 32, 39, 40, 173, 180 ‘of the world’, 26 Tagliacozzo, Tamara, 196 (n. 25) see also eschatology; God; gods; Talmudisches Seminar zu Heilsgeschichte; monotheism; Heidelberg, 130 teaching; theism Tarr, Zoltan, 209 (n. 2) theory, 24, 26 task, infinite, 62 ‘critical and dogmatic’, 70–1, Tasso, Torquato, 207 (n. 37) 196–7 (n. 26) Taubes, Jacob, 202 (n. 51), 214 (n. 24) and happiness, 10 teaching (‘Lehre’), 48, 51, 55–6, 60–2, and practice, 1–2, 7, 16, 21, 23, 27, 70–1, 75, 199 (n. 7) 64, 76–7, 79, 136, 142, 148, and knowledge, 60–2, 70–1 151–2, 213 (n. 8) and language, 60–1 ‘traditional’, 24 and ‘order’, 55 see also Critical Theory and philosophy, 61–2, 70–1 Theunissen, Michael, 208 (n. 7), and religion, 60–2 213 (n. 15) Index 261 thing-in-itself, 56, 62, 73 dynamism of, 129, 137, 138 things, and persons, 98–9, 123, 161–2 idealisation of, 128–9 thinkableness, 72, 75, 76 invention of, 129 thinking, see thought Jewish, 129–30, 130–1, 134, 135, Third Reich, the, 2, 4, 6, 116, 119 136–8, 139, 141 see also fascism; Holocaust, the; Judaeo-Christian, 173 National Socialism Lithuanian-Jewish, 130 thought, 58, 76, 173–4, 215 (n. 33) and work, 139 ancient Greek, 148–9 tragedy, 85, 90–5, 207 (n. 39), 207 enlightened, 158, 178 (n. 54) medieval, 148–9 transcendence, 3, 21, 26–7, 40, 124–5, modern, 148–9 176, 180 and objectification, 163, 164–5, of consciousness, 73 178, 180, 187 and reality, 84 and possession, 104, 107, 124 transcendental consciousness, 58, 68, socio-biological, 72–3, 74, 76–7, 79, 69, 73–4 83–4, 205 (n. 77) transcendental dialectic, 54 utilitarian, 39–40 transcendental logic, 54, 57, 74 utopian, 4, 40, 163–4 transcendental philosophy, 57–60, see also myth, mythical thought; 67–9, 71–2, 124–5, 199 (n. 17), New Thinking, the; order; 216–17 (n. 47) religion, religious thought; and ‘social schematism’, 216–17 thinkableness; wishful thinking (n. 47) Tillich, Paul, 23, 24, 111 and subject, 57–8 time, 96, 143 see also epistemology; neo- as durée, 124 Kantianism; philosophy, critical filled, 109, 122 transcendental synthesis, and and law, 108–9, 113, 126, 136, 137 mimesis, 187 secularisation of, 108–9 transience, 91, 97–8, 99, 147 and space, 32, 67, 152 Trauerspiel, 85, 91, 93, 98–9, 207 and truth, 47–8, 55, 67, 71–2, 108, (n. 39) 109, 112, 148–9 Trommler, Frank, 190–1 (n. 11) and validity, 47–8, 55, 67, 108, Trümmer, 98, 206 (n. 18) 112, 127 truth, 33, 65, 68–9, 76, 108, 112, 124, see also experience, temporal; 164, 170, 175–6, 199 (n. 17) future, the; past, the; present, and appearance, 33 the; relevance, contemporary; correspondence theory of, 176, remembrance; temporality; 199 (n. 17) transience as disclosure, 163–4, 165–7 Toller, Ernst, 92 and time, 47–8, 55, 67, 71–2, 108, totality, 109, 112, 148–9 of experience, 61–2, 70 verum index sui et falsi, 164 resistance to, 146, 150 will to, 38 totemism, 68, 69, 77, 173 see also religion, and truth; tradition, 70, 75, 76, 106, 121, 128–9, Wittgenstein, saying and 137–8, 144 showing traditional culture, 128–9, 139, 144 Udoff, Alan, 212 (n. 4) critique of, 128–9 Ulbricht, Justus, H., 190 (n. 5) 262 Index unconscious, see consciousness, Die staatslose Bildung eines jüdischen absence of Volkes, 78, 199 (n. 11), 202 unfreedom, see suppression (n. 54) Unger, Erich, 64–7, 71–9, 80, 81, ‘Erich Unger’s “Der Universalismus 82, 83, 84, 198–9 (n 5–6), 199 des Hebräertuns” ‘, 202 (n. 54) (n. 11), 200 (n. 27), 203 (n. 63), ‘Use and Misuse of the Unknown’, 203 (n. 65), 204 (n. 75), 205 201 (n. 39), 201 (n. 44) (n. 77) ‘Verteidigung