Report of Committee on Part I of this Report has been submitted to letter ballot of the Technical Committee on Forest Forest and Rural Fire Protection and RuralFire Protection which consists of 28 voting members; of whom 22 voted affirmatively,.1 negatively (Mr. Freyer), and 5 ballots were not returned (Barkow, Day, Dube, Goldfeder, and Walker). R. L. Bjornsen, , Chairman FMA International, Inc.. Mr. Freyer voted negatively stating: "Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7 are not included in James T. Wooters, Vice Chairman NFPA 299. Whether they should be or not is not DeKalb County Fire Services here the question. The proposal says "the NFPA 2i4

- subject material is being incorporated as part of Mary D. Chambers, Secretary ..." not all of 224 is incorporated in 299. If all Bernalillo County Fire District tO the NFPA references in 224 are included in 299 references, mavbe this will suffice. I feel the Fred G. Allinson, Natl Volunteer Fire Council chapters are important for individual structures as Lee Barkow, USDI Bureau of Land Management homes." Lynn R. Biddison, Chemonics, Fire-Trol John E. Bunting, New Boston Fire Dept. Part II of thls Report, was prepared by the Richard J. Day, CalJfornia Dept. of Forestry &,Fire Technical Comm(ttee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection Protection and proposes for adoption a complete Dennis'Dube, Canadian Forestry S()rvice revision to NFPA 295-1985, Standard for Wildfire J. A. Foster, ISO Commercial Risl: Services Inc. Control. NFPA 295-1985 is published in Volume 6 of Donald C. Freyer, Georgia Forestry Commission the 1990 National Fire Codes and in separate William Goldfeder, Loudoun County Dept of Fire/Rescue pamphlet form. Services Rep. IAFC Part II of this Report has been submitted to Salvatore M. Grasso,- Sedgwick James of New York letter ballot of the Technical Committee on.Forest Edward T. Grohe, Western Fire Equipment Co. and Rural Fire Protection which consists of 28 • Roy G. Hatcher, Iowa Conservation Commission voting members; of whom 23 voted affirmatively, O Louis G. Jekel', Rural/Metro Corp. negatively, and 5 ballots were not returned Ralph R. Lafferty, MacMillan Bloedel Ltd (Messrs. Barkow, Day, Dube, Goldfeder, and Walker). Michael W. Lowder, Bladen County Office of Emergency Services Part III ofthis Report, was prepared by the Paul G. Mason, M&M Protection Consultants Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Richard E. Montague, Incident Management Concepts' Protection and proposes withdrawal of NFPA Frederick S. Richards, NYS Dept..of State 296-1986, Guide for Air Operations for Forest, Rep. FMANA Brush and Grass Fires. NFPA 296-1986 is published 3ames C. Sorenson, USDA Forest Service in Volume tO of the 1990 National Fire Codes and in "Robert M. Swinford. USDA Forest Service separate pamphlet form. Gary O. Tokle, California State Fire Marshal's Office Rep. FMANA "Part III of this Report has been "submitted to Howard L. Vandersall, Lawdon Fir(, Services, Inc. letter ballot of the Technical Committee on Forest John Vieweger, Ansul Fire Protect•ion and Rural Fire Protection which consists of 28 Ronald R. Walker, National Forest. Products Assoc. voting members; of whom 23 voted affirmatively, 0 Chief Louis A. Witzeman, ScottsdzL1e Fire Dept. negatively, and 5 ballots were not returned (Messrs. Barkow, Day, Dube, Goldfeder, and Walker).

Alternates Part IV of this Report, was prepared.by the' Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection and proposes withdrawal of NFPA John F. Marker, USDA Forest Service 297-1986, Guide on:Telecommunications Systems for (Alternate to R. M. Swinford) Rural and Forestry Agencies. NFPA 297-1986 is Edward F. Straw, ISO Commercial Riisk Services Inc. ~ublished in Volume tO of the 1990 National Fire (Alternate to J. A.'Foster) Codes and in-separate pamphlet form. David.D. Walizer, California State Fire Marshall Rep. FMANA Part IV of this Report has been submitted to (Alternate to G. O. Tokle) letter ballot of the Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection which consi:sts of 28 Staff Liaison: William J. Baden voting members; of whom 23 voted affirmatively, 0 negatively, and 5 ballots were not returned This list represents the membership at the time (Messrs. Barkow, Day, Dube, Goldfeder, and Walker). the Committee was balloted on the text of this edition. Since that time, changes in the Part V of this Report, was prepared by the membership may have occurred. Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection and proposes for adoption a" new document The Report of the Committee on Forest'and Rural NFPA 299, Standard for Protection of Life and Fire Protection is p~esented for adoption in 5 Property from Wildfire. parts. Part V of this Report has been submitted to Part I of this Report,was prepared by .the letter ballot of the Technical Committee on Forest Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire and Rural Fire Protection which consists of 28 Protection and proposes withdrawal of NFPA voting members; of whom 23 voted affirmatively, 0 224-1985, Standard for Homes and Camps in Forest • negatively, and 5 ballots were not returned Areas. NFPA 224-1985 is published in Volume 6 of (Messrs. Barkow, Day, Dube, Goldfeder, and Walker). the 1990 National Fire Codes and in separate pamphlet form.

699 NFPA 295

PART I PART II

224- I - (Entire Document): Accept 295- I - (Entire Document): Accept SUBMITTER: Technical Committee on Forest and Rural ~UBMITTER: Technical Committee on Forest and Rural Fire Protection Fire Protection RECOMMENDATION: Withdraw NFPA 224, "Standard for Homes RECOMMENDATION: Completelyrevise NFPA 295, "Standard and Camps in Forest Areas." for Wildfire Control." SUBSTANTIATION: The committee is incorporating the SUBSTANTIATION: The committee is revising the document material from NFPA 224 in a new document, NFPA 299, to incorporate current technology and terminology used "Standard for Protection of Life and Property from in wildfire control. It is also incorporating the Wildfire."" (See Part V of this Report). pertinent wildfire control information from NFPA 296, COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept. "Guide for Air Operations for Forest, Brush and Grass Fires" and NFPA 297, "Guide on Telecommunications Systems-Principles and Practices for Rural and Forestry Services" so all wildfire control information is in a single document. (See Part III and Part IV of this Report which recommend withdrawal of NFPA 296 and NFPA 297). COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept.

NFPA 295

Standard for Wildfire Control

1991 Edition

NOTICE: An asterisk (~) following the number or letter designating a paragraph indicates explanatory material on that paragraph in Appendix A.

Information on referenced publications can be found in 'Chapter 6 and Appendix B.

Chapter l Introduction I-I Scope. This standard presents fundamental' information to fire departments on the control of wildfire burning in natural and other vegetative fuels. This standard recognizes that protection of structures in the wildland areas may require modification of strategy and tactics to allow for protection of those structures. It includes necessary and useful information on safe procedures and practices, as well as other topics that are essential f6r the safe and successful control of wildfires.

I-2 ~ Purpose. The purpose 'of this standard is to identify organizational practices and management policies and to specify requirements on safe procedures, equipment, and apparatus to ensure the successful control of vegetation fires and exterior protection of structures and improvements. The "t . .standard does not apply to interior structural fire fighting operations.

I-3 Definitions. For the purposes of this standard the following terms have the meanings shown below:

Apparatus. Motor-driven vehicles specially designed or modified for fire fighting or other emergency service; or a collective group of such vehicles, such as pumpers or engines, tankers, ladder trucks, rescue squads, etc.

Brush. Shrubs and scrub vegetation or other growth heavier than grass, but not full tree size. Company. An organized group of fire fighters under the leadership of a company officer or other designated official. Companies are often assigned to specific apparatus or stations. Also see "Crew".

Company Officer. The officer in charge of a fire department company or station or any other position of comparable responsibility in the department.

Control. When an adequate line has been established completely around the perimeter of the fire and it no longer has a potential for additional destruction or for escaping under the existing weather conditions. The fire has reached the phase in which mop-up and patrol are the only activities required to extinguish the fire. "Control" is also used as an inclusive term for any and all actions taken to halt, confine, and totally extinguish a fire, including detection, mobilization, size-up, attack, mop-up, and patrol.

700, NFPA 295 Crew. An organized group of fire fighters under the 2-2.2.1. When the department responds to a fire or leadership .of a crew leader or other designated other emergency' the first officer to arrive shall official. Also see "Company", assume command of the incident until specifically relieved bysomeone with higher authority. Crew Leader. A supervlsory'person' in charge of a group of fire fighters and responsible for their 2-2.3 Succession. A formal chain of command or leadership, performance, safety, and welfare for the succession shall be followed as described in NFPA 1561, duration of their assignment; sometimes called a crew Standard for Fire Department Incident Management System. foreman, crew boss, or crew supervisor. 2-2.4 Company Officer's. Each fire company or crew Incident Commander. The person responsible for all shall operate under the command of a designated supp/ession and service activities on a wildfire. officer, Crew leader, incident commander. Each company Primary responsibilities are to develop control plans shall have enough officers to provide a leader to and organize and direct the fire suppression command the company atthe time of any response. organization in such manner that the fire is "completely and efficiently controlled. The incident commander may '2-3 Responslbillties. carry out all responsibilities alone or assign prescribed line and staff, duties to subordinates. 2-3.1 Fire Chief. The fire chief shall be responsible for the administration, management, and operation of Incident Management System. A system that provides the fire department. Duties specifically include: structure and coordination to the management of emergency i-ncident operation in order to provide for (a) Be the principal spokesperson for and represent the safety and health of fire department members and the fire department before the public and the governing other persons involved in those activities. (See NFPA legal, author.ity. \ 1561, Standard on Fire Department [ncident Management System). (b) Establish the operational procedures of the department, through the issuance of regulations and Forest Fire. Any uncontrolled, unwanted fire in a orders. forested area. (c) Direct operations at a fire or emergency Grass Fire. Any uncontrolled, unwanted fire involving incident. dried grass. (d) Ensure that the department is adequately trained Prevention.' That part of-fire protection activities and staffed. designed to prevent ignition of unwanted fires and to minimize loss if fire does occur. Such activities, (e) Ensure that a trainingplan is developed and including public education, personal contact, law implemented and that all members are knowledgeable in enforcement, engineering, and reduction of fuel the basic measures for attaining fast, safe, and hazards, are directed at reducing !)r eliminating the effective fire suppression./ number of fires that start. if) Prepare a departmental budget. Rural. Any area wherein residences and other developments are scattered and intermingled with (g) Be familiar with all laws and ordinances that forest, range, or farmland and native vegetation or apply to the operation of the fire department. cultivated crops. (h) Investigate all fires for cause, origin, and Wildland/Urban' Interface. Where urban developmentand circumstances. wildland fuels meet at a well defined boundary or interface with both the urban development and the (iS Ensure~ompllance by the department with all wildland fuels being clearly separated. sections of this standard and all applicable local laws and ordinances. Wildfire. An unplanned and unwanted fire requiring suppression action; an uncontrolled fire, usually (j) Developmentand implementation of a fire spreading through vegetative fuels and often prevention program for the entire year. threatening structures. (kS Responsibile for department equipment and the safety and welfare of all fire department members Chapter 2 Organization and Management engaged in departmental operations. 2-I * Organization. ' 2-3.2 Officers.- Company officers or supervisors shall I have the following duties and responsibilities: 2-1~l ~ Purpose. The fire department shall be organized to perform fire prevention and control in (aS To ensure the safety and welfare of their order to protect life and property from fire. Other company or crew members. services demanded of the fire department, because the fire department force is available and has specialized (b) To act as leader of a crew of individuals. training, shall be:undertaken only to the extent that they do not interfere with the department's basic (c) To respond to alarms to which the unit is purpose and that they are activities justifiably assigned and to direct operations Of the units. related to it. (d) To have sufficient knowledge of fire strategy to 2-I.2 Goal. The fire department's goals shall be to be able, in the absence of a chief officer, to make a protect life and property; to minimize fire losses proper size-up or appraisal of the emergency and assume through fire prevention; to take quick, aggressive initial command until formally relieved. initial action to prevent the small fire from becoming large; and to control the large fire as soon as (e) To be familiar with the area protected by the possible with the minimum cost. department.

2-2* Command. if) To ensure the care, maintenance, and fire readiness of assigned apparatus and equipment. 2-2.1 Fire Chief. The fire department shall have a fire chief who shall be in overall command of the 2-3.3 Members.- All fice department members shall be department at all times. responsible for the following:

2-2t2 Incident Commander. On .every fire or emergency (aS ~e familiar with the r~les and regulations incident, one individual or individuals (in a unified governing the operation of the fire department. command structure) must be recognized as incident commander.

7ol. NFPA 295 (b) To keep themselves in good physical condition in Chapter 3 Safety and Training accordance with the fire department's established fitness standards. 3-1 Safety. (c) Be familiar with and knowledgeable of the entire 3-1.1 * Personnel. The safety and welfare of personnel area protected by the department. shall be the first and foremost consideration in all incident operations and decisions. (d) Be knowledgeable in the methods of fire .suppression, the safe use of tools and fire fighting 3-1.2 * Protective Clothing and Equipment. The officer equipment, and in the procedures for safe and effective in charge shall require that appropriate personal response to incidents. protective clothing and equipment be worn by all fire department personnel while engaged in any incident. (e) Be familiar with the fire laws and regulations of the local jurisdiction and state or province. 3-1.2.1 As a minimum, fire fighters engaged in wildfire suppresslon shall have and use a safety hard (f) To operate through established lines of hat or fire helmet equipped with chin strap, leather responsibility and authority. boots at least 6 in. (15.24 cm) high, goggles, and glov@s. Synthetic polyester clothing, tennis shoes, (g) To respond to incidents when notified. sneakers, or low-quarter shoes shall not be worn on the fire line. Fire department members shall wear cotton (h) To protect themselves and others in the . or wool clothing with cuffless trousers and hazardous task of fire fighting through compliance with long-sleeved shirts or lightweight flame resistant all safety standards, regulations, and procedures. clothing, specially designed for wildfire fire fighting: Individual states or provinces may have more 2-4 Emergency Response and Notification. Members restrictive personnel protective clothing shall be trained to achieve safe and effective response requirements. To ensure compliance with such to incidents. regulations, the fire department shall check with its state or provincial occupational safety and health 2-4.1 When a incident occurs, members of the fire agency. department shall be immediately notified so they can respond with apparatus and equipment. Structural fire fighting personal protection clothing and equipment (turnouts and rubber boots) are not 2-4.2 Provisions shall be made for immediate appropriate for wildland fire suppression activities, notification of fire department members. This may be and wildland fire suppression personal protective accomplished through activation of a siren, use of equipment shall not be utilized for interior attack on radio pagers or alert monitors, • or a telephone chain. structures.

2-5 ~ Pre-Incident Planning. 3-1.3" Physical Examination. Propective members of the fire department shall undergo and pass a physical 2-5.1 Plan Required. A written plan shall be examination before admission to the department as an prepared. A plan in outline form is acceptable. The active member. The medical examiner shall certify the plan shall be revised and updated annually or sooner if applicant's physical ability to perform fire fighting required by changing conditions. "duties.

2-5.2 Elements. The plan shall contain the following 3-1.4 ~ First Aid. Fire department members shall be information as a minimum: trained and certlfied in first aid and cardlopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). (a) Fire department organization and personnel roster with contact information. 3-I.4.1 First Aid Kits. First aid kits for fireline use shall be readily available on all emergency (b) A listing of cooperating agencies and contacting responses. procedures. 3-I.5 Fire Apparatus. (c) Additional available resources of personnel, • equipment, supplies, and facilities and contracting or 3-1.5.1 All apparatus shall be equipped and operated ordering procedures. as described in NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program and NFPA 1901, (d) Up-to-date map of protection area, including: Standard on Automative Fire Apparatus. boundaries, roads and other means of access; heliports, airports, aviation hazards, water sources, special 3-I.5.2 Vehicles on the flreline shall be parked so hazards; and dangerous fire risks. they face in the direction of the escape route.

(e) Mutual aid agreements, automatic response 3-I.5.3 Fire apparatus shall be driven and operated agreements, and other protection agreements. only by trained and qualified personnel. Apparatus shall be driven in a sa~e and sane manner. At1 "2-6 Mutual Aid. Whenever possible, mutual aid, applicable laws and departmental regulations regarding automatic response, and/or cooperative agreements for the response of emergency vehicles shall be obeyed. mutual assistance with adjacent fire departments of other agencies shall be negotiated and implemented. 3-1.6 Tractors, Bulldozers, and Fire Plows. Such agreements shall include provisions to ensure clearly established command authorities and 3-1.6.1 Fire fighters shall not work directly above or responsi bi I i tl es. below tractors, bulldozers, or fire plow where they may slide beneath the machine or be struck by rolling 2-7* Fire Prevention Program. material.

2-7.1 ~ Plan Required. A fire prevention plan shall be 3-I.6.2 Fire fighters shall not approach a tractor, developed and implemented each year. bulldozer, or fire plow until it has stopped and the operator has signaled it is safe to approach. 2-7.2 Elements. The fire prevention plan shall contain an analysis of fire causes, special fire 3-I.6.3 Fire fighters shall avoid being immediately in hazards and risks, an assessment of interface fire front of or in back of a tractor, bulldozer, or fire protection problems and proposed measures to' reduce plow in operation. fire occurrence and decrease fire damage. It shall also include provisions for cooperative efforts with 3-1.6.4 Fire fighters shall not get on or off moving all other neighboring fire protection agencies~ equipment.

702 - NFPA 295 3-1:6.5 Fire fighters shall not sit or bed down near a 4-1.2.2 Power saws shall be equipped with approved tractor, bulldozer, or fire plow. o spark arrestors. 3-1.6.6 Tractors, bulldozers, and fire plows shall be ~-I.3 Fire Hose. Fire hose shall be maintained in operated only by trained, experienced operators. good condition and cared for properly. It shall not be, used for other than fire fighting unless such use is 3-I.6.7 Fire fighters shall not ride on tractors, approved by the fire chief. (SeeNFPA 1962 Standard bulldozers, or fire plows. for the Care, Use, and Maintenance of Fire Hose Including Couplings andNozzles). 3-1.7 Power Saws.' 4-2.1 Tractors, Bulldozers, and Fire Plows. All 3-1.7.1 Powersaws.shall be operated only by trained, tractors or bulldozers shall have protective canopies, experienced personne!. winches, and adequate lights for night operations, and if not turbocharged, shall be equipped with approved 3-1.7.2 Power saw operators shallwear safety hard spark ~rrestors. hats, protective chaps, ear and eye protection, and gloves. Chapter 5 General 3-1.7.3 The motor shall ,be stopped whenever a power 5-I* Retardants and Suppressants. These items shall saw is to be carried more than I0 ft (3.0 m). not be used without a thorough knowledge of the particular precautions to be followed and the hazards 3-1.7.4 The motor shall be stopped for all cleaning, associated with their use. Wildland fire foams shall adjustments, and repairs. meet NFPA 298 requirements. Wetting agents shall meet NFPA 18 requirements. 3-1.7.5 The motor shall be stopped and the exhaust allowed to cool prior to refueling. Refueling shall be 5-2 Communications. done on bare ground and spilled fuel wiped off the motor. The saw shall not be started within 10 ft 5-2.1" CommunicationsSystem. A wildland fire : (3.0 m) of the refueling area. communication system plan shall be established by all fire deRartments and be incorporated into the fire 3-1.7.6 Wheneverusing a power saw, there shall be department's/agency every day operational procedures. nearby either a portable fire extinguisher, or a backpack pump filled with water, or a shovel for As a minimum, a wildland fire communicatio~syste m extinguishing fires that may be started by the power plan shall address the following: saw. (a) Communicationbetween the public and the fire 3-1.8 Hand Tools. department/agency (b) .Communication procedures within the fire 3-1.8.1 All hand tools shall be maintained in good department/agency conditiQn, with tight handles, properly sharpened, and (c) Communicationsprocedures within the fire" all-sharp edges guarded When not in use. departments/agencies (d) Communicationsbetween the fire 3-1.8.2 Hand tools shall not be carried on the department/agency and other public safety related shoulder. Hand tools shall be carried by the balance agencies "" point on the downhill side with the cutting edge away. from the body. A distance of at least 6 ft (2.0 m) 5-2.2 Emergency Telephone. "An emergency telephone shall be maintained between individuals when carrying number shall be established'for receiving reports of hand tools. When using tools, a distance of at least fires or other emergencies. This emergency telephone 10 ft (3.0 m) shall be maintained between individuals. number shall be widely publicized in the response area Except in an emergency, fire fighters shall not run and published inthe local telephone di.rectory. while carrying hand tools. 5-2.3 Alerting Systems. The fire department shall 3-1.9" Aircraft. If the department has occasion to have an alerting system by which it can summon work with fire fighting aircra.ft, members shall be personnel at any time of' the day or night. trained in safety procedures regarding fixed wing and rotary wing aircraft. A air operations safety briefing 5-2.4 ~ Incident Radio Communications Plan. The fire shall be conducted. department/agency shall have established procedures .for determining incident radio system needs; methods for 3-2* Training. To ensure safety and effectiveness, allocation frequencies and priorities; and support every fire department member shall receive basic equipment assignment and accountability. wildland fire training prior to responding to a wildland fire. 5-3 Fire Reporting and Investigation. 3-2.1 The content and length of the training program" 5-3.1 ". Fire Reporting. A fire report shall be shall be determined by the fire chief. As a minimum, completed and filed with the appropriate state or the content shall include, courses in fireline safety,, federal agency for every incident that the fire fire behavior, suppression methods, the 10 standard department responds to. fire fighting orders, and the 18 situations that shout "WATCHOUT". 5-3.2* Fire Investigation. Every fire responded to by the fire department shall be investigated for fire Chapter 4 Equipment aniJ Apparatus Cause, and an investigation report shall be completed. Significant wildland fires may require investigation by 4~I Equipment. a specially trained wildland fire investigator. 4-1.1" Hand Tools. The fire department shall contact its state forester, state fire marshal, or'other equivalent officer to 4-I.I.I The organization shall have sufficient hand request assistance an(] determine required fire. tools for wildland fire suppresslon. reporting and investigation procedures and'report contents. 4-I.I.2 All hand tools shall be for use in emergencies only andshall be distinctly labeled for emergency use. 5-4 Air Operations. 4-I.2" Power Saws. 5-4.1 Air Operations Plan. All tactical air operations in support of wildland fire shall be 4-1.2.1 Power saws shall~be carefully maintained and conducted in accordance with an appropriate air serviced in accordance with manufacturer's operation plan and managed by a qualified air operation recommendations. Manufacturer's eperating and safety officer. instructions shall be followed.

703 NF.PA 295 5-5 Wildland/Urban Interface Operations. A well organized, equipped, and trained fire company or crew~who will operate under the authority of the 5-5.l When jurisdiction dr mutual aid and assistance chief, fire warden, or subordinate officer. agreements include wildland/urban interface areas, training shall be provided in basic wildland and Host smalt wildfires can be handled by a well-trained structural fire, safety, and exposure protection. squad or company of two to five fighters if attached' quickly. Large or rapidly spreading fires require more Chapter 6 Referenced Publications. fire fighters, more equipment, expert supervision, and extensive radio and telephone, communications. 6-I The following documents or portions thereof are referenced within this standard and shall be considered Three or four small companies or squads of five or part of the requirements of this document. The edition six fire fighters, with leaders,may be grouped indicated for each reference ~s the current edition as together under the command of a crew leader or company of the date of the NFPA issuance of this document. officer. This leader may be one of several crew leaders commanding similar groups, and all personnel 6-1.1 NFPA Publications. National Fire Protection unde~ his command, and others concerned, should know .Association. I Batterymarch Park, P.O. Box 910l, who the crew leader is and the scope of the leader's Quincy, MA OZZ69-glOl. authority. The crews or companies may be assigned to action on only a designated portion of the main fire. NFPA i8-1990, Standard on Wetting Agents This designated portion of the fire is commonlycalled NFPA 298-1989, Foam Chemicals for Wildland Fire a sector or'division. Control NFPA 1500-1987, Standard on Fire Department A-2-1.] For more information see NFPA 1201, Occupational Safety and Health Program Recormendations'for Developing Fire Protection Services NFPA 1561-19g0, Standard oh Fire Department Incident for the Public. Management System NEPA IgOl-lg85, Standard on Automotive Fire Apparatus A-2-2 Command. The first responsible authority NFPA 1962-1988, Standard for the Care, Use, and ranger, warden, company officer or crew leader, or Maintenance of Fire Hose Including Couplings and Nozzles other officer who arrives at the emergency, is the incident commander until someone with higher authority speciflcally assumes command. Whenever a new incident Appendix A commander assumes command, all officers, crew leaders, and others on the incident should be notified This Appendix is not a part of the requirements of immediately; The incident commander is responsible for this NFPA document, but is included for information planning and directing the fire control efforts; purposes only. assembling crews of fire companies and telling them where and how to work; maklng the best use of A-I~2 The current text is designed to help the personnel; arranging for communications, rest periods, thousands of small community organizations existing in and relief crews; making the best use of equipment and the rural and forested areas of North America. Manyof tools obtaining supplies; and ensuring that the fire is these communities are exposed to the dangers of a large completely extinguished before the last Crews are fire involving many acres of natural fuels, such as released from the scene. In other words, the incident forest, grass, or brush. To effectively prepare for commander is responslble for all activities and such emergencies, the responsive fire protection operations at an emergency incident the incident organizations and individuals must be informed of the commander delegates more and more responsibility to most recent and useful wil~land fire control assistants as the organization needed grows, but he is techniques, equipment, training', and operations. always the final authority and bears total responsibility. Additional information on large equipment, heavy power tools, specialized wildfire fire fighting A-2-5 Pre-lncident Planning. Written fire suppression equipment, and techniques is available in other mobilization plans are important even if prepared only publications. The standard includes a list of in outline form. They should list all preplanned mandatory requirements that must be met if fire decisions and attack plans and outline other fighters are to be safe and effective in the prevention information needed for.planned action. Such fire and suppression of wildfires. control plans allow a subordinate to take emergency action in the absence of the fire chief or other key I~ is suggested that fire organizations consider the individuals. Copies of tile plans with necessary maps adoption of this standard through a vote by the fire should be distributed to key fire officers. Plans must department members or by citizens of the protected be updated at leasy annually and any other time when area. Legal counsel should he consulted to explain how required by changing conditions. the adoption of this standard affects the department and its members. .A. Fire Department Organizational Chart

In many rural and wildland areas, forest, grass, I. Line of Succession Names - how to contact crop, and brush fires are a dontinual problem.' These 2. Personnel Roster Names - how to contact fires, if not controlled, can endanger human life and cause serious damage to property, natural resources, B. CooperatingAgencies Names - how to contact and the environment. Careful evaluation of w~Idfires in the United States and Canada for many years has C. Resources shown that fire damage can be prevented or minimized if such fires are aggressively attacked by trained fire I. Reserve personnel - how to contact. fighters in the early stages of fire development. 2. List of available equipment - type, locations, how to contact and procure. A-2-I Organization and Management. In order to 3. List of available supplies and suppliers - types, provide fire prevention and control and to protect life locations, how to contact'and procure. and property from wildfire, a community should 4. List of other available facilities - types, establish the following: locations, who to contact.

(a) An officially designated formal organization D. Map of Protected Area. Include such items as: headed by a fire chief or fire warden charged with the responsiblity of preventing and suppression of wildland I. Boundary of protected.area and adjacent fires. The chief js in charge of the entire jurisdictions. departmental operation. The chief should be appointed 2. Roads and other means of access: heliports and by,the governing body, if one exists, or elected by the airports. membership on the basis of merit and ability. The 3. Locations of manpower, equipment, and facilities chief may be a paid professional, part-time paid, or resources. volunteer. 4. Water sources. 5. Areas of concern.

704 NFPA 295

(a) Hazards - mapped areas of hazardous fuels. effective fire prevention plan can be written. This (b) High risk ignition sources: dumps, sawmills, • plan can focus on the highest priority wildfire logging operations, recreation areas, etc. prevention problems within an administrative unit. It may not be necessary to have an extensive fire E. Fire Weather Information prevention effort in an area with a number of risks where the hazard is minimal and there are no real I. Source of information. values at risk. In contrast it will be important to 2. Methods of notifying the publi,c. have a comprehensive effort in an area where there are substantial risks, a high hazard, and high values F. Pre-Attack Plans threatened.

A-2-7 Fire Prevention. A major responsibility of. The wildfire prevention plan should address what every fire protection organizatloo~ is to keep the . needs to be done in each area based upon the type of community informed of the methods and need for sound activities and uses. It should clearly define what fire prevention. Prevention ofwildfire is a continual actions will take place, when, and who is responsible. job. Fire is an eVer-present dan!]er, and, to be Wildfire prevention activities generally fall within effective, fire prevention must be constantly one of 3 broad categories. These categories include:, practiced. Fire prevention is often said to be the most important function of a fire protection I. Education. Education is aimed at changing organization, A fire prevention program must include 'people's behavior by informing them. Informing people plans for the entire year. The program should analyze can be done through printed materials, mass media the common causes of fire, identi~y significant fire (radlo, televislon etc.), one-on-one contacts or group hazards and risks existing in the protection area, and presentations. ~nformation can also be delivered propose measures to reduce the occurrence of fire and through signs, displays, fairs, parades, etc. fire damages, The following is an example of a systematic wildland fire preventi(}n planning process. 2. Engineering. Engineeringis an activity designed to shield an ignition source (e.g. spark arrester) or A-2-7.1 Wildfire Prevention Planning remove the fuel that would ignite from a spark (clearance around a home). In order to implement a wildfire prevention program as an integrated element of the f~re management 3. Enforcement. Enforcement is used to gain program, wildfire prevention must be focused. Wildfire compliance with fire codes and ordinances. prevention efforts must focus upon ignitions that pose the greatest threat to cause unac(:eptable damage or The wildfire prevention plan should select the most losses. Utilizing wildfire prevention as a selected cost effective mix of activities to mitigate potential strategy based on the threat of ti~e ignition integrates fire problems within each priority area. Annually the it into the fire management progr~; Other strategies wildflre prevention plan should be evaluated. If within the fire management program that may be employed ignitions are occurring in an area where an active fire include suppression, fuels management, prescribed fire, prevention program is implemented; perhaps the fire etc. prevention activities should be reviewed. Thls review may result in a change of activities within the area. To focus wildfire prevention' programs it is important If the plan is working, there will be no need to make to accurately identify problems or potential problems. any changes. Any wildfire prevention planning process that does not accurately assess or identify wildfire prevention A-3-].I Personnel. Fire fighting requires fast problems is doomed to fail. Ideni:ification of. priority action, sustained effort, and greater energey than most wildfireprevention programs must look at a number of other work. Fire fighting is always hazardous and variables. These variables include: potentially dangerous. In the United States, fire fighting has one of the highest accident rates of any I. Risks. Risks are defined as those uses or human occupation. Wildfire control can be particularly activities that have the potential to resultin hazardous unless the necessary safety procedures and wildfire ignition. When @ssessincl the risk of a given principles are constantly practiced and obeyed. Most area, only the RISK should be examined. The potential accidents can be prewznted by careful procedures and for a fire to spread or burn will be looked at training before emergencies. The safety and welfare of separately; these 2 items should ~ot be confused., the entire fire fighting organization are the Wherever there are concentrations of people or activity responsibility of the incident commander. Each person the potential for a human-caused ignition exists. in authority is likewise responsible for the safety_of 'After assessing the risks within Bn a~ea it may be the personnel under his direction. helpful to look at historical.fires "to validatethe risk assessment. Historical fires alone, however, are A-3-I.2 Protectlve Clothing. A safety hard hat with not an accurate reflection of the risks within a given chin strap must be worn on the fireline. A standard area. The objective of.this effort is to determine the fire fighter's helmet may be worn as an alternative. degree of risk within given areas of an administrative Hard hats greatly reduce the number of serious. unit. injuries. Lightweight "bump" hats are unacceptable as they do not provide adequate protection in wildfiTe 2. Hazards. Hazards are defined as the fuels and control. topography of an area. Given normal or average fire weather conditions, fire intensity is largely a product Footwear should be leathe'r lace-up boots.' It is of fuels and topography. The objective in examining recommended-that boots be without steel toes except for risks is todetermine the potential for a large fire to those used by chain s~ operators. The boots should result from a human-caused ignition. This could be have slip-resistant soles, such as a hard rubber more simply put as determining the degree of difficulty lug-type or tractor tread. This allows for maximum in suppressing a fire once it is ignited..Again, it is traction and prevents melting when exposed to normal important to examine hazards without regard for fireline conditions. Soles should not be made of 'anything else. composition rubber or plastic, which have low melting points. This does not: preclude the use of boots with 3. Values. Values are defined as natural or smooth, hard rubber soles or those with a well-defined developed areas that would be unacceptable if' lost or tread. However, the disadvantage of these soles is destroyed by wildfire. The objective of this process their tendency to slip on smooth rock, logs, dry grass, is to rate values based upon the need to protect them and pine needle surfaces that are often encountered on from wildfire. 'wildfires. The height, of boot tops should be a minimum of 6 in. (15.2 cm), with at least 8 in. (20.3 cm) or Once risks, hazards, and values have been evaluated greater preferred. Low-quarterboots or shoes should it will be possible to determine when, where, and how not be worn as they do not provide ankle support or to implement effective fire prevention programs. ,By, keep out sparks and dirt.' Pull-on type boots~ such as comparing an area's potential to have an ignition structural fire fighting rubber boots, cowboy boots, or (risks) with its'potentlal to burn after ignited (hazards), and the values threatened by a wildfire, an

705 NFPA 295 engineering boots are not recommended because they do 'fire where He plans to drop. This usually indicates not provide adequate ankle support, do not keep out the drop will be made within l.to 3 minutes. If drops sparks and dirt, and are loose-fitting and may cause have already been made in the area, there usually will blisters. be no dry runs.

If available, flame resistant clothing specially If unable to retreat to a safe place when an airdrop designed for wildfire fighting should be worn. If is imminent, follow these safety procedures: flame-resistant clothing is not available, fire fighters should wear loose, cuffless trousers and (a) Lie face down with head toward, oncoming aircraft shlrts'made of cotton or wool. Loose-fitting clothing and hard hat in place. If possible, grab something reduces chafing and affords more protection. solid and get behind it to prevent belngcarried or Neck-buttoning collars should be worn to protect the rolled about by the drop. Spread feet apart for better ams and neck from heat, burns, scratches, and insects. bod~ stability and to assist digging in.

Fire shelters should be wo6n by all fire fighters (b) Hold tools firmly out to the side and away from engaged in supp'~esslon activities if available. the body. Flying tools or equipment can cause injury. Gloves should be worn to protect hands and make hand (c) Do not run unless escape is assured. Never work easier. Fire fighters should have goggles for eye stand up in the path of an air drop. protection when encountering excessively smoky or dusty environments. (d) Stay away from large old trees and snags. Tops, limbs, or entlre trees may break and fall, causing An NFPA standard on personal" protective clothing and injury. equipment for wildland fire fighters is currently being developed. After the retardant drop has been made, there is a follow-up advantage on the fire. However, these A-3-I.3 Physical Examination. Members of the fire factors must be considered after the drop: department must be in good physical condition. Suppression operations often demand long hours of (a) Most retardants are slippery; therefore, be vigorous activity. Wildfires in particular require careful of footing and wipe off all hand tools, much climbing, carrying, and use of tools and equipment especially the handles. in uneven terrain, often for several days and nights. Persons unable to pass rigid physical examination may (b) Heavy application of retardant on surfaced roads be used within their abilities in nonflreline can be hazardous and should be washed down as soon as activities, such as dispatching, or other capacities. possible.

Anyone selected as an active member of the fire (c) Retardant should be washed from equipment and department should und.ergo a physical examination by a structures as soon as possible to prevent damage to physician. The fire department may establish standards finishes. for physical examinations and for physical fitness. These standards may be used for e,valuation through (d) Retardantmay also damage agricultural or testing procedures as well as guidance for physicians ornamental vegetation, and actions should be taken to evaluating members. The US federal wildfire control minimize such damage. agencies and a number of states use a "step test" for evaluating the physical condition of new and Rotary Wing Aircraft (Helicopters). The use of experienced personnel. Information on the step test helicopters has become a key part of wildfire may be obtained from respective state foresters' protection; however, as with any other piece of fire offices or the US Forest Service. fighting equipment, there are definite rules for safety when using or operating around a helicopter. The Medical files should be established to maintain a following safety procedures apply to helicopter history of acc.idents or disabilities that the fire operations: fighter receives in service. One of the first acts in the newly formed fire control organization should be to Approach and Departure. establish its membership requirements in accordance with the applicable provisions of state or provincial (a) Get the pilot's attention and permission before legislation. This would include provisions for approaching the helicopter. workmens compensation or other insurance for fire fighters. Requirements for professional fire fighters (b) Always approach in full view of the pilot. are included in NFPA I001, Fire Fighter Professional Never approach from the rear of the helicopter. Qualificiatlons. (c) Always approach or depart in a crouched A~3-I.4 First Aid. All fire department members must position. Gusts of wind can cause the rotor blades to be trained and certified in first aid and drop dangerously low to the ground. cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). As a minimum, the training should consist of the American Red Cross's (d) Safety helmets must be held securely to prevent First Responder standard first aid course and the their being blown away or blown up into the rotors by American Heart Association's First Responder the rotor blast. cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) course, or equivalent medically certified courses. It is highly (e) Never approach or depart a helicopter from recommended that fire department members be trained and ground that is upslope from the main rotor. Rotors are . certified beyong these courses to the more advanced almost invisible when turning at high speed or under First Responder First Aid training or Emergency Medical poor lighting conditions. Technician (EMT) level. (f) Keep-clear of the main and tail rotors at all A-3-1.9 Aircraft Safety.- Fixed Wing Aircraft. The tim~s. Do not walk to the rear of the helicopter when use of fire retardants dropped from aircraft is a entering or exiting. modern, sophisticated attack tool in wildfire control. It is likely that members of fire departments may (g) Carry all long-handled tools in such a manner become involved in the use of air tankers; therefore, that the handles will not be inadvertently raised into they must be cognizant of the safety rules regarding the rotor path. air tanker operations. Working Around Heliports. Ground forces should be warned when drops will be made in their area. Often the air tanker pilot will (a) Stay at least 100 ft (30'm) away from make a dry run or high pass over the portion of the helicopters at all times unless you have a specffic job that requires otherwise. Your presence can cause confusion and disrupt the pilot's concentration.

706 NFPA 295 (b) Do not face a landing helicopter unless wearing 8. Establish lookouts in potentially hazardous goggles. situations. • (c) Do not,remain in an area that is consistently 9. Retain control at ill times. under the flight path of any helicopter. 10. Stay alert, keep calm, think clearly, act (d) Do not smoke within 50 ft (15 m) of any de'cisively. helicopter or fueling area. - 18 Situations That Shout Watchout In,flight Safety. I. The fire is not scouted and size~ up. (a) Do not smoke in the helicopter. 2. You're in country not seen in daylight. (b) Use the seatbelt and keep it secured until the , pilot instructs yoG to leave the helicopter. 3. Your safety zones and escape routes aren't J identified. : (c) Ensure that all loose gear'and helmets, maps, papers, etc., are securely held to prevent their being 4. You're unfamiliar with weather and local factors blown about the helicopter or out the windows. influencing fire behavior.

(d) Do not let any gear get in the way "of the pilot 5. You're uninformed on strategy, tactics, and or his controls. hazards.

(e) Never throw anything out of a helicopter. 6. Instructions and assignments are not clear.

(f) Do not talk to the pilot unless necessary, 7. You have no coimunication llnk with crew members particularly during takeoff'and landing. and supervisors.

(g). Be alert for hazards such as Other aircraft and 8. You're constructing a line without a safe anchor especially telephone and power lines. point.

(h) Never slam the doors of a helicopter. The doors 9. You're building a flreline downhill with fire do not have spring-loaded locks, so the handles must be below. physically turned to secure the door. lO. You're attempting a frontal assault on the fire. A-3-2 Training. At1 personnel should receive frequent -training in first aid, fireline safety, fire behavior, 11. T~ere is unburned fuel between you and the fire. and techniques and methods of wildfire suppression. This should include periodic hands-on training with 12. You cannot see the main fire, and you're not in hand tools and equipment, as well as crew and fireline contact with anyone who can. organization. Crew leaders and company officers need specialized training in fire control tactics to assure 13. You're on a hillside where rolling material can their competence when directing fire suppresslon ignite fuel below. operations• It is recommended that cooperative • training with other wildfire control organizations be 14. The weather is getting hotter and drier. conducted'. Federal, state, and provincial forest fire officers have technlcal training materials and are 15. Wind increases and/or changes direction. usually available to assist. 16. You're getting frequent spot fires across the Many s'tates and provinces have established programs fire line. through which,fire fighters can receive training in structural fire fighting. Special training in wildfire 17. Terrain and'fuels make escape to safety zones tactics and techniques can be obtained from state, difficult. provincial, or federal wildfire protection agencies, which frequently, conduct special fire schools, 18. You feel like taking a nap near the fireline. seminars, and other forms of instruction. A number of publications dealing with wildfire control are A-4-1.1 Hand Tools. Tools needed will vary by available from state forester's offices or the National sections of the country due to differences in fuels, Wildfire Coordinating Group's Publication Management soil, and topography. All equipment selected • for fire System (See Appendix B.) control work should be dependable, properly maintained, and used for the type of work for which it was The 10 Standard Fire Fighting Orders and 18 designed. Many national standards and specifications Situations that Shout Watchout are used as the basic are available to help fire department organizations' safety instructions for wildland fire suppression purchase the proper equipment. Assistance~n selecting activities and should be included in all wildland fire appropriate tools can be obtained from federal, state, suppression training. or provinc!al wildfire fighting agencies.

Ten Standard Fire Fiahtino Orders A-4-1.2 Power Saws. It is,not necessary that fire suppression organizations own power saws; •they are I. Fight fire aggressively but. provide for safety frequently available from woods operators, the same first. operators that communities may often rely on for additional fire fighting manpower. 2. Initiate all actions based on the current and expected fire behavior. Information on power saws can be secured from the manufacturers as well as from operators who have used 3. Recognize current weather conditions and obtain the various makes and types. Because fire suppression forecasts. may require carrying saws long distances over rough terrain, an important consideration is weight. 4. Ensure instructions are given and understood. Saws must be equipped with adequate spark arrestors 5. 'Obtain current information on •fire status. to minimize, the possibility of igniting nearby fuels by hot exhaust particles: References for information on 6. Remain in communication with crew members, your approved spark arresters for power saws are found i~ supervisor, and adjoining forces. Appendix B.