eines Werkes gegen ‘Constitution and Spirit of the seinen Autor’, 200 (n. 27) German Universities since the Wirklichkeit, Mythos, Erkenntnis, National-Socialist Revolution’, 190–1 (n. 11), 200 (n 29–30), 202 (n. 51) 201 (n. 42), 202 (n. 48), 203 ‘Ethics, Nature and Reality’, 203 (n. 66), 205 (n. 77) (n. 66), 205 (n. 77) United States of America, 1, 210 (n.1), Gegen die Dichtung, 200 (n. 27), 200 215 (n. 32), 216–17 (n. 47) (n 28–30), 200 (n. 32), 201 Urbach, Ephraim, 211 (n. 47) (n 34–5), 201 (n. 38), 201 uselessness, 39–40 (n. 43), 202 (n. 46) utility, 39 ‘Die Gehemmten’, 204 (n. 75) utopia, 163, 180 ‘Gott, Mensch und Evolution’, hypostatisation of, 163–7, 167–8 205 (n. 77) utopian thought, 4, 40, 163 ‘The Imagination of Reason’, 200 (n. 30) validity, 47, 52–3, 55, 106, 108, 125, ‘Der Krieg’, 81, 203 (n. 63), 204 126–7 (n. 69), 204 (n. 71) generalised conceptions of, 104 Das Lebendige und das Goettliche, legal, 112, 113, 115, 116, 119 199 (n. 6), 199 (n. 11), 200 and time, 47–8, 55, 67, 108, (n. 33), 203 (n. 66), 205 (n. 80) 112, 127 ‘Modern Judaism’s Need for universal, 47, 63, 71, 178 Philosophy’, 201 (n. 40) values, 68, 79, 111, 112, 128, 201 ‘Mythos und Wirklichkeit’, 199 (n. 43) (n. 10) and life, 53 ‘Erich Unger’s “The Natural Order Vital, David, 210 (n. 24) of Miracles” ‘, 205 (n. 77), violence, 90, 91, 184–5, 187, 203 205 (n 80–1) (n. 65) Politik und Metaphysik, 64, 76, 79, democratic, 79, 80 200 (n. 33), 202 (n. 47), 202 divine, 80, 81, 126, 203 (n. 64), (n. 50), 202 (n 56–7), 202–3 203 (n. 67) (n 58–9), 203 (n 60–3), 203 legal, 80, 120–1 (n. 65), 204 (n. 76) mythical, 79, 80, 81, 94 Das Problem der mythischen Realität, and non-violent means, 80, 203 65, 198 (n. 5), 201 (n. 40), 202 (n. 64) (n. 49), 202 (n. 53) pure, 81 Das psychophysiologische Problem und religious, 79, 80 sein Arbeitsgebiet, 198 (n.1), 199 revolutionary, 80–1, 204 (n. 69) (n. 11), 201 (n. 37), 202 (n. 48), Voigts, Manfred, 198 (n. 5), 199 (n. 11) 205 (n. 81) Volk, 72, 73, 77–8, 80, 81, 82, 132, ‘A Restatement of Judaism’, 200 204 (n. 71) (n. 31) body of, 77 Index 263

Volk – continued Wertheimer, Jack, 211 (n. 65) völkisch ideology, 202 (n. 51) Westarp, Michael, 193 (n. 51) and the individual, 81, 132, 200 Wiedenhofer, Siegfried, 193 (n. 55), (n. 31) 194 (n. 57), 194 (n. 62) and ‘organism’, 72–3, 80, 81 Wiggershaus, Rolf, 1 Volksgeist, 72, 73–4, 76–7, 200 Wilhelmine Germany, 3, 4, 6, 110, (n. 31) 198 (n. 5) Volksgott, 200 (n. 31) wishful thinking, 35, 38 Voltaire, (François-Marie Arouet), Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 33 34–5, 165 saying and showing, 164, 165 work, 49–50, 104, 106, 139, 146, war, 92, 93, 81, 204 (n. 69) 183, 214 (n. 30), 215 (n. 33), cultic conceptions of, 204 (n. 71) 215–16 (n. 40) see also First World War; Second world views, 5, 9, 38 World War scientific, 38, 66 Weber, Alfred, 132–3, 210 (n. 14) writing, 95, 97–9, 176 Weber, Max, 111, 113, 120, 134, 139, Wyneken, Gustav, 75, 200 (n. 25) 182, 208 (n. 16), 215 (n. 33), 215–16 (n. 40) Xenophanes, 29, 35 Weigel, Sigrid, 207 (n. 42) Weil, Felix J., 1 Yeats, E. D., 207 (n. 42) Weil, Simone, 207 (n. 54) Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim, 212 Weimar Classicism, 52, 95 (n. 79) Weimar Republic, 3, 4, 6, 79, 110–13, Youth Culture Movement, 9, 49, 75, 217 (n. 49) 76, 196 (n. 19) Jewish ‘renaissance’, 11, 130, 131 Weissbach, Richard, 200 (n. 29) Zevi, Sabbatai, 140 Weizsäcker, Victor von, 147, 148 Zickel, Reinhold, 92 Werfel, Franz, 91–2 Ziolkowski, Theodore, 190–1 (n. 11)