7. Determine safety zones and escape routes.

707" NFPA 295

A-4-2.1 Tractors and Bulldozers. Tractors and - Foam is an aerated solution of water and foam bulldozers are costly compared to hand tools or the concentrate.

majority of power tools used in line constructlon and - Very small amounts of wildland fire foam mop-up work. Most fire departments will not find it concentrate is needed, usually .20 percent to ..7 economical to own tractors or bulldozers but should percent by volume of water. make a careful evaluation to determine use - Wet sloppy foams are most effective for wildland possibilities under existing conditions of terrain, fire suppression and mop-up.. fuels, and rates of fire spread. Heavytractor - - Thicker, richer foams are most effective for equipment is frequently available from construction and short term protection of improvements and forest logging operators, whose names and telephone numbers fuels to be protected. should be included in the fire plan. Any tractors or - The consistency of the foam (thin-thick) can be bulldozers used for wildfire suppression should be controlled by the application equipment used ~or equipped with protective canopies, winches, and application on the ground and by drop speed and adequate lights for operating at night. Unless height from aircraft. The more air entrained, turbo-charged, bulldozers or tractors should also be the thicker the foam.

equipped with approved and effective spark arrestors. - Aspirating nozzles with water/alr expansion References for information on approved spark arresters rates of + lO to ± lO0 are available.

for tractors and bulldozers are found in Appendix B. - For mop-up, regular fire hose nozzles and aspirating nozzles with low water/air expansion A-5-I Retardants and Suppressant Applications. rates are the most effective. - The thickest, driest foams are made by using In wildland fire suppression and fire management compressed air foam systems (CAFS).

including prescribed burning, these items fall into two - Wildland fire foams are chemically derived categories: wetting agent foams, As such, they have the ability to form an insulating blanket on the - Long Term Retardant. (Depends upon chemicals surface of fuels, as well as increasing the that alter the combustion process - effective efficiency of water by increased penetration for long period of time.) into fuels and reducing the amount of water that runs off onto the ground. - Suppressants. (Depends upon ability to retain moisture - usually effective from just a few References for information on wildland fire foams and minutes to up to one hour or so under optimum reEardants are found in Appendix B. condltlons.) A-5-2.1 Communication Systems. A communication system Lona Term Retardants by which fires and emergencies may be reported to the fire organization is essential. Theremust be I. Long term retardants contain true fire retarding telephone communications to some-central location that salts, ammonimum sulfate, ammonium phosphate or a serves as a dispatch center. An emergency telephone combination of each that alter the combustion number, widely publicized in the response area and process. published in the local telephone directory, must be established. It is essential that all persons in the 2. Used for: community and surrounding area be notified of how and where to report a fire or other emergency. It is also Pre-treating a planned fire control line. essential that the fire department have an alerting Applying a short distance ahead of the fire - system by which its personnel can be summoned at any direct attack. time of the day or night. Therearea a number of ways May or may not be used in conjunctionwith to do this, including radio-activated pagers and ground crews. monitors, sirens, and telephone chain systems.

3. Methods of application: Communications between officers, apparatus, and the dispatch center are also important. This is usually

- Fixed wing airtankers. accomplished through the use of 2-way radios'and/or - Helicopters with buckets or fixed tanks. cellular telephones.

- Fire engine. Additional detailed information on fire department Suppressants communications can be found in NFPA 1221-1988 Standard for the Installation, Maintenance and Use of Public I. Suppressants are water with additives such as Fire Service Communication Systems. polymers or foam concentrate. They depend upon the water and moisture retention for effectiveness. System Elements. There are four basic elements in When the water dries out, the effectiveness the communications requirements of a fire protection disappears. agency:

2. Used for: (a) Communications between the public and the fire agency. - Direct attack in support of on-the-line fire (b) Communications within the fire agency under both crews. emergency and nonemergency conditions. - Short term protection of items such as (c) Communications among fire agencies. improvements, log decks, forest fuels adjacent (d) Communications between the fire agency and other to a fire line. agencies. - Prescribed burning and backfiring.

- Mop-up. Each plays an essential part, enabling the fire agency to meet its protection responsibility. The 3. Methods of application: particular method used must provide for each in order to be effective.

- Fixed wing air tankers. - Helicopters with buckets or fixed tanks. Radio, telephone, and other electronic equipment, - Fire engines. operating procedures, and personnel training must allow

- Back pumps. messages to be conveyed as quickly and reliably as the situation requires. Messagesmust be sent and received 4. Basic principles for the creation of foam for Class correctly with no delay. Time delay and the number of A fuels: messages to be handled are strongly interrelated with

708 NFPA 295

service. Systems and equipment must be provided so Communications with the Fire Agency. Communications that the public may notify the fire agency of fires or between members of the fire agency include emergency other emergencies. Attention must be given to message and nonemergency messages. Most of these are types, the number and length~of messages, the equipment accomplished by radio and may involve the dispatcher, capabilities, radio frequencies, a~d system radio-equipped vehicles (land, water, or air), organization. Effective operatir, g practices must be .personnel equipped with two-way radios, or personnel at developed and training must be provided to meet the outlying stations in a variety of emergency needs of each agency. The measure of adequate service situations. Examples of such convaunlcations are: is the ability of the system to handle emergency • situations as well as the normal daily activities of (a) The radio dispatcher gives information to the the agency. A major conflagration, or multiple fires, fire stations and/or mobile equipment. generates a much greater need for communications than do normal daily activities. .. (b) Personnel report location and work status to the dispatcher for emergency assignment. Communications Between the Public and the Fire Agency. Communications between citizens and the fire (c) The dispatcher gives coordination information agency revolve around several areas: and status to personnel and equipment responding to an emergency. (d) Field commanders give instructions to ground or air mobile units and to fire line personnel under their command in a tactical situation.

(e) Communications between equipment unitsof personnel at a fire or other emergency. . io o (f) The field commander requests infomation or \ natiOn assistance, and the.dispatcher advises status. A'aTre~ ~hv° tnees T < D~:~i!;e~P~ SFw°mr i?eS ir° n > ' " (g) Reports of fire are transmitted from lookouts or aircraft to dispatch centers. (h) Infomation on status of personnel and equipment, fire danger rating, fire weather forecasts, and legal burning is transmitted between fixed I I I L] Central stations, mobile units, and the radio dispatcher. Data Banks

Figure A-5-2.l(a) Fire Communications. (a) Calls from citizens for emergency assistance or for reporting fires. (b) Calls from citizens giving information to, or requesting information from, the fire agency. (c) Calls from the fire agency to citizens. Calls from citizens, usually received through the telephone system, gfving or requesting information, may be of an emergency nature. Whether or not such a call • is an emergency is decided by the individual answering the telephone. Many fird agencies maintain different administrative and emergency telephone numbers to keep the two types of communications separate. Calls from the fire agency to citizens usually are of an administrative nature. "911" (universal emergency telephone number) reporting has become common. It is most easily accomplished in rural areas rather than Figure A-5-2.1(c) Base-Mobile Radio Communications. urban areas. Communications Among Fire Agencies. Many fire agencies supply their' neighbors with requested infomatlon. Such communications are necessary because many small agencies depend on mutual aid agreements, and wildland fires are likely to cover more than the jurisdiction of a single agency. In addition, many fire agencies have common infomation needs.

E;eo ge°c , z e ' s Interchange may be divided into two kinds of \ communications -directed and incidental. Directed Calls to Citizens. ~ , ~ communication is the conveying of info~atien from one agency to-one or more-specifically selected agencies. Incidental communication is the exchange of infomation among agencies that is a by-product of the primary purpose of the communi.cations. InfOrmation From Citizens An example of directed communication is the exchange oZ infomation regardlng burnlng permits or other smokes of interest to stations of other agencies, or" the transmittal of a fire danger rating or fire weather Figure A-5-2.1(b) infomatlon. It may also be advice regarding equipment in adjoining stations where first attack arrangements Typical Fire Department Communications with the Public. exist.

. 709 NFPA 295

Incidental or nondirected communication among One of the greatest demands for communications with agencies occurs whenever one agency monitors the other agencies can occur during major emergencies. The transmissions of another,, although the information is ability to meet this problem requires planning for not specifically intended for interagency message volumes and possible language barriers. distribution. Most of this kind of communication is by Telecommunications for a fire.department or forest radio, especially among agencies that share a radio agency must include contingency plans for emergency channel. (When agencies have a choice of channels on situations. During an emergency is no time to set up which to operate, they must weigh the advantages of new communications links. The volume of messages that mutual monitoring by all system users against the must be handled is likely to exceed most estimates, so disadvantages of greater message traffic and the plans must include means for handling the volume of resulting problems of channel loading.) This kind of message traffic to prevent system breakdown due to communication is no less important than directed overloadihg. Concerned citizens and news media can communication, for it allows one agency to be aware of rapidly overload a telephone system. Nonfire agencies situations in another community or area that may "spill may not understand the standard language of fire over" or involve it directly in a short time. radio. Therefore, liaison personnel familiar with the radio language of the fire service and the assisting Monitoring of nearby fire departments' or fire organizations are needed to maintain effective agencies' transmissions helps the listener to anticpate commuhications. The National Interagency Incident the need for mutual aid and to be aware of the level of Management System~(NIIMS), which is being adopted by emergency activity in an area larger than the many fire agencies, includes two important department's or agency's own boundaries. If two fire communications concepts that should improve service agencles anticipate a need for mutual aid or communications effectiveness during major emergencies. cooperation, they frequently monitor each other's calls These are: even when not on the same radio channel. Monltor-recelvers at the dispatcher posltions.are (a) Common Terminology - using "clear text" or generally used. "plain l apguage" radio and established standard terms and phrases. Special mutual.ald radio frequencies or channels for mobile use only have been licensed so that fire (b) Integrated Incident Communications - which agencies from adjacent Jurisdictions can communicate intends the best possible use of all participating directly with each other. Such a channel can assist agency radio systems including frequency sharing normal day-to-day interagency communication needs and agreements. emergency communication during widespread disasters. The channels may serve as command channels for The new.synthesizer mobile radios can also be very interagency communication. Although these are helpful, useful here. Police, fire, and other public safety there are also problems with them. The frequencies may agencles can now converse with each other "at the become overloaded very quickly. The multi-channel scene" and not depend on time-consuming relays through synthesizer mobile radio allows all radio traffic to be dispatchers. conducted on the "Agency in Charge" radio system, starting with initial attack on through large fire operations.

'Point-to-Point' Channel Local Channel

Figure A-S-2.1(d) Interdepartmental Communications.

Communications Between the Fire Agency and Other Agencies. Another function of a communications system is to pass messages between the fire agency and public safety oriented agencies, such as public works, highway Figure A-S-2.1(e) Communications With Other Agencies. maintenance departments and utilities, hospitals and ambulance services, towing and wrecker services, law A-5-2.4 Incident Radio Communications Plan. An enforcement agencies, civil defense units, forest incident radio communications plan should be prepared industries, and fire weather forecasters. in direct support of the objectives and control

I , operations established by the incident commander. This Fire agencies exchange a large variety Of information incident radio communications plan is usually a with nonfire agencies or cooperators. Perhaps the single-page form that outlines the general radio system information most widely exhanged in the rural and needs and allocations, frequency assignments and. mountain areas is the local fire danger rating or fire priorities (ground to ground, ground to air, and air to weather information, reports of road conditions, air), communication equipment accountability, and flooding, fallen trees, and similar useful data. specific remarks to meet the control and management Reports of vehicle accidents are often made to the fire objectives for the incident. Initially, incident radio agency by polite agencies where a fire department or communications planning is the responsibility of the rescue company response is required. Since many of incident commander until a logistics chief and/or these companies are radio equipped, they can be of communications unit leader is assigned to the more assistance during large fires or other major incidents. complex incidents.

710 NFPA 295

Figure A-5-2.4 Sample Incident Radio Communications Plan

I. Incident Name 2. Date/Time 3. Operational Period Prepared Date/Time INCIDENT RADIO COMMUNICATIONS PLAN Butte 8-20-89 8-21-89 2100 Hrs 0600-1800 Hrs

4. Basic Radio Channel Utilization

System/Cache Channel Function ' Frequency Assignment Remarks

Fire Department l Command 170.450 IC, Generic and I. Command and support "A" Net Command Staff net repeaters are Air Ops., Div Supv., located'at DP-2 on and Group Supv. C1eghorn Truck Trail 2. Command/Gen Staff, Air Ops, Helibase Fire Department 2 Tactical 170.000 Division A Hgr, Division "A" Net Supervisors, & Group Leaders, all monitor the command net. When not using another net, keep Fire Department 3 Tactical 170.250 Division B radios on command "A" Net net. 3. Communication Centers are to monitor the command support, tactical, support, Fire Department l Tactical 154.250 Engine Strike and air to ground "B" Net Teams: 1801 nets. Structure 1802 4. Turn in all radios Protection 1930 at the end of each shift. command support, tactical, support, Emergency 1 Air to 168.075 Air Ops, Helibase and air to ground Fire Cache Ground Manager, Heli- nets. (White) copters, Air- 4. Turn in all radios tankers, Division at the end of each Sup. shift.

Emergency 2 Logistics 168.250 Support Functions Fire Cache Net and in-camp (White) communications tankers, Division Sup.

ICS 205 .5. Prepared By (Communications Unit) 8-78

See Figure A-5-3.] for a Sample Reporting Form modified to include Wildland Fires. A-5-3.1 Fire Reporting. The rep{~rting Of fires is an The US Fire Administration (USFA) has developed the important function of'the fire department. Fire ' National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS); which reports provide a realistic ant factual basis for fire is the automated system based on the work of the NFPA prevention planning, support for funding requests, and Fire Repotting Committee as published in NFPA gOl. The aid in organizational development. Theymay also be system now has been installed in approximately 40 significant documents in insurance claim adjustment states, the District of Columbia, and a number of cases. A report must be completed on every fire or larger fire departments. false alarm responded to by the fire department. It is important to compile information that is fresh in the At the state level, NFIRS provides for the collection mind of the reporting officer. .of wrltten, reports on incidents to which local communities responded. At the national level,'NFiRS To maintain uniformity in fire reporting, the NFPA provides data bases from individual states to form the Technical Committee on Fire Reporting'has developed national data base. The USFA analyzes this data base NFPA 90l. This standard establishes basic definitions and publishes the analysis. and terminology for use in fire reporting and. a means of classifying data so that they (:an be aggregated The National Wildfire RepOrting Group (NWCG) has either manually or automatically. NFPA gOl provides established a standard information content for wildfire the common language used by nearly all large scale reporting also. This standardized content is now used (e.g., state, national) data bases in the United States by all U.S. Federal Wildfire Control Agencies and many and many others around the world. states.

711 NFPA 295

Telephone Number Where You Can Be Contacted ( ) Area Code INCIDENT REPORT NFIRS 1 1 n DELETE !=i FILL IN THIS REPORT FIRE DEPARTMENT 2 I-I CHANGE IN YOUR OWN WORDS • ~=.5 _= FOlD INCIDENT NO. EXPN:." I MO" I DAY 'Y? R DAYOFWEEK I ALARMTIME ARRIVALTIME TIMEIN .~. A I I I , I SERVICE I I I I I I I z i I I I TYPE OF SITUATION FOUND TYPE OF ACTION TAKEN MUTUAL AID B 1 C] REC'D 2 CJ GIVEN FIXED PROPERTY USE IGNITION FACTOR C I , i I , z r- CORRECT ADDRES~ ZiP CODE CENSUS TRACT O I I I I I I I ~ • I "10 (no -- OCCUPANT NAME (LAST. FIRST, MI) I TELEPHONE ROOM OR APT.

OWNER NAME (LAST, FIRST, MI I ADDRESS TELEPHONE @P DISTRICT SHIFT NO, ALARMS ~Z2 @. METHOD OF ALARM FROM PUBLIC NUMBER FIRE SERVICE PERSONNEL NUMBER ENGINES NUMB1ER AERIAL APPARATUS NUMBER OTHER VEHICLES ".._=g RESPONDED RESPONDED RESPONDED RESPONDED H n =-.>~ NUMBER OF INJURIES [ ~ NIUMBE ~ OF FATAUTIES I I I I ~ I • ='<=¢ @, FIRE SERVICE I I ] I OTHER I , F, RE SERV,CE I i ~ I OTUER I ~ , COMPLEX MOBILE PROPERTY TYPE J I I I i AREA OF FIRE ORIGIN EQUIPMENT INVOLVED IN IGNITION =o K I i ~ FORM OF HEAT'OF IGNITION TYPE OF MATERIAL IGNITED FORM OF MATERIAL IGNITED o= L I I ~ I ~ METHOD OF EXTINGUISHMENT LEVEL OF FIRE ORIGIN ESTIMATED LOSS (DOLLARS ONLY) "Co M NUMBER OF 3ONSTRUCTION TYPE STORIES N EXTENT OF SMOKE DAMAGE EXTENT OF FLAME DAMAGE 8 O DETECTOR PERFORMANCE .~PRINKLER PERFORMANCE m P I TYPE OF MATERIAL GENERATING MOST SMOKE kVENUE OF SMOKE TRAVEL O IF SMOKE SPREAD BEYOND ROOM OF ORIGIN FORM OF MATERIAL GENERATING MOST SMOKE R ,,I IF MOBILE PROPERTY YEAR MAKE ~ODEL SERIAL NO. UCENSE NO.

IF EQUIPMENT INVOLVED YEAR MAKE ~ODEL SERIAL NO. @, IN IGNITION

r-i CHECK IF COMMENTS ON REVERSE SIDE OFFICER IN CHARGE NAME POSITION ASSIGNMENT) DATE U" MEMBER MAKING REPORT (IF DIFFERENT FROM ABOVE} DATE

FIRE DANGER I SLOPE ASPECT RESISTANCE TO CONTROL SPREAD RATE . I I I I I SIZE CLASS ACRES TOTAL ACRES BURNED ACRES GRASSLAND ACRES FORESTLAND ~ o X I I I I" I I I I I I I I I I I I FEDERAL ACRES BURNED . STATE ACRES BURNED PRIVATE ACRES BURNED Y I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I SUPPRESSION COST DAMAGE CLASS VALUE VALUE CLASS Z I t I

Age of Building . Condition of Building Equipment Used Breathing Water Used 0 I I I I Hose I I I , I I I I I @ Wind Direction Velocity Humidity General Description I I I I I I ~ I I I I I Exit Drill in the Home Practiced Was it Used 0 I I i i

712 NFPA 295 A-5-3.2 Fire Investigation. The effectiveness of NFPA 1221-1988, Standard for the Installation, future fire prevention efforts may depenB on the Maintenance and Use of Public Fire Service thoroughness of fire investigation; therefore, every. Communication Systems fire should be investigated for cause as.soon as possible. Investigation can be performed NFPA 1500-1987, Standard on Fire Department simultaneously with the fire suppression operation. Occupational Safety and Health Program Crew members must be trained to protect the fire's area of origin and to protect any evidence at the fire NFPA 1901-1985, Standard on Automotive Fire Apparatus scene. It is important that the fire's area of origin be as undisturbed as possible and that anything that NWCG-NFES No. 1363-1988,.Spark A'rrester Guide, General might be evidence not be moved unless absolutely Purpose and,Locomotive (6 P/L) Volume I (PMS No. 430-2). necessary to prevent it from being destroyed. NWCG-NFES No. 1363-1988, Spark Arrester Guide, All fire fighters have responsibilities in fire Multiposition Small Engine (MSE) Volume 2 (PMS No. investigation. When responding to a fire they should 430-2)-. note anyone or anything that could relate to that starting of the fire; they should observe vehicles in Wetting Agents and Wet Water Foams - Making Water the fire area and those moving away from it; they More Efficient, NFPA 1962 Fire Protection Handbook, should record license numbers, vehicle descriptions, 12th Edition. personal descriptions, number of people, and locations or directions of travel. B-I.2 Boise Interagency Fire Center Publications.

At the fire scene fire fighters should be alert for Boise Interagency Fire Center Publications, PMS evldence•on how the fire started and who started it. 3905 Vista Ave., Boise, ID 83?05 They should preserve and protect any evidence found, recording the time and place where each item was B-I.3 Additional Information. located. It may be necessary to assign one of the crew members to this task while the rest of the crew takes Brown, A. A. and K. P. Davis, Forest Fire Control and suppression action. All information obtained should be Use, New York, NY, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1973, Second recorded, including the names of witnesses or anyone Edition. else contacted, and summaries of any conversations with them. If an official investigator arrives, he should California Department Of Forestry, Fire Fighter receive full cooperation from all flre.fighters and. all Training Course, Vols. I and II, Sacramento, CA, 1981. obtained information should be turned over to him.' Canadian Forestry Service, Environment Canada; Additional detailed information on wildland fire Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index Tables, Forestry investigation can be found in "Wildfire Cause Technical Report 25, 1978. Determination Handbook", National Wildfire Coordinating Group Hand Book 1. (See Appendix B.) Deeming, 3.. E., R. E. Burgan and J. D. Cohen, The National Fire-Danger Rating System, USDA, For. Serv. Appendix B Referenced.Publications Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-39~ and INT-40, Intermt. For. and Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah 1978.

B-I The following documents or portions thereof are Deeming, J. E. and 3. W. Lancaster, Background referenced within this standard-for informational Philosophy, ImplementatiOn - National Fire Danger purposes only and thus are not considered part of the Rating System. USDA Fire Control Notes 32(2): 4-8, recommendations of this document. The edition 1971. indicated for each reference is the current edition as of the date of the NFPA issuance of this document.- Lancaster, J. W., Fire Management Applications of th~ National Fire Danger Rating System - 1978. USDA Forest B-I.I NFPA Publications. National Fire Protection Service, Cooperative Fire Protection, 1978. Association, l Batterymarch Park, P.O. Box 9101, Quincy, MA 02269-9101. Lawson, B. D., An Interpretive Guide to the Canadian Forest Fire Behavior Rating System, Can. Forestry NFPA 18-1990, Standard on Wetting Agents Serv., Pacific Forest Res. Center Rep. BCP-3-72, 1972.

NFPA 298-1989, Foam Chemicals for Wildland-FiFe Control Schroeder, Mark J. and C. C. Buck, Fire Weather ... A Guide for Application of Meteorological Information to NFPA 402M-1989, Manual for Aircraft Rescue and'Fire Forest Fire Control Operations. USDA Fo~. Serv. Agr. Fighting Operations Hdbk., 1970.

NFPA 403-1988, Standard forAircraft Rescue and Fire Turner, J. A. and B. D= Lawson, Weather in the Fighting Services at Airports Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System. Forestry Service, Environment Canada, Pacific Forest Research NFPA 407~1990, Standard for Aircraft Fuel Serviclng Centre Report BC-X-ITI, 1978.

NFPA 408L1989, Standard for Aircraft Hand Fire Van Wagner, C. E., Structure of the Canadian Forest Extinguishers. Fire Weather Index. Can. Dep. Environ. Can. Forest.• Serv. Pub. 1333, 1974. NFPA 409-1990, Standard on Aircraft Hangers Williams D. E., Forest Fire Danger Manual. Canada, NFPA 410-1990, Standard on Aircraft Maintenance Department of Forestry Pub. No. I027, 1963. "

NFPA 412-1987, Standard for Evaluating Foam Fire California Division of Forestry and USDA, Forest Fighting Equipment on Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Service, Forest Fire Fighting Fundamentals, 1950. Vehicles Clar, Raymond C. and Leonard R. Chatten, Principles of NFPA 414-1990, Standard for Aircraft Rescue and Fire " Forest Fire Management, California Division of Forestry Fighting Vehicles Sacramento, 1972. •

NFPA 1201-1989, Recommendations for Developing Fire Department of Lands, Eorests, and Water Resources, Protection Services for the Public British Columbia Forest Service, Handbook on Forest Fire Suppression, Victoria, BC, 1972.

713 NFPA 295 Florida Forest Service, Fire Fighter's Guide, ADF. Automatic Direction Finder is a radio Tal I ahassee, 1964. navigational receiver operating in the low frequency bands, found'in many aircraft. Gaylor, Harry P., Wildfires: Prevention and Control, Robert 3. Brady Co., Bowie, MD, 1974. Advisory Service. Adviceand information provided by a facility to assist pilot in the safe conduct of B-I.4 Other Publications. flight and aircraft movements. (FAA Pilot/Controller Glossary). Foam Appl!cations for Wildland and Urban Fire Management - NWCG, Volume 1,. No. I, 1988. AGL. Above Ground Level.

Alberta Forest Service - Wildland Fire Foam Manual, Air Attack. An operation involving the use of Second Edition, 1989. aircraft as part of the fire suppression action.

U.S.D.A. Forest Service - Interim Requirements and Air Traffic. Aircraft operating in the air or on an Manufacturer Submission Procedures for Wildland Fire airport surface, exclusive of loading ramps and parking Foam. areas. (FAR.I.I)

B-2 Bibliography Aircraft Footprint. That area on the surface of the earth, runway, or ramp that is covered by the tread of B-2.1 U.S. Federal Aviation Regulations. the aircraft tires while the aircraft is in a motionless condition. The following publications are available from U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. Airport Advisory Area. The area within IO miles (]6.] km) of an uncontrolled airport on which is located a Vol. I: flight service station. Part l Definitions and Abbreviations Airport Advlsqry Service. A terminal service provided by a flight service station located at an airport where Vol II: a control tower is not in operation.

Part 11 General Rule-making Procedures Airport Information Desk. A local airport facility Part 13 Enforcement Procedures designed for pilot self-service, weather briefing, Part 15 Nondisc÷imination of Federally Assisted flight planning, and filing of flight plans. Programs for the FAA Part 21 Certification Procedures for Products and Airport Traffic Area. Unless otherwise specifically Parts designated in'FAR Part 93, that airspace within a Part 37 Technical Standard Order Authorization horizontal radius of 5 statute miles (8 km) from the Part 39 Airworthiness Directives geographical center of any airport at which a control Part 45 Identification and Registration Marking tower is operating, extending from the surface up to, Part 47 Aircraft Registration but not including, an altitude of 3,000 ft (914 m) Part 49 Recording of Aircraft Titles and Security above the elevation of an airport. Documents Part 183 • Representatives of the Administrator Airspeed. The speed of an aircraft relative to its Part 187 Fees surrounding air mass. The unqualified term "airspeed". Part 189 Use of Federal AOiation Administration means one of the following: Communication Systems I. Indicated Airspeed - The speed shown on the Appendix C Air Operations for aircraft airspeed indicator. This is the speed used in Forest, Brush, and Grass Fires pilot/controller communications under the general term "airspeed." (Refer to FAR Part 1)

C-I Introduction. 2. True Airspeed - The airspeed of an aircraft relative to undisturbed air. Used primarily in flight C-I-I Scope. This guide presents fundamental planning and en route portion of flight. When used in information for agencies desiring to use aircraft for pilot/controller communications, it is referred to as any and all aspects of wildland fire prevention, "true airspeed" and not shortened to "airspeed." detection, and/or suppression. It presents necessary and useful information on procedures, practices, Airtanker. A fixed wing aircraft equipped to drop organization, management, and even suggested polity. fire retardants and/or fire suppressants.

C-I-2 Purpose. The primary purpose of this guide is Airtanker Coordinator/Birdog Pilot/Lead Plane Pilot. to present the information necessary to plan, organize, The pilot of the control aircraft, (lead plane) under and manage safe,'cost-effective aircraft operations. the supervision of the AAS, and assigned to designate The guide focuses on aircraft under the control of tarkets and coordinate the movement of airtankers. (ICS) agencies responsible for wildland fire prevention, detection, and suppression. -Airtanker Mandatory Requirements., Those requirements set forth • by the Interagency Air Tanker Board. C-l-3 General. Many agencies in different countries use aircraft for reconnaissance, fire.detection, fire Alert Area. Airspace that may contain high volume suppression, fuel management, and coordination of- pilot training activities or an unusual type of aerial ground control forces. activity.

C-I-4 Definitions of Aeronautical and Air Operations Approved. Acceptableto the "authority having Terminology. jurisdiction."

Abort. An order to terminate a preplanned aircraft NOTE: The National Fire Protection Association maneuver e.g., aborted takeoff, abort run. (FAA does not approve, inspect or certify any Pilot/Controller Glossary). installations, procedures, equipment, or materials nor does it approve or evaluate testing Drop Accuracy. The assessment of a drop made "by the laboratories. In determining the acceptability of air attack supervisor (birddog officer) or a fire line installations or procedures, equipment or supervisor, i.e., where a load lands in relation to materials, the authority having jurisdiction may target. base acceptance on compliance with NFPA or other appropriate standards. In the absence of such standards, said authority may-require evidence of proper installation, procedure or use~ The authority having jurisdiction may also refer to the listings or labeling practices of an organization

714 NFPA 295 j. concerned with product evaluations which is-in a Course. The intended direction of flight in the position to determine compliance with appropFiate horizontal plane. standards for the current production of listed items. Crosswind Component. The wind component measured in knots at 90 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the Armed. A term used' in connection with,the safety flight path. device that prevents accidental opening Of retardant tank doors• When the door actuat!ing system is "armed," Crown Fire. Fire traveling in the upper foliage of the controls are operative: .standing timber.. Artiflcial Horizon Attitude Indi'cator. An'instrument Cruising Altitude. A flight level determined by the that indicates attitude with respect to the true vertical'measurement from mean sea level. (MSL) horizon. A substitute for the natural horizon. Dehs!ty Altitude. Pressure altitude for ambient Authority Having Jurisdiction. ~he "authority having temperature. In standard (ICA0) atmosphere, density jurisdiction" is the organization, office or individual and pressure altitude are equal. For a given pressure responsible for "approving" equipment, an !nstallation altitude, the higher the temperature, the. higher the or a procedure. density altitude. NOTE: The phrase "authority having jurlsdlction" Direct Attack. A drop with the main portion of • is used in NFPA documents in a broad manner since retardant or suppresSAnt falling on the flame front. Jurisdictions and "approval" agencies vary as do their responsibilities. Where publlc safety is Discrete. Frequency. A frequency assigned t0,a primary, the "authority havin!] jurisdiction"may be particular function. a federal, state, local or otI!en regional department or indiyidual such as a fire chief., fire DME. Distance Measuring Equipment. marshal; chief of a fire prevention bureau, labor department, health department:, building official, Down Loading. The reduction in aircraft gross weight electrica'l inspector, or others having statutory made' to compensate for loss of performance due to authority. For insurance purposes, an insurance increase in density altitude. inspection department, rating bureau, or other insurance company representative may be the Drift. The effect.of.wind on smoke or "authority having jurisdiction." In many retardant/suppressant drop. circumstances the property owner or his designated agent assumes the role of the "authority having Drop Sequence. The order and method'in which the jurisdiction"; at government installations, the tanks are released. commandlng~officer or departmental official may be the "authority having jurisdiction." Dummy Run/Dry. Run. A simulated retardant or suppressant run made on a target by •the Autorotatlon. This is a nonpowered flight condltion birddog/leadplane or alrtanker. Used to.indlcate with the rotor system maintaining the required flight approach and target to airtanker and to ~heck for rpm at a given forward alrspeed,r due to the relative flight hazards. wind upward through the rotors, caused by the weight~ forward speed, add descent of the helicopter. DZ. Drop Zone or target area. Avlgatlon. Aerlal nav'igatlon. Early or Short. Landing before the target. Retardant/Suppressant dropped before reaching target. Base/Rear/Heel. The side of'the fire having the slowest rate of speed. Elevatlon. The elevation of thelead plane/birddog when over the target on a dry run. Birdog/Air Attack (Aircraft). The aircraft carrying the officer or individual in char(ie.of air attack ELT. EmergencyLocator Transmitter. A radio operations over a fire. transmitter• attached to the aircraft structure,.which operates from its own power source on 121.5 MHz and 243 Bomb Away/ or "Now." The voice command that signal MHz' transmitting a distinctive downward swept audio the moment for actuating the controls that open the tone for homing purposes, and is designed to function retardant doors. without humanaction after an accident. Break/Left or Right. Means turn left or right. End of Load. The last portion of . Applies to aircraft in flight, usually on a retardant retardant/suppressant to be released from tanker~ drop run, and when given as a command to the pilot, implies a prompt compliance. ETA. Estimated Time of Arrival. Bullseye. Term indicating that a load was placed ETD• Estlmated Time of Departure; exactly where requested. ETE. Estimated Time Enroute. Call'ed Shot. The drop.technique wherein the control aircraft triggers the load by voice signal to the FAA. Federal Aviation Administration. pilot. (See "Countdown.") FAR." Federal Aviatlon,Regulatlons. Candling or Torching. The burning of the foliage of a single tree, or a small group of trees, from the bottom Final. That portion of the flight path that is up. aligned with the retardant/suppressant drop line.

Canopy. The uppermost layer of tree foliage. Fire Fighter's Certificate. A method of carding fire fighter~ sooverhead can determine their qualifications Cat Guard/Bulldozed Line/Catline.. A physical fire prior to assigning them a position. break made by bulldozers. Fix. A geographical position determined by visual Ceiling. The height, from the earth's surface, of the reference to the surface, by reference to one or more lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomenathat is radio navaids, by celestial plotting, or by any other reported as "broken," "overcast," or "obstruction" and navigational device. not classified as "thin" or parti~!l. Flank. 'Side of a fire joining base or.rear to head.

Countdown. A ten down to one reverse count on a o called shot starting approximatel!l one-half mile Flight Path. The route an aircraft flies on any (0.8 km) from the target. (See "Called Shot.") approach to and from a target.

715 NFPA 295 Flight Plan. Specified information relating to the HF. High Frequency. intended flight of an aircraft that is filed orally or in writing with an air traffic control facility. High Drop. A drop well above the canopy to give a soft falling, well-dispersed pattern. Used mainly to Flight Time. The time from the moment the aircraft give a light retardant or suppressant coating that will first moves under its own power for the purpose of reduce fire intensity. flight until the moment is comes to rest at the next point of landing. Hold. Do not drop. An order to hold a load and go around. It should be followed by an explanation and Flight Visibility. The average forward horizontal new directions from the air attack supervisor, usually distance from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight at a change in attack plan or a ground crew in the way. which prominent unlighted objects may be seen and identified by sight. Hole. Weak or missed area in retardant o~ suppressant drop. Front or start of Load. The early end Of the load. Hot Spot. A particularly active part of a fire within FSS. Flight Service Station. A facility operated by or along the fire boundary. the FAA to provide flight assistance service. ICS. The incident command system or qualifying and Gallons per Hour Concept. An initial and supporting organizing personnel to manage wildfires or other attack On a fire based on a continuous delivery of incidents. retardant/suppressants by airtankers or helicopters until complete control of the fire is achieved by Incident Commander. The chief of an incident ground personnel. management team under the ICS. Ground Effect. Reactionof the wlng/or rotor downwash Identification Run. A pass over the target area by against ground surface forming a "ground cushion" that the air tanker coordinator birddog or lead aircraft to increases lifting capability of that section of air. indicate the flight path and target while the airtanker pilot is observing. Ground Fire. Fire in duff or ground debris. IFR. Instrument Flight Rules. Ground Speed. The speed with which an alrcraft transverses the ground over which it flies. I.G.E. In-Ground Effect. Using the high density ground cushion to hover the helicopter. Ground Visibility. Prevailing horizontal visibility near the earth's surface as reported by the U.S. Initial Attack. The first action taken to suppress a National Weather Service or an accredited observer. fire, whether it be ground or air attack.

Head. The side of, the fire having the fastest rate of Inspection Run. Run over target area to check for spread. wind and smoke conditions and other hazards. Heading. The compass direction in which the Knot. Nautical mile per hour. longitudinal axis of, an aircraft points. Labeled. Equipment or materials to which has been Helibase. Location within the general area of an attached a label, symbol or other identifying mark of incident for parking, fueling, and maintenance of an organization acceptable to the "authority having helicopters. jurisdiction" and concerned with product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection of production of Helibase Manager. Manages resources/supplies at a labeled equipment or materials and by whose labeling hel ibase. (Heli port/hel i spot) the manufacturer indicates compliance with appropriate standards or performance in a specified manner. Helibucket. A specially designed bucket carried by the helicopter like a sling load and used to drop Late Drop. Retardantor suppressant landing beyond retardant or suppressants. the target. Helicopter Coordinator. Works for the air attack ray-Up. Connecting a drop to the rearward part of a supervisor. With instructions from air attack previous drop. supervisor is primarily responsible for coordinating tactical or logistical mlssion(s) by helicopters Lead In. Lead plane/birddog flies thetarget run in assigned to an incident. front of the tanker on.final approach to target.

Heliport. A.designated landing area that is L.F. Low Frequency - in 30-300 KYz band. accessible by road and large enough to accomodate, at a. minimum, two helicopters. It should have fueling Line. A stretch of retardant or suppressant lald by facilities, wind indicator, fire extinguishers, aircraft to support constructed line or suppressant or surfaced pads," tie downs, parking areas, water source, retard fire spread. telephone and radio communications, officers for base personnel, pilots' rest areas, and lights. Line Length. The distance actually covered on the ground by a single retardant or suppressant drop at a -Helipumper. A portable pump unit developed for • given coverage level. transport by helicopter. Listed. Equipment or materials included in a list Helispot Location where a helicopter can land and published by an organization acceptable to the take-off. "authority having jurisdiction" and concerned with product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection Helitack. The initial attack phase of fire of production of listed equipment or materials and suppression using helicopters and trained airborne whoselisting states either that the equipment or teams to achieve immediate control of wildfire in a material meets appropriate standards or has been tested safe and economical manner. and found suitable for use in a specified manner.

Helitack Crewman. A fire fighter trained in use of 'NOTE: The means for identifying listed equipment helicopter accessories and techniques to attack and may vary for each organization concerned with suppress wildfi re. product evaluation, some of which do not recognize equipment as listed unless it is also labeled. The Helitack Foreman. The person directly in charge of a "authority having jurisdiction" should utilize the helitack crew. system employed by the listing organization to identify a listed product. Helitank. A tank attached to a helicopter t:o carry liquids such as suppressants or retardants.

716 NFPA 295 Lone-Wolf Action. Initial attack by a single Retardant Support Base. A base set up to support the airtanker operating without direction from an airtanker operations of retardant/suppressant aircraft, coordinator (Lead plane pilot/birddog officer). Return-and Hold: An order to a pilot denotihg mission Long Term Retardant. One having a chemical retarding completed and further loads not required. He returns action on fire even after water content has evaporat@d. to base and waits for' further instructions, Low Drop. A drop lower than recommendedminimum,drop Rheologic Properties. Cohesiveness or the' ability of height. a material to hold together during a dropJ Magnetic Bearing. Angle to an object measured from Rising Ground, Terrain of i.ncreasing elevation ahead magnetic north'in a clockwise direction. or on either side, Magnetic Course. The angle that the longitudinal axis Salvo. The dropping of the entire retardant or 'of the aircraft makes with magnetic north. suppressant load at one time, Magnetic Variation. The angle between true north and Should. Indicates a recommendation or that which is magnetic north, measured east or west. advised but not required, Maneuvering Speed. The maneuyering speed is the Slurry Base. The same as retardant support base, . greatest safe speed for abrupt maneuvers or for very g rough air. Upon encountering severe'gusts, the pilot Snag/Chicet. Any dead or'living tree rising' above the should reduce airspeed to maneuvering speed. For forest canopy. airplanes in which the maneuverin~ speed is'not specified, it can'be safely computed as 70 percent Special Use Airspace. Defined airspace within which greater than normal stalling speed. (Stalling speed x flight is prohibited or restricted, or in which special 1.7 = maneuvering speed.) hazards exist to flight. MOT. CanadianMinistry of Transport. Split Load. A drop sequence wherein the load is dropped in increments. MSL. Mean Sea Level. The base commonly used in measuring altitudes. ,, Spot Fire. A fire ahead of, or outside, the main fire boundary. NAVAID. Air Navigation Facility. Any structure, equipment, or device used in air navigation or air STOL Aircraft. Short Take-Off and Landing Aircraft. traffic control and considered a part of the national An aircraft that has the capability of operating from a airways system, -' STOL runaway, in accordance with applicable, airworthiness and operating regulations. Night. The time between the end of evening c,ivil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight, Suppressants. "Agents used to extinguish'thb flaming as published in the "American Air Almanac," converted and glowing phases of combustion by direct application to local time. to burning fuels, i.e., water or foam. NOTAM. Notice to Airmen. A notice identified e~ither Tag-On. Connecting a drop to the forward part of a as a Notam or Airmen Advisory, containing information previous drop. concerning the establishment, condition, or change in any component of, or hazard in, the National Airspace Touchdown Area. That part of the landing and take-off System, the timely knowledge of which is essential to area there the helicopter alights. " personnel concerned with flight operations. Tower. Airport Traffic Control Tower. A facility OAT. Outside Air Temperature. providing airport traffic control service. One Strike/0ne Shoe Concept. An initial attack on a Track. The flight path of an aircraft over the fire based on enough long term retardant or suppressant surface of the earth. arriving to finish the action and control the fire without the airtankers having to ~lake a second trip. Traffic Pattern. The'traffic flow that is prescribed for aircraft landing at, taxiing on, and taking off Orbit. Circular holding pattern• an aircraft makes from an airport. The usual components of a traffic over one specific spot or area. pattern are upwind leg, c~osswind leg, base leg, and final approach. Parallel Attack. An outside(indirect) attack parallel to and removed from the fire's edge. Usually Trail Drop. To drop retardant from separate only effective with long term retardants in an ai,r compartments in rapid succession to give an extended attack operation. pattern on the ground. Normally used to build a retardant line or barrier along the fire line. Pass. A run by the target without making a retardant drop. • True Bearing. A bearing by true north rather than magnetic north. Pilotage. Navigation by visual reference'to landmarks. Turn-the-Corner. Connecting a drop to a previous drop Pilot-in-Command. The pilot responsible forthe at an angle toward the head of the fire. operation and safety of an aircraft during flight time. Uncontrolled Airport. An airport not having an Pull Up. The act of executing a sharp maneuver to operating control tower. indicate the target area. Unicom. Frequenciesauthorized for aeronautical Radial. A magnetic bearing extending from a V0R, advisory services to private aircraft~ VORTAC, or TACAN. Vector. A heading issued to an aircraft to provide RadioFix. The determining of position by one or more navigational guidance by radar. radio navigational aids. VFR Conditions. Basic weather conditions prescribed Restricted Area. Special use airspace of defined for flight under Visual Flight Rules. dimensions identified ,by an area on the surface of the earth within which the flight of ~,ircraft, while not VFT (Special). Aircraft operati'ng in accordance with wholly prohiblted, is subject to restrictions. clearances within control zones in weather conditions less than the basic VFR weather minima. Retardant. A chemical having a retarding action on fire." VHF. Very High Frequency. m,

717 NFPA 295

Viscosity. The thickness of a solution or As long.as adequate water depth and an unobstructed suspension. A measure of the relative ability of a water surface area are maintained, little or no fluid to resist flow. Heavy syrup has a high preparation other than suitable docking or ramp viscosity; gasoline has a low viscosity. Viscosity is facilities is required for a'water-base operation. If usually measured in centipoise. no safe natural docking or beaching site is available, temporary docks can be constructed to facilitate VOR. VHF Omnidirectional Range. Provides pictorial loading and unloading, to avoid damage to, the aircraft. guidance on any selected magnetic course to or from the radio facility. It is limited to line of sight • Many amphibious aircraf.t are equipped to drop reception. There is some "spillover," however, and suppressants such as foam. reception at an altitude of 1,000 ft (305 m) is about 40 to 45 miles (64 km to 72 km). This distance C-2-I.5 Detection, Reconnaissance, and Survey increases with altitude. Aircraft. Airplanes that are available and suitable for detection, reconnaissance, and surveys can ~e VTOL Aircraft. Vertical Take-Off and Landing divided into three basic types: (1) light high-wing, Aircraft. An aircraft that has the capability of single engine airplanes, (2) light Iow-wlng, single vertical take-off and landing. These aircraft include, engine airplanes, and (3) light twin engine airplanes. but are not limited to, helicopters. The light hlgh-wlng single engine type airplane is usually the most suitable. Weather Advisory. In aviation forecast practice, an expression of hazardous weather conditions not Light airplanes are usually more economical and predicted in the area forecast, as they affect the efficient than helicopters for detection, operation of air traffic and 'as p.repared by the NWS. reconnaissance, and survey flights; however, the helicopter, because of its versatility, is especially Wetting Agent. Chemical added to water to reduce useful for intensive-type missions that ~equire land!ng surface tension. for ground inspections and low level slow flight. Wing Span. The distance in feet (meters) and inches Some factors to consider in selecting aircraft for (cm) from wing tip to wing tip of an airplane. these assignments are:

C-2 Aircraft and Equipment Suitability and Selection (a) Number of persons necessary to carry out the assignment.. C-2-1 Aircraft - Fixed Wing. (b) Performance characteristics of'the airplane; C-2-I.1 Detection, Reconnaissance, and Survey. " Small landings and take-offs from airfields at high airplanes (single and multi-englne) are used for elevations, with short unsurfaced runways; adequate detection, reconnaissance, and surveys'. Airplanes for cruising range; visibility (maximum forward and lateral fire reconnaissance are used in combination with ground visibility is essential); cabin space; aircraft detection systems in areas of high fire occurrence. instruments and properly installed radio equipment. The use of aircraft for checking areas not visible from ground detection units is an accepted practice. (c) Suitability for infrared scanning and mapping. Reconnaissance flights are usually scheduled following lightning storms. Flights to check "going" fires and C-2-I.6 Air Tankers. Aircraft selection for wildfire controlled fires from previous days provide the latest suppression and related uses involves certain information on conditions and progress. problems. The performance characteristics must be such that safe and efficient operations can be conducted Recently, heat sensing (FLIR) systems have been over typical terrain and at necessary elevations. The developed for use with small aircraft. These systems aircraft integrity should be such that atmospheric are economically feasible, and simplicity of operation conditions will not present a structural problem. warrants their consideration for detection and reconnaissance activities. With further development Tank capacity, drop speed, cruise speed, and other the detection could be computerized. characteristics of the various makes and models of airtankers are listed in Table C-2-I.6. C-2-I.2 Paracargo and Freight. Numerous types of small, medium, and large airplanes are used for Light airtankers can be operated efficiently and transporting freight and dropping paracargo to fire economically as initial attack aircraft on wildfires camps or isolated crews. Not all airplanes are when the fires are within 30 miles ~km) of the air suitable for freight activities, and relat~ively' few can attack base. These aircraft are also capable of be modified into good paracargo ~ircraft. Most support action and accurate low volume drops in civilian airplanes now being used were designed and confined areas. built for carrying passengers and require special modifications to adapt them for freight or paracargo Medium and larger airtankers with 2,000 plus gal work. (7600 liters) capacities are more efficient on a cost-per-gallon.mile basis for high volume cascading on Desirable features for air-freight and paracargo fires,and retardant fire line construction. This airplanes are: sufficient capacity, smooth floors, should not preclude use of large ai~tankers at short inherent stability, moderate or low stalling and range, because many times fires are contained or landing speeds, suitable paracargo discharge aperture, controlled by several high volume cascading actions. ample reserve power at near gross weight (multiengine), easy control under marginal flying conditions, good With the development of the NAFFS concept (Modular visibility, stripped utility interior, cargo tiedov~n Airborne Fire Fighting System), military and civil facilities and approved seats, seatbelts, and shoulder 'cargo aircraft can be converted For airtanker use harness. provided the aircraft is equipped with a tail loading door and can carry the weight of the system. • C-2-I.3 Special Equipment. Cargo tiedown facilities are necessary in all airplanes used to transport C-2-l.6.1 Suitability Factors for Airtankers. To 'air-freight or cargo. Special equipment must be select suitable airtankers, consider the tank installed to assure no malfunctions. Most special capacities, performance capabilities, and general euqipment must have FAA approval before use. flight.characteristics listed in Table C-2-i.6, in relation to the following factors: (See Table C-2-I.6). C-2-I.4 Amphibious Operations. Amphibious or float equipped aircraft can be more versatile and serve more (a) Airport-Airtankers using an airport at high functions than land based aircraft. In Alaska, and elevations, above standard temperatures or with a some parts of Canada and the contiguous United States gradient of I percent or above, will require more where suitable lakes and rivers are numerous, and in runway length for safe efficient operation than they the coastal area, this type of aircraft is used would at sea level airports. extensively.

718 NFPA 295 Table C-2-I?6 F!xed-Wing Airtankers Specifications Chart

MIN . RUNWAY A/C LOADED- MINIMUM TOTAL REQUIRED NO. OF NO. OF SPEEDKNTS NO. OF RELEASABLE CAPACITY AIRTANKER FEET(METERS') ENGINES CREWS DROP CRUISE "DOORS US IMP US IMP LIGHT - up to &,including 800 gallons (3028 liters) Aero Commander Snow 2000(610) 1 1 61 96 I' 300 200 300 250 DeHavilland Otter 2500(762) l ] 70 lO0 2 108 90 276 230 DeHavilland DHC-6 Twin Otter 2500(762) 2 l 59 150- 2 276 230 480 400 Grumman AG-Cat N3N Stearman 2000(610) 1 1 61 87 I-2 300 250. 300 250 Grumman S2F Tracker 3500(1067) 2 1 104 161 2 200 167 800 666 FLZ M18 Dromader 1000(305) 1 l 78 118 1 660 550 660 550

MEDIUM - 800. gallons up to 2000 gallons (3028 liters) (7570 liter~ Douglas B-26 STOL 2000(1220) 2 l 122 190 4 250 208 1200 lO00 Consolidated PBY5A Canso 5000(1525) 2 2 87 104 2 400 333 960 800 Consolidated Super PBY 5 4200(1281) 2 . 2 87 148 2 624 520 1500 1249 Canadair CL-215 4000(1220) . 2 2 96 ' 152 2 588 490 1412 1176 Lockheed PV2 4000(1220) 2 2 ~13 180 2 437 364" 1050 874 DouglasDC-4 4000(1220) 4 2 126 170 4-8 207' 172 2000 1666 SP2H 4000(1220) 2 2 120 216 2 500 416 2000 1666

HEAVY - 2000 gallons plus (7570 liters) Convair Super PB4Y-2 '. 4000(1220) 4 2 113 190 8 275 2200 2200 1832 Douglas Super DC-4 2600(1098) 4 2 126 190 8 275 2200 2200 1832 Douglas DC-6 .5000(1525) 4 2 126 216 8 250 .208 3000 2499 • Douglas DC-7 4500(1373) 4 2 130 230 8 250 208 3000 2499 Lockheed P2V 4000(1220) 4 2 126 216 8 408 340 2450 2040 Lockheed C-130A 4500(1373) 4 3 130 256 8 375 312 3000 2499 Lockheed C-130 (MAFFS) 4500(1373) • 4 5 130 256 8 3000 2499 3000 2499 * Individual airplanes on this "list are sometimes modified for local needs.

To help evaluate airport capability vs airtanker (c) A main tank with one door that can be filled performance for safety during maximum load take~off from other tanks in the aircraft. purposes, the 80 percent take-off concept (~-englne) or the accelerated stop concept 2 engine should be used. C-2-I.6.6 Discharge Rate. A means of varying the If either of these two concepts fail to meet the runway discharge rate is necessary for effective application. length, the cleared area concept may be used. The amount of variation possible will depend on the aircraft and tank door arrangement. The maximum (b) Airtanker Loading.' It may be necessary to discharge rate should be as high as practicable, and reduce the load to obtain safe performance in response the lowest rate should achieve minimum coverage to certain variables such as density altitude, runway levels. The discharge rate is measured with the lengths, gradient, runway surface, and obstructions. airplane in level flight altitude, all doors open, dropping water in the amount equal to the chemical (c) Cruising Speed. Generally, high cruising speed capacity. is desired, especially for initial attack operation. C-2-I.6.7 Acquisition. Arrangements for obtaining (d) Drop Speed. The speed at which the aircraft airtankers must be based upon the most practical and flies during retardant/suppressant drops (slower than economically feasible method - contract, lease, or cruising speed.) outright ownership.

C-2-I.6.2 Special Appliances for Airtanker. Each C-2-I.7 SmokejumpingAircraft. Civil aircrafts are airtanker should have the following equipment:. FAA and not designed specifically for smokejumpidg use, and agency approved installation of tanks, discharge gates, certain approved installations and modifications must emergency dump mechanism, shoulder harness,, parking be made to the properly selected aircraft. These brake, rotating beacon, emergency locator transmitter, modifications will include a static line anchor cable warning sound device, strobe light, suitable radio (installation will vary with the aircraft), door safety equipment, camlock or quick connect fittings for strap, safety handrails, doorstep, cargo parachute loading tanks, and accurate tank gauge to control static line anchor, cargo dropping harness anchor loading. cable, and cargo tiedown facilities. All sharp corners and projections near the door and step, along the C-2-1.6.3 Tanks, Venting, Drop Elates. The criteria fuselage, and under the belly that snag parachutes or (requirements) for performance of these items are cargo must be removed or shielded. (SmokejumPer establisheB in the Inter-Agency R,ir Tanker Board, aircraft equipment drawings and specifications are Aircraft-Tank and Gating Systems. obtainable from the IJS Forest Service). C-2-I.6.4 Application Variation. For maximum C-2-2 Aircraft - Rotary Wing. The helicopter has flexibility and efficiency, the r etardant/suppressant become a familiar multiuse fire fighting aircraft in application rate should be variable, to fit the fire wildland fire suppression. This aircraft has become as situation. This can be done by sequencing various necessary in today s,fire suppression as hand tools combinations.of multiple doors, or using a variable crews, tractors, smol

2-I.6.5 Quantity (Splitting the Load). A means of C-2-2.1 Retardant'and Suppressant Dropping• The varying the quantity dropped should be provided on versatility and maneuvering capabilities of the airtankers having capacities larger than 500 gals helicopter make this aircraft an important initial (1893 I). This may be accomplished by: attack tool. Helicol)ters with capacities for dropping 80-2000 gal (303-7600 l) of suppressant or retardants (a) Tank with separate compartments, each wl.th its •are principal weapons in the helitack phase of wildland own door. fire suppression. Helicopters utilize generally two methods of dropping (See Table C-2-2.1) c (b) One tank with doors controllable. (a) A bucket slung underneath the helicopter.

(b) A fixed external tank.

719 NFPA 295. Table C-2-2 Helicopter Model Specifications

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720 NFPA 295 .Table C-2-2 Helicopter Model Speciflcations

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721 NFPA 295

TableC-2-2 Helicopter Model Specifications

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722 NFPA 295

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,723 NFPA 295 Table C-2-2.I (continued)

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724 NFeA 295

C-2-2.2 Initial Attack Transport• Helitack functions -3. Touchdown, taxiway, and parring surfaces. are designed to transport trained personnel to the fire as quickly as possible. Small crews, trained and (a) Maximum height of brush is 2 ft (:6 m). properly equipped, can gain control of most incipient (Caution: Dry grass can be a fire hazard around wildland fire situations if they ,:an make fast initial helicopters.) attack• This can be accomplished by landing or rappelling near the fire. (b) Sufficiently free of large rocks so as to ensure a stable landing• .C-2-2.3 Reconnaissance and Scouting. Performance characteristics of the helicopter make it an excellent (c) Minimum foreign object damage potential. reconnaissance and scouting aircraft. The slow speed add ability to operate in areas that could not be (i) Secure or eliminate all loose objects in observed from fixed wing aircraft, plus its usefulness the vicinity, such as twigs, branches, trash. in providing terrain and fire intelligence that otherwise may not be obtainable, are obvious benefi.ts. (ii) Dust abatement: Dust can do severe damage The helicopters provide an ideal platform for using to a helicopter's rotating components, especially the heat sensing and mapping systems• The systems range engine. Dust abatement will also minimize the from hand-held units to.permanently mounted units. rotor-wash generated dust cloud that could dangerously restrict a pilot's visibility• C-2-2.4 Shuttllng'Equipment and Fersonnel. Equipment can be moved to other fire areas, heliport to hel4p~rt, (d) Compacted enough to support the following or by paracarge or sling load methods, where landings weights: cannot be safely accomplished• Personnel"(fire crews, helitack personnel,~ and others) can be air-lifted as (i) Light helicopters - 7,000 Ib (3178 kg) conditions warrant. Food and water can be delivered to line crews, and spike camps can be supported in this (ii) Medium helicopters - 15,000 Ib (6810 kg) manner• (iii) Large helicopters - 60,000 Ib (27,240 kg) C-2-2.5 Rescue. Hellcopters are an essential part of many rescue operations. Some uses are: airlifting (e) The touchdown/parking pad (on which the landing medical aid crew personnel to care for and move the gear will physically sit) should be a minimum of the injured persons to medical aid sites or hospitals'; following: scouting and directing rescue crew~ and servicing isolated parties until rescue can be accomplished. (i) Light helicopters - 15 ft.x 15 ft (4.6 m x 4.6 m) Weather and performance limitations of the aircraft may, at time, prevent their use in rescue operations• (ii) Medium helicopters -]5 ftx 25 ft (4.6 m x7.6m) C-2-2.6 Night Operations. Under tightly controlled conditions, night vision aids for piloting helicopters (iii) Large helicopters - 30 ftx 35 ft (9". m x can extend the safe use of many daytime helicopter 10.7 m) operations in,the wildland environ~lent into night. (f) Soft surfaces, such as tundra or boggs, may. Night operations have several tactical advantages: require a log pad. cooler temperatures~ higher humidity, low density altitude," and more stable air are usually present after (g) Recommendedminimum obstacle clearance~for dark. Atmospheric conditions contribute to better touchdown, taxiway, and parking areas is tO ft (3 m) flying conditions at times that suppression measures from the tip.of the main and tail rotor. If, during can be more effective. planning, the turning radius of the helicopter is' not known, utilize the radius of the appropriate safety Also, helicopter services will not be in competition circle outlined in 1(b) above, to determine the minimum w~th airspace requirements of airtankers, smokejumpers, distance that an obstacle (including other helicopters and cargo planes. ~" should be from the touchdown/parking pad or centerline 'of the taxiway. C-2-2.7 Other Uses. Helicopters may also be used for aerial ignition operations suchas helitorch, ping pong. 4. Approach and departure capability in several dispenser, and other similar devices; repelling of directions if possible. This will allow the pilots to trained crews; retrieving smokejumpers; and for " utilize the wind to their best advantage. detection and prevention activities. 5. Bare, open pinnacles, ridgelines, and meadows C-2-2.8 Criteria for Selecting Landing Sites. make the bes.t hellspots and helibases. Due to the Consideration should be given to the following in potential volume of traffic at.a helibase, a more selecting a site for a helibase or belispot. level, open, and preferably improved area should be sought, along with stricter adherence to the guidelines• (a) Proximity to Fire 6. Although helicopters are capable of operating 1. Close enough to minimize flight time. • out of areas in which the safety circle is surrounded by tall trees (hover hole), it is not necessarily safe 2. Out of the path of the fire. to do so. Every effort should be made to allow the helicopter to make shallow approaches and departures• (b) •Topographyof the Site If operating from a hover hole is the only I. Recommended size of take-off and landing area alternative, ensure that the approach and departure (safety circle). paths to the hover hole meet the minimum'criteria outlined in (c) below• (a) Light helicopters - 75 ft in diameter (23 m) (b) Medium helicopters - iO0 ft in diameter (30 m) (c) The recommended criteria for approach and (c) Large hel.icopters - 105 ft iF, diameter (46 m) ..departure paths:

NOTE: .There should not be any ~bstacles other than I. Preferably, the approach and departure paths 2 ft (.6 m) high brush maximum in the safety should not be the same. In fact, several approach and circle. All other vegetation'and obstacles should departure paths should be developed if possib!e. This be removed (trees, large rocks, etc.). will allow pilots to adjust to changing meteorological conditions. 2. Slope of landing/parking area - 6 degrees maximum recommended. 2.' The minimum width of approach and departure paths should be the same as the diameter of the

725 ~, NFPA 295

correspohding safety circle. Safety would be enhanced The helicopter buckets vary in capacity from 80 • if the paths could be widened I0 degrees either side of through 2000 gal (303-7600 l) and are designed for use centerline as they leave the circle (20 degree spread). with various makes and models of helicopters. 3. Curving paths are permissable in order to avoid The helicopter fixed tank is made of metal (usually major obstacles." aluminum) and usually has a capacity of 200-36~ gal (757-1363 I) . These are filled by a hose from an 4. The paths should have a minimum 8:1 slope, engine, portable pump, or through an internal snorkel measured from the edge of the safety circle. from a dip tanker or other water source.

5. No obstacle should penetrate that slope during (f) CargoRacks. A variety of helicopter cargo the 20 degree spread for: carriers are in use - flat racks, basket-types (Stokes litter), etc. General requirements applicable to cargo a. Approach path - 150 ft (48 m) racks must be observed. Litters can be mounted b. Departure path - 300 ft (96 m) internally and externally. 6. Areas suitable for landing the helicopter in the (g) Loading Platforms. An elevated landing ramp or event of an emergency would be desirable along the loading pit may be required for heavy or bulky loads paths. that must be stacked as closed to the sling release as ~ possible. 7. The paths may generaily be aligned with the prevailing wind, but not always. Pilots will utilize (hi Firing Devices. At least two proven firing such variables as velocity of the wind, turbulence, devices can be effectively used for "firing out" updrafts, and downdrafts in deciding the direction of operations on wildland w11dflres and for igniting their approach and departure; hence, the importance of prescribed burns. having several approach and departure paths available. The helitorch consists of a 35-200 gal (189-757 l) (d) Establish flight routes in order to ensure the drum mounted on a sled platform, pump, discharge line, following: and an electronically activated glow plug. As the thickened fuel passes through the glow plug, the fuel I. Separation between helicopters. ignites and free flows to the ground. The fuel 2. Separationbetween other, aircraft on the fire. consists of unleaded gasoline and a gelling agent. 3. Flight following check points. When properly mixed, the fuel thickens to a jello-like 4. Aircraft performance - try not to have a heavily substance. loaded helicopter climb steep terrain. The Aerial Ignition Device System (AIDS) mounts (e) Pilots. The most important factor to consider within the helicopter's passenger doorway. "Ping pong when establishing these sites is the advice of the balls," containing potassium permanganate, are fed pilots flying in and out of them. This test offers through the device injecting each ball with ethylene only general guidelines for selecting hellbases and glycol causing the ball to ignite within 20-40 seconds hellspots. The pilots will make the final descislon on after it exits the discharge tube. all proposed site selections. (i) Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR). Units can be C-2-2.9 ,Helicopter Accessories. The versatility of internally and externally mounted on helicopters for the helicopter permits utilization of a variety of detection and reconnaissance. The images are recorded helitack accessories. It is essential that helitack on video tape and can simultaneously be viewed on a crews be able to properly use these accessories and screen within the helicopter. Hand-held infrared units that fire overhead personnel understand their tactical can be operated effectively from within the use. helicopter. Tapes can then be cropped or delivered-to fire camp where they can be used for tactical planning. (a) Cargo Hook..A cargo, hook or cargo adapter assembly is required with helicopter accessories. The C-2-3 Effects of Increased Density Altitude on cargo hook or adapter assembly serves as a standard Aircraft Performance. With increased density altitude, suspension hard point for attaching external helicopter lift and engine horsepower decrease; rotor blades and accessories. With the cargo hook installed, the propellers lose efficiency; and ground speed increases helicopter can take sling-type helitanks or any load for any given indicated airspeed. This increases suspended by a cable or cables. take-off distance and radius of turn, decreases rate of climb'of fixed-wing aircraft, and reduces the , (b) Swivels. Swivels are required for sling loads performance of rotorcraft (See Tables C-2-3(a) and of supplies and for using drum lifters. A swivel C-2c3(b). permits sling loads to rotate freely and elimina£es the possiblity of lead llne breakage due to oscillation. .The ICAO Standard Atmosphere Table (c) Lead Line. The cable that joins the cargo hook or swivel to the sling load. Regardless of the type of Speed lead line material or length used, the following points Alti~ude Temperatureof Sound Pressure should be considered: Meters (Ft) °C °F Knots In. H9 Standard I. tensile strength . Atmosohere 0 15 59.0 661.7 29.92 2. condition of material 305 I000) 13.019 55.4 659.5 28.86 3. length of line. 610 2000) II.037 51.9 547.2 27.82 915 3000) 9.056 48.3 654.9 26.82 (d) Cargo Nets. Cargo nets are designed for 1220 4000) 7.075 44.7 652.6 25.84 transporting freight suspended beneath helicopters. 1525 5000} 5.094 41.2 650.3 34.90 Suspended loads beneath the aircraft permits delivery 1830 6000) 3.113 • 37.6 647.9 23.98 of freight without landing and is considered the most 2135 7000) 1.132 34.0 645.6 23.09 efficient method for heliborne freight movement. 2440 8000) -.850 30.5 643.3 22.22 2745 9000) -Z.831 26.9 640.9 21.39 (e) Helicopter - Buckets and Tanks. These are used 3050 (10000) -4.812 23.3 638.6 20.58 to drop retardants/suppressants on fires. 3355 (11000) -6.794 19.8 636.2 19.79 3660 (12000) -8.775 16.2 " 633.9 19.03 The key to effective use of the bucket is to have a 3965 (13000) -10.756 12.6 631.5 18.29 water or chemical source as close as possiblb to the 4270 (14000) -12.737 9.1 629.1 17.58 fire site. Hoverfilling (filling the bucket while the • 4575 (15000) -14.718 5.5 626.7 16.89 helicopter hovers) maximizes the turnaround and delivery capability since it is not necessary to land Table C-2-3(a) and load water or chemicals by pumping.

~Z26 NFPA 295

Density Altitude Table

Pressure C15 ° 20 ° 25 ° 30 ° 35 ° 40 ° 45 ° 50 ° Altitude F59 ° 58 ° 77 ~ 86 o 95 ° 104 ° 113 ° 122 ° S.L. 0 550 t,100 1,650 2,200 2,750 3,300 3,850 1,000 1,200 1,750 2,300 2,850 3,400 3,950 4,500 5,050 1,500 1,850 2,400 2,960 3,500 4,050 4,600 5,150 5,700 2,000 2,450 3,000 3,550 4,100 4,650 5,200 5,750 6,300 2,500 3,050 3,600 4,150 4,700 5,250 5,800 6,350 . 6,900 3,000 3,650 4,200 4,750 5,300 5,850 6,400 6,400 7,500 3,500 4,250 4,800 5,350 5,900 6,450 7,000 7,550 8,100 4,000 4,900 5,450 6,000 6,550 7,100 7,650 8~200 8,750 4,500 5,500 6,050 6,600 7,700 ,7,700 8,250 • 8,800 9,350 5,000 6,100 6,650 7,200 7,750 8,300 8,850 9,400 9,950 5,500 6,700 7,250 7,800 8,350 8,900 9,450 10,000 10,550. 6,000 7,300 7,850 8,400 8,950 9,500 10,050 10,600 11,150 6,500 7,950 8,500 9,050 9,600 10,150 10,700 11,250 11,800 7,000 8,550 9,100 9,650 10,200 10,750 11,300 11,850 12,400 7,500 9,150 9,700 10,250 10,800 11,350 11,900 12,450 13,000 8,000 " 9,750 10,300 10,850 11,400 11,950 12,500 13,050 13,600

1. Set altimeter at 29.92. Face of altimeter will now read Pressure Altitude. ' " 2. Note the temperature on the outside air temperature gage. 3. Fin~ the Pressure Altitude. in the Pressure Altitude column. 4. Read to the right of the Pressure Altitude figure until you come to the Temperature column "' corresponding to the temperature on the outside air temperature gage. THIS IS THE DENSITY ALTITUDE FIGURE. Table C-2-3(b)

The four factors that affect density altitude are Runways for airtanker use must be of sufficient altitude, atmospheric pressure, temperature, and length to assure safe take-offs and landings. Repaired moisture content of the air. runways, taxiways, and ramps should be of such structural design that the gross weight of airtanker Runway length requirements for specific aircraft are operations will not cause damage to the surface. usually computed for sea level and standard atmospheric 'conditions of 59°F/29.92 Hf (15°C/101.32 kPa), with a Runway orientation should be .such that the crosswing runway gradient of one percent or less. • factor can be held to a minimum. If possible, it is desirable to have unobstructed departure and approach C-3 .Ground. Facilities lanes for the runways. C-3-1 Ground Support Fac,ilities. Permanentor Ideally, air traffic should be minimal. If air auxiliary bases for aircraft engaged in wildfire or traffic becomes heavy, employ an approved air traffic related operational activities shoq]d be arranged so controller to expedite departures and arrivals. that aircraft ground traffic, parking, and public movement will not delay or hinder the efficient and Rural-located bases, such as heliports, helibases, or safe operation. Taxiwaysand loading areas must afford helispots, are rarely confronted with competing adequate width and clearance for si~fe ground activities that slow down or hinder air operations as maneuvering of the aircraft. Ramp:; or heliport pads opposed to an airport-located base'. One exception in should be designed to support the !)ross weights of the some areas is military training routes (MTR's). aircraft and other' necessary equipment. The operations bbilding for a permanent or auxiliary The National Wildfire Coordinating Group's Fire base should be of adequate design and size to Equipment Working Team has developed an Airtanker Base . accommodatepresent and'foreseeable future operations Planning Guide that identifies planning criteria for " office activities. It should include the necessary deyeloping or upgrading airtanker hase facilities, communicationsfacilities essential for efficient, and "" safe operations, office space, pilot lounge, etc., in a C-3-1.I Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting. In most permanent base operations building. cases, rescue and fire fighting operations in response to accidents at an alrport'will be performed by regular (a) Altltude. Increase the basic runway length by 7 airport fire fighting personnel. However~ it may be percent for each 1,000 ft. (3-5 m) above'sea level. necessary at times to furnish this service and - necessary equipment where such facilities are not (b) Temperature. Increase the runway length that provided by the airport management., The National Fire has been fixed by altitude by I/2 of 1 percent for each Protection Association has published a number of useful degree (F) that the mean temperature of the hottest day standards, manuals,.and guides on this subject, listed exceeds 59°F (15°C). in Appendix B. • With normally aspirated engines "(non-supercharged), NOTE: At no time should air attack operations be approximately one-half of the r~ted horsepower is.lost conducted without approved fire extinguishing at 10,000 ft (3.050m). equipment and trained personnel on "fire guard." The FAA Flight Standards Service Operations Division C-3-2 Airports, Neliports/Helibases, and Helispots. has developed the Denalt Performance Computer, which is intended to supplement the aircraft manufactorer's C-3-2.1 Ai'rports. Suitable runway lengths for published performance data for computing take-off aircraft employed in air Operations could vary from a performance. Two types are available: one for, fixed sod runway of 2,000 ft (610 m), being used by single pitch and one for variable pitch propeller, aircraft. engine detection, reconnaissance, and scouting aircraft, to the 4,000 to lO,O00 ft. (1220 to 3048 m) of C-4 General Operating Procedures hard surfaced runway capable of supporting, and of adequate length to assure safe operations of, the C-4-I Air Operations Plan. Considerable evaluation largest airtankers. Runwaylength requirements given and. study will be necessary for those who plan air for specific aircraft usually apply only at sea level operatlons. Firsthand experiences and sound . altitude with standard day temperatures'59°F (15°C), ' information from others who are using aircraft wiil be and when the runway gradient is one percent or less. extremelyhelpful. For other conditions, the runway length must be increased. Airport Capabil!ty vs Aircraft Performance Concepts.

727 NFPA 295 L Some of the factors involved for consideration will Airports selected for either primary or auxiliary include the overall objectives and need for the alrtanker operations should be rated as to the number operations, cost evaluation, availability of suitable of airtankers that can be handled simultaneously. This aircraft to fulfill the objectives and need, will depend on the size of the airport and area set operational base locations, and ground support aside for loading facilities, the mixing and loading facilities, communications, personnel necessary to facilities, the aount of fi're retardant chemical, and operate the aircraft, the bases and ground support the available ground personnel-. facilities, and for the overall supervision of the'air operations. The. objective should be to have airports within 30 minutes travel time from the areas to be protected by C-d-2 Control of Aircraft During Incident. The chain initial air attack aircraft. The distance will vary of command at a incident should be: Air Operations with the different size aircraft. The aircraft Director, Air Attack Supervisor (in the air or on the direction and distance scale shown on Figure C-4-3 can ground, job may be assumed by Incident Commander or be used for calculating area coverage. The time Division Supervisor in early stages of fire), Airtanker distance table is based on loaded aircraft going to the Codrdinator (lead airplane), smokejumper or cargo fire. The return to base will be faster. The time aircraft, and first initial attack pilot on scene. distance is approximate and can be converted for any type of airtanker. C-4-2.1 Control Procedures. Pilots should know before being dispatched who has aircraft control at the fire. Pre-wildfire season planning should include preparing They should check in with Aircraft Control at least 5 the base for airtanker operations. This will include: miles (8 km) from the fire area and should not take-off, or enter, or remain in the fire area unless' 1. An operationsl check of mixing equipment. both primary and secondary radio frequencies are 2. Determination of the dry and wet chemical supply, operating on transmit and receive. water supply, and storage facilities, and 3. Training of the ground crews that are to support Pilots, including the one arriving to assume control, the operation and the logistics necessary to keep the who are unable to establish communication on the air attack aircraft operational. primary or secondary frequencies should remain clear of the fire area and attempt to relay through other Aircraft Miles stations to control. If no contact can be made, the S-2, DC-4 lO 20 30 40 50 pilot should return to his base. PB4Y2, B-26 7 12 16 19 22 P2V, DC-6, DC-7, C-30, P-3 5 8 II 14 17 Smokejumper or cargo drops, alrtanker retardant drops, and helicopter operations should not be Figure C-4-3 Aircraft Direction and Distance Scale conducted simultaneously if one will interfere with the other. Aircraft control should designate which C-4-4 Detection, Reconnaissance, and Scouting. The operation has priority when aircraft must accomplish essential components for a successful airborne more than one mission. detection, reconnaissance, and scouting operation are as follows: If an initial attack airtanker arrives when no control plane is in the area, the tanker pilot should C-4-4.1 Preliminary Planning. Maps, charts, seen-area attempt to establish ground contact for drop composites, spot maps, weather information, fire instructions. If contact cannot be established, and statistics, and any other information that may help in the pilot is positive it is not a radio malfunction, accomplishing the operation should be utilized. and the arrival of a control plane is not imminent, the pilot should circle the fire area at least once, C-4-4.2 Aircraft Selection Suitable for the evaluating it for water-chemical drop. The initial Operation. The aircraft should satisfy all functions pass'should be a dry run to check visibility, of the mission, Aircraft size, performance turbulence, and obstructions, and to spot personnel in characteristics, visibility, and safety are of prime the anticipated drop area. If the pilot is satisfied importance. that a safe effective drop can be made, the aircraft i should proceed to accomplish the drop. C-4--4.3 Pilot Qualifications. The~selectionof a properly qualified pilot capable of accomplishing the C-4-3 Retardant and Suppressant Drops. The proper use mission safely under any conditions that Sight be of air attack is important to resource pro~ection.. encountered. This includes the skill and knowledge necessary for determining When the mission can no The decision to use airtankers should be based on longer be considered safe and should be terminated. A careful consideration of the following: properly qualified pilot is usually an excellent observer. (a) Fire potential and its likel'ihood of doing extensive damage or requiring costly suppression C-4-4.4 Aerial Observers. Aerial observers should efforts. have the proper training and have gained through actual experience the capabilities of distinguishing and (b) Threatened safety of lives. interpreting their observations in relation to the mission's objectives. In wildfire and related (c) Opportunity to obtain,moFe economic control. missions, the observer should be experienced in flre behavior, fuels, weather measurements, ~nd fire (d) Availability of an airtanker organization suppression. sufficiently trained, equipped, and organized to perform the mission. C-4-4.5 Preflight Briefing. Pilot and observer should completely understand their individual (e) Accomplishing the mission during daylight hours, responsibilities, along with other combined efforts with terrain, visibility, and wind conditions necessary in conducting a successful and safe mission. permitting safe and effective dropping. C-4-4.5.1 Pilot responsibilities include: The airtanker is a highly specialized and costly fire fighting tool. It is the responsibility of the (a) In-flight check points, established at 15-minute incident commander to suspend the use of airtanker(s) intervals. when it is no longer effective or essential. (b) Safety of airplane, cargo, and passengers during Specialists with airtanker experience should be take-off, in-flight, and landing. consulted and assisted in the planning of the airtanker program. An airport facility guide and map showin~ the (c) Monitor of Weather - turbulent air, altitude, airports suitable for primary and auxiliary airtanker and flight path direction changes, noting storms and operations, within or adjacent to protection areas, cross wind components with regard to mission should be made. termination, flight plan revisions, and unscheduled landings.

728 • NFPA 295

(d) Check visibility per FAA requirements. 3. width of observation strip; Adjusting of flight route and termination of mission. 4. topographic type; 5. amount of cloud and topographical shadows; C-4-4.5.2 Selecting the proper class and type of 6. sun angle and direction; and mission is usually done with the assistance of the 7. backgroundand minimum altitude required for safe person responsible for dispatching the flight, but flight. qualified observers are often delegated this duty. Observer responsibilities are as follows: A method of determining flight altitude is to profile and calculate coverage at 500-ft (152 m) intervals and (a) Assemble current information and prepare altitudes. information, maps, and notes. If on a wildfire mission, assemble current fire and weathr information. There is very little advantage in flying at high altitudes, even in clear weather, when the observation (b) Check to see if pilot has reached or will exceed strip is limited by topography. The best observation his allowable number of safe flying hours per day or altitudes may vary according to terrain. Varying week. atmospheric conditions may require adjustment of flight altitude. • NOTE: Pilots should' not be allowed to exceed flight hour limitations. C-4-4.10 ObservationDistance. The observer should not waste any effort'searching the distant horizon. (c) Be familiar with air safety rules. Observations should be confined principally to the assigned strip. The :~earch area ahead should be (d) Check equipment and forms needed for the mission. limited to 15 miles (24 km) or less. For intensive search, such as lightning coverage or during extreme or (e) Inform the pilot of mission route, and know emergency fire danger, this distance should be deviations such as fire scouting, freight delivery, etc. reduced. About half the tim e may be used in forward observation. The rest of the~time is spent searching (f) Ground check of radio installation. those areas that later will be hidden from view.

(g) Observer in-fllght duties should include: C-4-4.11 Flying Speed. The slow cruise speed of the aircraft is a good observation speed. Under certain I. Recording flying time. conditions, slower speeds may be necessary to observe 2. Radio communications, forest net radio, specific areas. The experience and training of the applicable frequencies. pilot and observer have an important bearing on the 3. Pilot performance. flying speed. High and low speeds have certain 4. Other. necessary activities. advantages, depending on conditions and observation objectives. (h) Schedule aircraft in advance when possible. C-4-4.12 Number and Frequency of Flights. The number C-4-4.6 Reconnaissance. The aircraft should be flown and frequency of flights will depend on the desired to provide the observer wit~ the best possible objectives, available personnel and aircraft, and visibility. The objective should he on the observer's atmospheric conditions. side and as free as possible from visibility restrictions. Approaches should be planned to provide C-~-4.13 Estimating. Rapid and accurate estimating is the light and background. essential to a successful mission. Someof the common methods of estimating From aircraft are: ~ Frequently, the pilot can offer a.ssistance to verify ! questionable observations and, at times, assist by (a) Distance. providing data from aircraft instruments,,maps, and aircraft radio use. I. Compare the lineal measurements of.objects, either visually or from maps and air photos. Lakes, • Flying should be as smooth as possible to relieve the runways,'and similar landmarks are suitable for this observer of unnecessary strain. "The pilot should purpose. anticipate the observer'sneeds and maneuver the aircraft so that the observer does not have to shift 2. Measure the approximate distance by using flight position constantly. time and airspeed:

C-4-4.7 Detection. Flight routes ;hould be planned (b) Slope. and timed to give the'observer every possible advantage for the best observations. The selection routes should I. Aircraft instruments, such as the artificial be prepared on charts for each foreseeable condition horizon and altimeter, can be used to estimate slopes. that may occur and to preclude overlapping of Slopes may also be estimated from topographic maps. jurisdictions. Systematic profiling of critical areas along the proposed route is essential as this permits C-4-5 Communications. Satisfactory communications easier determination of alternate fl*ight routes. It equipment must be installed in the aircraft either may be necessary to fly the flight routes several times permanently or on a temporary basis. before establishing the selected route. The observers then should continue to refine and make adjustments. C-4-5.1 Radio• Suitable transceivers, either permanent or for temporary installation, must be. It may be necessary to adjust flight altitudes and provided for each aircraft. The use of Federal place areas with backgrounds that limit visibility on Aviation Administration (FAA) VOR navigational proper profile for flight line adjustments in improving equipment or LORAN.may he used to locate ground the efficiency of the detection flights. 'positions accurately.

C-4-4.8 Direction of Flight in Relation to Drainage. C-4-5.2 Message Dropper. Messagedroppers should be Normally, in mountainous areas, the flight routes carried in all aircraft for use when other means of should be planned to parallel the major drainages. communications are not possible or available. This a11ows the observer to look up or down the secondary drainages. Flights.across major drainages 4-5.3 Air-Ground Signals. A copy of the air-ground restrict the observation behind secondary and minor signals should be carried in the aircraft and by all ridges.. crew members.

C-4-4.9 Correct Flight Line Altitude. Correct flight C-4-6 Flight Plans. Planned periodic aincraft altitudes are determined by: position reports should be made (frequency shall depend on the mission). These position reports should be I. intensity of search and frequency of observations; followed,up promptly if not received within a specified 2. visibility restriction, smokey haze,'etc., and time limit. its elevation;

729 NFPA 295

Any deviation or change from a planned route should C-4-9.2 Nigh Operations. Night vision goggles permit be reported immediately and a new flight plan filed nightime use of twin engine helicopters over forested with notification of check points and destination. area~ where only natural light prevails. Special pilot training is needed to perform water and chemical A definite procedure should be established dropping, personnel transportation, cargo hauling, designating personnel responsible for follow-up if reconnalssance, and medlvac operations. Under aircraft is unreported at its destination. This is carefully controlled conditions, the operations can .be •especially important for flights terminating during performed with one or more helicopters. hours the dispatching office is not manned. High intensity lights mounted in the helicopter have Following flight procedures and requirements should also proven to be an effective and safe means of be mandatory for each flight. Radio contact and a conducting night operations. It is generally a less location report should be made at least at 15-minute expensive program than night vision goggles. High intervals. A.flight search should be initiated if intensity lights require no special pilot training and contact cannot be established within 30 minutes. can be used adjacent to populated areas. Combinations of steerable large aircraft landing lights have proven C-4-7 Records and Reports. Adequaterecords and most effective. reports are necessary for proper management of air operations. The reports help determine if the C-4-9.3 Coordinated Use. Airplanes and helicopters operation is: o may be used in many ways on a single fire. Their use must be coordinated to provide the right action at the I. being conducted safely and economically, and right t'ime and to assure a safe air attack operation. 2. accomplishing the objectives of the plan. This is done by the air attack supervisor. Once it is determined that both are being met, C-4-I0 Smokejumping, Airplanes can drop smokejumpers reports can be reduced to a minimum. into remote, isolated areas for fast initial attack on wildfires or to build and prepare a helispot or landing C-4-8 Lead Planes. The mission of the lead plane area, so that ground crews and fire fighters can be pilot is to serve as airtanker coordinator on the fire, landed by helicopters. SmokeJumpersmaybe fire assigned to the air attack supervisor. The primary "fighters with special training in parachute jumplng. purpose of the airtanker coordinator is to make certain Smoke Jumpers are used on any fire where their attack that the alrtankers place the retardant or water on the is faster than ground-crew attack. Normally, they are targets assigned safelyand effectively. transported by airplane to the fire area, making parachute jumps as close to the fire area as possible NOTE: Lead planes are usually light twin engine and starting suppression work immedlatley. When the ai rc raft. situation demands, smokejumpers are dropped near a fire and construct a helispot. Helicopters then shuttle At the present time, a number of lead plane fire fighters to the hellspot and return jumpers to t~chniques are used. The two most frequently used are: bases to be ready for another jump. (a) The lead plane orbits the fire at l,O00 ft C-4-1] Air Traffic Pattern. The air traffic pattern (305 m)above ground level and directs the airtankers in the fire area is determined in part by the terrain by radio. This high-level technique affords better and wind conditions. Aircraft control should establish visibility of both the ground and air operations, but the most suitable patterns and coordinate aircraft radio conversation is time consuming at times and time separation. loss is costly. Airtankers should orbit at least l,OOO ft (305 m) (b) The lead plane acts in a low-level "show me" above the terrain in a left pattern while waiting to method, simulating the airtanker pass, and identifies drop. The orbit generally will be made at a designated the target by radio, by 'rocking its wings over the location away from the drop area. The aircraft speed target, zooming, or by using other methods of and turning radius will determine size of the pattern. identifying the target. Airtanker aircraft should operate below the observation aircraft. The lead plane -airtanker coordinator- is primarily concerned with flight effectiveness and safety; The aircraft of the air attack supervisor should specifying approach and departure patterns for the maintain at least 2,000 ft (610 m) above the terrain, airtankers; drop elevations; approximate speed and type using the flight pattern most suitable to the mission. of drop "(trail, salvo, etc.); and other flight When descending below 3,000 ft (914 m), the pilot details. The airtanker coordinator is further should fly a lefthand traffic pattern. responsible for checking wind patterns and turbulence; assessing drop accuracy and effectiveness; and for The lead plane should orbit to the left or wherever defining the aircraft orbit pattern over the fire. necessary to set up and observe the'airtanker drops. The exact flight pattern and elevation above the The lead plane pilot also determines if there are terrain will depend on whether the high-level or fire flghting personnel or others in the proposed drop low-level system of airtanker direction is used. area and if so notifies the air attack supervisor or incident commander so people on the ground can be Smokejumper and cargo aircraft should advise aircraft warned of the impending drops. control of the best pattern for their purpose. aircraft control should then establish the aircraft C-4-9 Helltack. Helitack is deslgned to transport separation required and notify the jumper or cargo fire fighters, equipment, and helitack crew trained in aircraft when to proceed. All other aircraft should the use of specialized accessories, such as cargo nets remain at a designated location well clear of the and helltank~ to the fire without delay. The prime jumper or cargo drop area until receiving further value is speed of attack with short turn around in instructions from aircraft control. rugged terrain. Aircraft control will instruct helicopters to stay C-4-9.1 Rappelling. The development of a helicopter clear of the area when any type of drops are being rappel deployment technique extends the present use of made. If priority use of a helicopter is desired, helicopters as a wildfire suppression tool. Successful aircraft control should discontinue the drops until the rappelling from a helicopter to the ground in stands of helicopter has completed its assignment or is clear of tall timber [200 ft (61 m)] has proven that rappelling the area. is possible, and a practical means of delivering specially trained wildfire suppression crews when other ,C-4-12 Training Requirements. Each person involved in means are not possible. aircraft operations on wildfires, such as air , operations director, air attack supervisor, lead plane pilot/airtanker coordinator, airtanker pilot, and helicopter pilot must be fully qualified to do his job. Special training is required for these positions.

730 NFPA 295

C-4-13 General Aviation Hazards. Pilots should be (f) Provide a fire guard with suitable fire briefed and familiarized with all possible air hazards extinguishers. Crash trucks should be arranged for or approaching and returning to the base of operations and provided when practical'. within the fire area. When practical, a hazard map should be prepared and the pilot should be given a (g) Require airtanker pilots to wear crash helmet, familiarization flight over the area in which he will safety belt, safety harness, and fire resistant conduct his flight operations. Such flight hazards clothing• will include: (h) Prohibit all unnecessary low.flying of (a) Restricted areas (military activities, etc.). airtankers over fire camps or other large concentrations of men off the fire line. (b) Obstructions less than 1,0ii0 ft (305 m) above ground (observation towers, antennas, TV towers, etc.). (i) Airtankers operati'ng from water bases will exercise all water-related safety precautions. (c) Obstructions more than 1,000 ft (305 m) above the ground (radio and TV towers, microwave, and related (J) Designatedpersonnel, will make periodic communications towers). 'inspections of crash and survival gear, replacing and renewing items as needed. (d) Valleys, rivers, and lakes with dangerous power lines, telephone lines, or towers. (k) Require all aircraft to be operated in conformance with the operations manuals Prepared by the (e) Power lines and towers, telephone lines and contracting or owning agencies. poles in the immediate vicinity where air operations and low flying may be required. • (1) Prior to alrtanker use, brief the tanker pilot as to the fire situation, general plan of action, and (f) A single tree or snag that is taller .than the to specific missions. The briefing will include other trees in the area, where low flying is to be hazards, topography, wind velocity, turbulence, , conducted. anticipated operations at the target site, and whom to contact when about 3 minutes from the fire, or some (g) Narrow canyons, valleys, and steep terrain that other ground contact. could cause extreme turbulence or alleys, and steep terrain that could cause extreme turbulence or (m) Provide a taxi director for congested ground down-drafts. operations• (h) Extremeair turbulence or high winds,'generally C-4-15 Airtanker Water Operations• Amphibious or over 30-40 mph (45-65 kmh), which could restrict or float-equipped aircraft can pick up a load of water in suspend low-level flying. a very few seconds, These amphibious aircraft or seaplanes may be equipped with external or internal . (i) Military flight training routes where low tanks, and range in capacity up to 1,500 U. S. gal flying, high speed aircraft could present a hazard. (5678 l). The method of filling is generally the same for all alr,craft, with fixed, adjustable,' o.r. (j) Aircraft or related activities in the.vicinity retractable probes. The water is forced-up'the filling of the airport (parachute Jumping).' tubes by ram pressure developed by forward movementof the aircraft while planing or taxiing. (k) Obstructions on or near the air base thatmay affect take-off or landing of the aircraft.. Air attack operating principles and procedures are essentially the same as land-based airtankers with the (1) Geographicfeatures that could cause wind exception of the loading operation. Airtankers making conditions that might be hazardous to flight operations. water plck-ups from the same source can be confronted with water turbulence caused by the preceding aircraft (m) Domestic or wild animals on the air base that during its filling operation. This can also hold true could cause a collision or damage the operational during the cascading operation if adequate spacing is surface• not maintained. The amount of turbulence depends on the size of the aircraft and prevailing wind and (n) Roads crossing air bases that could cause conditions. This turbulence is dispersed more rapidly collisions or damage. in high and cross winds. Under normal operating conditions, the minimum spacing of the aircraft making (o) Airborne sightseers, news media, etc. water pick-ups from the same source would be I minute apart. With a fast turnaround.tlme,, you are limited to (p) When required, on-going wildfire operations with the number of aircraft that can operate from the same aircraft should be coordinted With FAA Route Structure source. If more than one loadin9 source is Controllers and Military Low-Level High Speed Training established, it becomes essential that suitable control route schedulers and coordinators. of loading at the sources and cascading operations at the fire site be conducted in a safe manner• C-4-14 Airtanker Base Operations. By the designation of ~ safety'officer or person in charge the following Amphibious airtankers are usually equipped with an • steps should be taken to assure th,~ safe performance of on-board supply of wildland fire, foam, and can inject all airtanker operations: it into the water on the way from the pick-up spot to the fire. (a) Keep unauthorized persons out of the mixing and loading areas. To assure safety in flight between the loading source and the fire, adequate aircraft separation and (b) Designate a parking area for needed vehicles, altitudes must be maintained. This separation is and keep all other vehicles elsewhere or away from the usually maintained by a delay between aircraft during operations base. the cascading and altitude separation of aircraft attacking the fire, and the aircraft returning from the (c) Use airport matting around mixing and loading fire. Safety is always a prime factor when more than` areas to ensure footing of ground personnel, A water one aircraft is involved in the same operation: hose should be provided to flus~ r,ztardant materials that cause hazardous conditions. (a) Amphibious and float-equipped attack aircraft have a definite advantage over land-based aircraft, (d) Require all airtanker operations personnel to provided a suitable water source for loading is wear hard hats,, goggles, and earmuffs, and to wear available near the fire. respirators during.mixing operations. (b) No ground crew or equipment is required at the (e) Enforce safety regulations for loading and loading site• refueling aircraft.

731 NFPA 295 Since loading time generally requires less than 30 (e) Keep clear of main rotor and tail rotor at all seconds, delivery time per load is the flying time from times. Carry long-handled tools low and parallel to the water source to the fire and return. This normally the ground, keeping clear of the main rotor or results in more loads per hour than could be delivered stabilizer bar. and cascaded by land-based aircraft. In many cases, small aircraft operating from a water source close to (f) Do not overload helicopter; put cargo in racks the fire can equal or surpass the delivery rate in and tie down securely. gallon per hour of much larger land-based aircraft. It must be remembered, however, that amphibious aircraft (g) Obtain pilot's approval for all gear stowed in drop suppressants, not retardants; and 'while not or on the helicopter. necessarily less effective, they definitely require a different attack strategy than do retardants. • (h) Always indicate wind direction by wind socks, streamers, flagging, or throwing dirt. ,Amphibious and float-equipped aircraft are mobil and independent; they may be moved rapidly from fire to (i) Helibases, particularly refueling areas, should fire with concerns only for normal fuel, oil, and be dostproofed by wetting dQwn, using polybinder, or maintenance requirements. other means, to prevent dust and other foreign objects from entering engine's .fuel containers,.damaging engine C-4-16 Amphibious and Float-Equipped Support parts" of the ship, or presenting danger to the eyes of Aircraft..Amphibious and float-type aircraft are personnel. utilized in many support functions ranging from detection, reconnaissance, and survey flights, to the (j) Equip helibase, helispots, heliport with a transportlng'of cargo and personnel. Aircraft that minimum of two fire extinguishers - separated to each were designed, or could be configured, for water side of the landing area. operations have for the past 50 or more years provided vital support to remote inland rivers, lakes, and (k) Keep field helispots clear of debris, equipment, coastal areas. and unauthorized personnel. - C-4-17 Helicopter Operations. Helicopter operations ('l) When helicopter accessories such as sling loads will comply with the applicable general rules for and helitanks are being used, personnel should never be aerial operations and practices prescribed for standing directly beneath.any portlonof the helicopter specialized helicopter operations. or equipment. The pilot is responsible for the safety of the • (m) Smoking regulations and other safety signs shall aircraft at all times. be posted at all field heliports. With the exception of specially trained pilots The following regulations must be observed when equipped for nighttime operations, daytime operation of refueling helicopters: the helicopter will be conducted during the period of time defined as 1/2 hour before sunrise to I/2 hour I. Helicopter engine must be stopped and master after sunset.' • switch shut off unless a certified and functioning closed circuit refuelingsystem is installed. Helicopters must not be dispatched for mountain 2. Helicopters and fuel containers will be grounded. flyi'ng when average velocity over a 5-minute period at 3. There will be no passengers aboard the aircraft. exposed peaks is 30, mph (27 KNTS) or more. 4. A suitable fire extinguisher will be available for immediate use. The helicopter pilot must not be permitted to fly 5. No smoking within 50 ft (15.2 m) of fueling area. more than the maximum number of allowable hours in a 6. No unauthorized personnel within 100 ft (30.5 m) day. of fueling area. A person trained in helicopter use should be C-4-17.2 Pro-Take-Off Briefing. Conducted by the stationed at each helicopter landing area during flight pilot or helitack personnel. The type of operation operations to supervise loading operations and enforce will dictate the type of briefing necessary, and safety regulations. discuss the following: Nighttime helicopter operations can be conducted with (a) Overwater Flights. The location and use of a qualified pilot, using night vision goggles or high flotation gear and other survival equipment aboard; how intensity lights when performed within closely and when to abandon the helicopter should ditching be controlled and defined limits. necessary. Helicopter arm signals should be practiced by all (b) Flights Over Rough or Isolated Terrain. personnel assigned to helitack operations. Occupants should be informed of access to maps and survival gear. Ground-to-alr signals and FAA ground signals should be remembered and use by associated personnel. (c) EmergencyInstructions. Each passenger shoul.d be aware of necessary actions and precautions in the C-4-17.1 •Precautions on the Ground - Helicopters. All event of an emergency, such as assuming correct body unauthorized personnel will be kept clear of the area position for best spinal protection against a high of operation. Hard hats with chin straps will be worn vertical impact landing (erect, with back firmly at all times. against the seat back) and when and how to exit after landing. (a) Keep clear of helicopter rotors. Unless required to go near, stay 50 ft (15.2 m) from small C-4-17.3 Precautions for Passengers During Flight: helicopters, I00 ft (30 m) from large helicopters, at all times. When necessary, approach from front or (a) No smoking. side, in full view of pilot.

. (b) Keep clear of the controls. (b) Always approach and depart helicopters from down hill side, at a slight crouch, keeping visual contact (c) Hold maps, papers, etc., securely while in with pilot at all times. flight. (c) •Before take~off, fasten and adjust safety belt (d) Use chin strap when in flight. If chin strap is and shoulder.harness. Keep belt fastened until not available, hold hard hat securely under arm or in instructed by pilot, after landing, to leave aircraft. hand. (d). Do not face helicopters when they are landing, (e) Keep oriented - aware of bearing - at all times. taking off, or hovering unless goggles are worn.

732 NFPA 295

if) Keep alert for hazards, particularly power and dispatcher, enabling him to notify all persons, involved telephone lines. Inform pilot of their presence, and that a fire is near a given route. Notification of the assist the pilot when requested in watching tail roto~ base designated responsible for the route does not clearance during landings at fiel d landing area. assure that military training aircraft will always be diverted from this route. C-4-17.4 Pre-landing Briefing. The nature of the landing area will determine the information given to Again, as.previously stated, the best defense against passengers. A few items to consider: this problem is coordination, communication, and constant vig!lance. (a) If on a hill, depart down hill. If this involves walking around the helicopter to avoid area of C-5 General. the lowest rotor clearance, always go around the front. NEVER THE REAR. C-5-1 Ah Interagency Airtanker Board Charter. The Interagency Airtanker Board was establishe~ to provide (b) Review of safety precautions for ground coordination between fire agencies in evaluation, operations. testing, and use of.airtanker to accomplish the fire suppression job. C-4-18 Ground Personnel - Hazards From'Airtankers. All ground personnel should listen and watch for low A. Purpose of the Board: flying aircraft making retardant or water drops. If no. prior notification of the drop has been received, the I. Accept, review, and evaluate proposed new or first warning of the arrival of the aircraft may be the modified airtankers. Recommend approval of acceptable sound of the air to ground warn|no siren or "whooper," airtankers to concerned agencies. or the aircraft engine sounds durlng the dry run over ,the target area. The safest procedure in such a 2. Act as advisor to the agencies and industry situation is: • operators in the overall improvement of airtanker retardant delivery systems. (a) Do not run unless escape is assure~. 3. Provide the vehicle for cooperative effort among (b) Discard hand tools to the side in as safe a all using agencies and industry operators in the manner as time permits. Do not leave tools where development, evaluation, improvement, introduction, cascading retardants can dislodge them, causlng.lnjury screening, selection, and approval of experimental and to personnel in the area. If uncertain as to safety, operational airtanker retardant dell.very systems. retain tools in hand. ,4. Promote, through any and all available means, (c) Lie face down, head toward the oncoming the long term improvement in the effectiveness and aircraft, with hard hat in place and grab something efficiency of airtanker retardant delivery systems. firm to prevent belng carried or rolled by the dropping liquid. B. Objectives of the,Board: (d) When in timber, get away from large trees and I. Through an evaluation and testing process, snags if at all possible. Retardant and water drops determine acceptable types of airtanker aircraft, can break off both dead and live branches. Do not' tanks, and gate design, and recommend them for remain in any area where there are loose rocks or other interagency use. material that may be dislodged and thrown b~. the liquid drop. 2. Integrate advancement of retardant technology "into aerial delivery systems. C-4-]9 Air Space Control. With the smoke, turbulence, and topography problems, the air operations and .air 3. Provide a central source of data and information attack flying on wildfires canl in themselves, be regarding evaluation, testing, selection, and dangerous. With the added problems of the presence of introduction of airtankers, tanks, gates, and all using sightseei.ng, commercial, and military aircraft in the agencies and industry. flre area, the hazards increase greatly, and mid-alr collisions become a possibility. C. Function of the Board:

There are measures, however, that can be taken to I. Accept and review applications for the reduce the, nonessential air traffic in the fire area.' development and introduction of airtanker aircraft, and U.S. Federal Aviation Regulation 91.137 Temporary tank and gate design as part of the total retardant Flight Restrictions, allow the affected agency to delivery system. Applications may include the proposal request FAA restriction of air traffic around disaster of a concept, design for development, or the completed areas. When this f]ight restriction is requested, and hardware. when a Notice ~o Airmen has been issued under this section, no person may operate an ~ircraft within the 2. Evaluateand weight the application and proposal designated area unless the aircraft• is operated in in'reference to: compliance with this flight rule. (a) "Mandatory requirements. The airspace restriction should be requested and set (b) Other than mandatory criteria. up only when necessary to conducted air operations in the fire area. When this ~equest is made to the fire 3. Select the best flight test programs and area. When this request is made to .the nearest FAA air gualified organization to conduct or perform flight traffic facility, the FAA files a NOTAM (Notice to testing and field evaluation on the drop Airmen) of existence and location of restriction, .which characteristics of the retardant drop systems: could include a request that nonparticipating aircraft avoid using the selected bases of operation to relieve 4. Review and recommend approval or rejection of airport traffic congestion. This restriction system is the. proposed airtanker, aircraft tank and gating system not foolproof, and continued vigilance for other based on the results of the flight test and retardant aircraft is absolutely essential. drop test program.

There are hazards, created by military aircraft with 5. When the airtanker is drop tested, designate an their low altitude, high-speed training routes. These• individual, agency, or facility to supervise and report routes - Department of Defense Flip Low Altitude' on the performance of drop tests, field evaluation, and Training Routes -.cover much of the United States with pattern acceptability and effectiveness. a constantly moving network of Ibw=level, high-speed military aircraft. ' " 6. If the drop tests are acceptable and other requirements are satisfactorily completed, recommend This is a difficult problem without a ready approval of the airtanker, tank, and gating system and solution. To minimize the problem, Flip Low Altitude type of aircraft for interagency use. If not Training Route Charts should be available to the acceptable, recommend redesign, or reject the proposed airtanker, and tank and gating system.

7~ NFPA 295 7. Obtain an operational field evaluation from the PART III using agency or other concerned agencies after the first season of use and provide appropriate agencies with the results. 296- I - (Entire Document): Accept SUBMITTER: Technical Committee on Forest and Rural 8. When a given type of aircraft.is approved as an Fire Protection airtanker, the Board, as a matter of expediency, may RECQMMENDATION: Withdraw NFPA 296, "Guide for Air recommend temporary approval of proposed additional Operations for Forest, Brush and Grass Fires." airtankers that are to be modified in conformity to the SUBSTANTIATION: The committee wishes to incorporate same TC/STC approval, pending submission of the all pertinent wildfire control information into a required conformity statement, weight and balance data, single document and has incorporated the material and revised flight manual. currently contained in NFPA 296 into the Appendix of the proposed complete revision of NFPA 295, "Standard D. Membership of the Board: for Wildfire Control" (See Part II of this Report.) CQMMITTEE ACTION: Accept. 1. The Board shall be composed of eight voting members. Three members shall be appointed by the Director, Office of Aircraft Services, Department of the Interior. Three members shall be appointed by the Director of Fire and Aviation Management - Forest Service, Department of Agriculture. 'One member shall be appointed jointly by the two Directors from a list of candidates submitted by the National Association of State Foresters. The eighth mem.ber, who will serve as chairman, shall be appointed Jointly by the two directors for a term not to exceed 4 years, e I 2. The Board may call upon advisors from industry, 'research, and equipment development as needed, in - addition to state and FAA representatives, contracting or other technical specialists, none of Whom may be. voting members. 3. Membership on the Board, and participation as advisors to the Board, shall be with the concurrence of the individual's organization. Individual expenses incident to the Board operation will be funded by the unit of assignment of the'i~dividuai, or the company of employment.

E. Operation of the Board: I. The Board shall meet annually, and at other times as needed, to act on any applications and proposal s. 2. All requirements of the evaluation procedures, including aircraft modification, tank and gate design, flight and drop tests, and certification, will normally be financed by the operator/proponent. 3. A weighting process, such as a point system, will be used by the Board in evaluating all "other than mandatory criteria,"or some other equitable and workable systems for evaluation. 4. Changes in the criteria for requirements of airtanker will be recommended to the appointing authorities for approval before they may be included as a requirement. 5. All tankers approved by the Interagency Airtanker Board, and the Military Airborne Fire Fighter System (MAFFS), are to be considered approved tankers. Any tanker with sufficient deficiencies evidenced by use may be subjected to further review by the Board for determination of continuing approval or withdrawal 'of such. 6. All Board recommendations will be jointly submitted to the Director, Office of Aircraft Services, Department of Interior; and the Director, Fire and Aviation Management, Forest Service, Department of Agriculture. Acceptance or rejection of the recommendations will be coordinated between the directors, and then communicated to the Board Chairman., In the event of disagreement between the directdrs additional information may be required from the Board to assist in the negotiation of final agreement. Approval of tankers will be communicated to the Board, aircraf.t owner, and the airtanker contracting officers, by the staff of the Director of the agency currently chairing the Board.

7. Nothing in this plan is to preclude any agency from establishing additional requirements or operating limitations in contracting for the use of airtankers.

734 PART IV PART V

\ 297- I - (Entire Document): Acc(,pt (Log # 1) SUBMITTER: Technical Committee ~n Forest and Rural 299- 1 - (5-1.1): Accept in Prinpiple Fire Protection SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products RECOMMENDATION: withdraw NFPA 2S9, "Guide on Association Telecommunications Systems-Prlnciples and Practices for RECOMMENDATION: Revise text to read as follows: Rural and Forestry Servlces. "5-1.1 Minimum fire protection requirements for SUBSTANTIATION: The committee wishes to incorporate structures and developments in'or adjacent to wildland all pertinent wildfire control information into a fire hazard areas shall be designed and constructed in single document. Someof the material currently a manner to reduce their ignition from a wildflre, and contained in NFPA 297 delt with ~'ildfire control and the spread of a structural fire to or from the has been .incorporated into the proposed complete wildlands." "' revision of NFPA 295, "Standard for Wildfire Control" SUBSTANTIATION: Chapter S is entitled "Structural (See Part II of this Report). The;remainder of the Design and Construction" and there isnothing in this relevant material deals with communication systems and roposed chapter which regulates the location of the has been forwarded to the Public Fire Service ~ uilding. This revised language reflects th~ criteria Communications Committee for incorporation in the next contained in the chapter. edition of NFPA 1221, Installation, Maintenance and Use COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. of Public Fire Service Communication Systems. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See revised text in current COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept.. committee proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of the submitter.

(Log # 2) 299- 2 -'(5-1.2): Reject SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Pcoducts Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise text to read as follows: "S-1.2 Every building or structure shall be constructed to meet the criteria of either the BOCA National Building Code, the ICBO Uniform Building Code, the SBCCI Standard Building Code or the CABO One and Two Fam@ly Dwelling Code for the intended occupancy." SUBSTANTIATION: Underwriters Laboratories does not have construction requirements. They are a testing laboratory. Construction requirements are found in building codes. The building codes listed in the proposed revised text. are all considered "MODEL BUILDING CODES" and are recognized throughout the couptry. COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: Revised text in current co~nmittee proposal omits this section.

(Log # 3) 299- 3L (5-1.3): Reject SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise text to read as follows: !!5-!.3 ~ Where other' criteria is required by Other regulations, the more restrlctive provision shall prevail." SUBSTANTIATION: The proposed language is cumbersome and fails to recognize all methods of adopting regulations. The'proposed revision is more generic and less confusing. COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: Revised text in current committee proposal omits this section.

(Log #. d) 29g- 4 - (5-2.1): Reject SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise text to read as follows: "5-2.1 Addresses shall be identified withan -appropriae'marker located so as to be clearly readable at all times to a vehicle approaching on the road servicing such building or structure for a distance of not less thanIO0 ft. SUBSTANTIATION: The draft copy of NFPA 2gg is missing language necessary to complete,the sentence. This revision provides a complete sentehce. While the original proposal includes a requirement for the address marker to be of noncombustible construction, in a fire situation involving the marker, the paint would be burned off the sign rendering it as useless as a marker of combustible construction. Thus there is no justification for the additional noncombustible requirement.

735 COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. combustible ground cover should provide a r~asonable' COMMITTEE STATEMENT: The comment is on text no•longer alternative to the enclosed overhangs. in the current committee proposal. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of the submitter. (Log # 5) 299- 5 - (5-3.1): Accept in Principle SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products Association (Log # 9) RECOMMENDATION: Revise text to read as follows: 299- 9 - (5-4.3): Accept in Principle "5-3.1 Roof coverings. Roof coverings in the SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products urban/rural interface and wildland areas shall be a Association minimum of Class C when tested in accordance with NFPA RECOMMENDATION: Revise Ehe proposed text as follows: 256." •"5-4.3 Structures supported wholely or in part on SUBSTANTIATION: The terminology "roof types" relates stilts shall have all underfloor areas enclosed or the to Hip roofs. Gambrel roofs, Gable roofs, Flat roofs, underfloor area and the surrounding area shall be free etc. but does not relate to the roof covering which from combustible ground cover." this section is attempting to address. Also, ~he NFPA SUBSTANTIATION: There is no justification for standard for testing roof coverings is NFPA 256. UL mandating the rated enclosures when unprotected provides testing services. A NFPA standard should openings are permitted in the exterio~ walls. The reference the appropriate NFPA standard. The" limitation on combustible ground cover should provide a terminology EXTREME, HIGH and MODERATE does not relate reasonable alternative to the enclosed underfloor areas. to the rating classifications found later "in this COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. proposed standard. A requirement for Class C roof COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee covering should provide adequate protection for proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of buildings covered by this proposed standard. In cases the submitter. where the Class C roof will not perform, the interior of the building could be expected to be involved due to heat radiation through the win~ows. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. (Log # lO) COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee 299- lO - (5-5.1): Reject proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products the submitter. Association RECOMMENDATION: Delete Section 5-5.1 in its entirety. SUBSTANTIATION: Safety, tempered, or double-paned J glass will not p~event the heat radiation from igniting (Log # 6) the elements inside a building subjected to the heat 299- 6 - (5-3.2): Accept from a wildlands fire. Typically, energy conservation SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products codes will regulate the type of glazing that is Association installed. Safety and tempered glazing will only be RECOMMENDATION: Delete section 5-3.2 in its entirety. installed in areas which may be subjected human impact. SUBSTANTIATION: If a roof sprinkler system is to be COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. considered as an upgrade of any fire resistance COMMITTEE STATEMENT: Commenter's text does not take classification, there should be specific design into account the effects of convected heat. criteria referenced in order to determine the effectiveness of the system. In the absence of such design criteria, there is no justification for granting credit for the sysbem (Log •# 11) COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept. 299- 11 - (5-5.2): Accept in Principle SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows: (Log # 7) "5-5.2 All openings in buildings located in HIGH 299- 7 - (5-4.1): Accept in Principle Danger classification areas shall be provided with SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products opening protectives which will provide a minimum Association protection of twenty minutes when tested in'accordance RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows: with NFPA 252 or 257, or the area within lO0 ft of the "5-4.1 Vents shall be screened with a opening shall be free from concentrations of vegetative corrosion-resistant wire mesh with a mesh not less than fuels. one-quarter inch nor more than One-half inch in size." SUBSTANTIATION: A fireproof shutter will only protect SUBSTANTIATION: The model building codes require attic the shutter from combustion. IF it is necessary to vents to have openings not less than one-quarter inch provide protection of the openings, the protection nor more than one-half inch in size. The limitation as should be in accordance with the appropriate NFPA originally proposed would require the use of screening standard. The twenty minute protection suggested here with exactly one-quarter inch mesh. A reasonable will. provide a specific amount of protection as opposed tolerance is needed due to the inability of to a "fireproof shutter" which may provide an manufacturing screening to such an exact specification. undetermined amount of protection. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee proposal which the Committee 5eels meets the intent of proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of the submitter. the submitter.

(Log # 8) (Log # 12) 299- 8 - (5-4.2): Accept in Principle 299- 12 - (5-6): Accept in Principle SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products Association Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows: RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows: "5-4.2 Eaves, cantilever balconies, and other "5-6 Exterior Walls. similar overhangs shall be enclosed or the surrounding 5-6.1 Exterior walls in buildings located in High area shall be free from combustible ground cover." Danger classification areas shall be designed and SUBSTANTIATION: There is no justification for constructed to provide one hour fire resistance rating mandating the rated overhangs when unprotected opening when exposed to fire from the outside and tested in are permitted in the exterior walls. The limitation on accordance with NFPA 251."

736 NFPA 299

SUBSTANTIATION: UL does not have a "fire hazard SUBSTANTIATION: The reference to wood roofs is severity classification". UL tests assemblies to - improper since the hazard will exist with any roof" determine their fire resistance in accordance with the which may be constructed of non-rated roof coverings. appropriate tests. This #reposed standard should COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. reference the appropriate NFPA standard for fire COMMITTEE STATEMENT: The submitter apparently reviewed testing. Since it would be reasonable to assume that a an early Committee working document. The proposed fire of one hour endurance would penetrate the exterior document does not include any forms. envelope due to the radiation through the windows, there is no justification for requiring any endurance ,beyond one hour. The reference to the extreme severity is removes since this draft only relates to LOW,. 299- 17 - (Entire Document): Accept MODERATE, and HIGH. (See page 88/23) SUBMITTER: Technical Committee on Forest and Rural COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept in Principle. Fire Protection COMMITTEE STATEMENT: See text in current committee RECOMMENDATION: Adopt a new standard to be designated proposal which the Committee feels meets the intent of as NFPA 299, "Standard for Protection of Life and the submitter. Property from Wildfire." SUBSTANTIATION: As a result of the concern over the expanding development in the Nations Wildland/Urban Interface areas, the committee has undertaken to (Log # 13) develop a standard which addresses the problems of life 299- 13 - (5-8): Reject and property protection in those areas. The proposed, SUBMITTER: Peter H.,Billing, National Forest Products new standard incorporates information from NFPA 224, Association "Standard for Homes and Camps in Forest Areas" which is RECOMMENDATION: Delete. Section 5-8 in its entirety being withdrawn (See Part I of this Report.) without substitution. COMMITTEE ACTION: Accept. SUBSTANTIATION: The construction of mobile homes, which are legally described as "Manufactured Homes" are controlled by federal government regulations. These federal regulations, kHown as the Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards, are preemptive and NFPA 299 local jurisdictions cannot invoke any additional requirements. Standard for COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject, Protection of Life and Property From Wildfire COMMITTEE STATEMENT: Local regulations can provide criteria on installations of site work and additions to 1991 Edition manufactured homes. Chapter 1 Introduction NOTICE: An asterisk'(") following the number or letter (Log # 14) designating a paragraph indicates explanatory material 299- 14 - (Appendix D): Reject on that paragraph in Appendix A. SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products Association Information on referenced publlcatlons can be found in RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows: Chapter 9 and Appendix B. "In the rating system instructions for line 15, provide more complete information than is indicated in I-I Scope. This standard presents minimum planning the draft copy of the standard. There is no reference criteria For the protection of life and property from to line 15, and the first sentence reads "metal or tile wildfire. It includes information on safe procedures roofs." Modify the second sentence to read "Do not and practices at the wildland/urban interface or include homes with non-rated roofs." intermix. SUBSTANTIATION: The draft, copy of the standard is incomplete. The reference to wood roofs is improper I-2 Purpose. The purpose of this standard is to since the hazard will exist with any roof which may be provide criteria for fire agencies, land use planners, constructed with non-rated roof coverings. architects, developers, and local government.for fire COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. safe development in areas that may be threatened by COMMITTEE STATEMENT: The submitter apparently reviewed wildfire. an early Committee working document. The proposed NFPA 299 does not include an Appendix D. The language cited I-3 Definitions.. For th~ purpose of this standard, by the submitter is not contained in the document. the following terms have the meanings shown below~

Access Routes. Principal vehicular ingress and egress to a structure or through a development, crossing more ,(Log # 15) than one parcel, including public and private roads, 299- 15 - (Form B): .Reject streets, and lanes, that extend to and intersect with a SUBMITTER: Peter N. Billing, National Forest Products publicly maintained road, street, or lane. Association RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as foilows: Accessory Building.or Structure. Any building or "Modify item 2 of Form B so the portion within the structure used inc3dentally to another building or parentheses will read (Metal, Til~ or other fire. rated structure. roofings. No non-rated roof coverings.)" SUBSTANTIATION: The ~eference to wood roofs is Approved. .Acceptable to the "authority having improper since the hazard will exist with any roof jurisdiction." which may be constructed of non-rated roof coverings. COMMITTEE ACTION: Reject. NOTE: The .National Fire Protection Association COMMITTEE STATEMENT: The submitter apparently reviewed does not approve, inspect o~ certify any an early Committee working document. The proposed installations, procedures, equipment, or materials document does not include any forms. nor does it approve or evaluate testing laboratories. In determining the acceptability of installations or procedures, equipment or materials, the authority having jurisdiction may (Log # 16) base acceptance on compliance with NFPA or other 299- 16 - (Form C): Reject appropriate standards. In the absence of such SUBMITTER: Peter H. Billing, National Forest Products standards, said authority may require evidence of Association proper installation, procedure or use. The RECOMMENDATION: Revise the proposed text as follows: authority havfng jurisdiction may also refer to "Modify item VI of Form C so the first three the listings or labeling practices of an categories will read "of homes have Class A, B or C organization concerned with product evaluations r~of coverings" and the last category will read "of which is in a position to determine compliance homes have non-rated roof coverings"." with appropriate standards for the current production of listed items• i' 737 NFPA 299

Aerial Fuels.- Standing and supported live and dead product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection combustibles not in direct contact with the ground and of production of listed equipment or materials and consisting mainly of foliage, twigs, branches, stems, whose listing states either that the equipment or cones, bark, and vines. material meets appropriate standards or has been tested and found suitable for use in a specified manner. Aspect. Direction toward which the slope faces. NOTE: The means for identifying listed equipment Average Daily Traffic (ADT). The average daily volume may vary for each organization concerned with of vehicles traveling on a given road. product evaluation, some of which do not recognize equipment as listed unless it is also labeled. The Authority Having Jurisdiction. The "authority having "authority having jurisdiction" should utilize the jurisdiction" is the organization, office or individual system employed by the listing organization to responsible for "approving" equipment, an i.nstallation identify a listed product. or a procedure. Occupancy. The purpose for which a building, or part NOTE: The phrase "authority having jurisdiction" thereof, is used or intended to be used. is used in NFPA documents in a broad manner since jurisdictions and "approval" agencies vary as do Prescribed Fire. The knowledgeableapplication of their responsibilities. Where public safety is fire to a specific land area, to accomplish primary, the "authority having jurisdiction" may predetermined land management objectives. be a federal, state, local or other regional department or individual such as a fire chief, Rated Roof. A roof constructed of materials that are fire marshal, chief of a fire prevention bureau, listed as meeting the requirements for Class A, B, or C labor department, health department, building roofing materials (see NFPA 256 Standard Methods of official, electrical inspector, or others having Fire Tests of Roof Coverings). statutory authority. For insurance purposes, an insurance inspection department, rating bureau, or Roads, Streets, Private Lanes. An open way for other insurance company representative may be the passage of vehicles giving access to more than one "authority having jurisdiction." In many parcel, any industrial or commercial occupancy, or to a "circumstances the property owner or his designated single parcel with 4 or more dwelling units. agent assumes the role of the "authority having jurisdiction"; at government installations, the Roadway. Any surface improved, designed, or commanding officer or departmental official may be ordinarily used for vehicular travel. the "authority having jurisdiction." Shoulder. Surface of a road adjacent to the traffic Brush. Shrubs and scrub vegetation or other growth lane. heavier than'grass, but not full tree size. Slope. Upward or downward incline or slant, usually Building. Any structure used or intended for calculated as a percent of slope (rise or fall per 100 supporting or any use or occupancy. ft (30.5 m) of horizontal distance).

Dead End Road. A road that provides only one point of Street or Road Signage. Any sign containing words, ingress and egress. numbers, directions, or symbols that provides information to emergency responders. Development. Human-made improvement of property. Structure. That which is built or constructed, an Driveway. Vehicular ingress and egress routes that edifice or building of any kind, or any piece of work serve no more than 2 buildings or structures, not artificially built up or composed of parts joined including accessory structures, on one parcel, together in some definite manner. containing no more than 3 dwelling units. Traffic Lane. That portion of a roadway that provides Dwelling Unit. Any building or structure or portion single lane of vehicle travel in one direction. thereof that containsliving facilities with provisions for sleeping, eating, cooking, and sanitation for not • Traveled Way. The portion of a.roadway that provides more than 1 family. for vehicular travel in all permitted directions.

Fire Hydrant. A valved connection on a piped water Turnaround. A roadway, unobstructed by parking, that supply system having one or more outl,ets and that is allows for a safe reversal of direction for emergency used to supply hose and fire department pumpers with equipment. water. Turnouts. A widening in a roadway of sufficient" Fuels. All Class A fuels within the wildland urban length and width to allow vehicles to pass one another. interface or wildland/urban intermix, including vegetation and structures. Wildland/Urban Interface. An area where development and wildland fuels meet at a well defined boundary. Fuel Break. An area, usually a long strip strategically located, wherein vegetative fuels are Wildland/Urban Intermix. An area where development reduced in volume and maintained to cause a reduction and wildland fuels meet with no clearly defined of fire intensity if ignited by a wildland fire. boundary.

Fuel Loading. The volume of fuel in a given area, Wildfire. An unplanned and unwanted fire requiring generally expressed in tons per acre. suppression action; an uncontrolled fire, usually spreading through'vegetative fuels but often Fuel Modification. The removal of fuels, conversion threatening structures. of vegetation to fire. resistant species, increased spacing of individual plants, reduction of fuel Chapter 2 •loading, or lowering of age class. Wildland/Urban Interface and Ground Fuels. Any native or landscape vegetation not Wildland/Urban Intermix Analysis considered a tree and generally in contact with the ground. 2-I ~ General. The analysis of the wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban intermix will help identify Mammerhead/T. A roadway that provides a "T" shaped, and document local problem areas and guide the three- point turn-around.for emergency equipment, being application of standards and establishment of no narrower than the road that it serves, with the top priorities relative to fire danger. of the "T" being a minimum of 40 ft (12.2 m) long. 2-2 Analysis Ratings. The authority having Listed. Equipment or materials included in a list jurisdiction shall perform a wildland fire protection published by an organization acceptable to the analysis of all developments, existing or planned, to "authorityhaving jurisdiction" and conce'rned with determine wildland fire protection ratings. The ratings developed under the authority of this Section 738 NFPA 299 shall be the basis for the implementation of fire safe by multiplying the fuel hazard rating by the slope design and construction criteria. This analysis shall hazard rating andaddlng the structure hazard rating to be updated as conditions change. that total.

2-3 Analysis Components. "The analysis shall contain 2-4 Establishing Wildland/Urban Interface or the following components: Wildland/Urban Intermix Planning Priorities. The relative wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban (a) wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban intermix hazard of each unit shall be rated from intermix boundaries highest to lowest.

(b) fuel hazard rating 2-4.1 Additional Factors. Where other factors • influence community needs and where determined as (c) slope hazard rating appropriate by the authority having jurisdiction, the following 'factors among others shall be considered in (d) structure hazard rating " " the rating system: water supplies, road access, fire history, fire weather, and fire behavior.. NFPA If41, (el wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban Standard for Fire Protection in Planned Building Groups intermix hazard rating and NFPA 1231, Standard on Water Supplies for Suburban and Rural Fire Fighting may be utilized. 2-3.1" MappingWildland/Urban Interface or . Wildland/Urban Intermix Areas. Wildland/urban Chapter 3 Fuel Modification Planning interface and wildland/urban intermix areas shall be shown on a map. Areas shall be delineated as logical 3-I General. This chapter will provide .guidance in units or areas and given a name or number. the mitigation of measures associated with fuel hazards and special hazard conditions. 2-3.2 Assigning a Fuel Hazard R~Lting. For each wildland/urban interface and wil~land/urban intermix 3-I.I Mitigation Measures. Fuel modification shall be unit or area, a fuel hazard rating shall be assigned the primary mitigation measure'. based on Table 2-3.2. Where fuel types vary within a unit or area, the rating assigne~ for the unit or area 3-2 Evaluation Factors. As prescribed in Chapter 2 of that best represents the predominant fuel type shall be this Standard, a comprehensive assessment of the fuel . assigned. hazard shall be made. Factors that shall be considered in the assessment and designated on maps include: T~ble 2-3.2 Fuel Hazard Rating (a) fuel-type identification Type Ratinq (b) fuel loading (volume) (c) size of fuel bed (acres) Small, light fuels (grass, weeds, shrubs) I (d) slope and aspect Medium size fuels (brush, large ~hrubs, 3-2.1 Fuel-Type Identification,. All fuel, natural small trees) 2 vegetation as well a:~ other flammable materials, existing within the area shall be identified and rated Heavy, large fuels (woodland, timber, as to their potential to increase the hazard. The ease heavy large brush) 3 of ignition and ability to assist in the spre&d of fire are important factors. 2-3.3 Assigning a Slope Hazard ~ating. For each wildland/urban interface and wil~land/urban intermix 3-2.2 Fuel Loading. The volume of fuels, both unit or area, a slope hazard rating shall be assigned pl-esently existing and likely to be present under based on Table 2-3.3. Where slopes vary within a unit expected development, shall be estimated and included or area, the rating for the unit or area that best on maps. represents the predominant slope range shall be assigned. 3-2.3 Slope. Percent of slope and aspect shall be determined and indicated on maps. Table 2-3.3 Slope Hazard Rating 3-2.4* Fuel Modification. The purpose of the fuel Slope Rating modification effort will be to develop defensiblespace to protect structures from approaching wildfire as well Level to mild slopes (0-15%) as to reduce the potential for a structure fire spreading to the wildland. The defensible space shall Mild to medium slopes (16-40%) 2 be initially provided by the developer and shall'be maintained by the property owner. Medium to moderate slopes (41-60%) 3

Moderate to extreme slopes (61% +) 4

2-3.4 Assigning a Structure Hazard Rating. For each wildland/urban interface and wildland/urban intermix unit or area, a structure rating that best represents the combination of design characteristics in each unit or area shall be assigned based on Table 2-3.4. Brush island Ratings occurring between ~hose shown in the table shall be assigned where they represent areas of mixed - / structures. does l \ Table 2-3.4 Structure Hazard Rating ° (=: Desiqn Characteristics Rating

Rated roof and nonflammable siding materials l • ~%@' .' /~ Structure

Rated roof and flammable siding materials 3

Nonrated roof and nonflammable siding materials 7

Nonrated roof and flammable siding materials 10

2-3.5* Calculating the Wildland/Urban Interface or Wildland/Urban Intermix Hazard Ra.t.ing. The wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban intermix hazard rating shall be calculated for each unit or area Figure 3-2.4(a) Defensible Space (Level)

739 NFPA 299 I !3o'! 13o'1

f " i i I I 1~--1oo,-~ I I i I I Convective heat Z I I currents s I I I I I N' I I I I I I 100' setback I I

Structures at the top of slopes will require 100' or more fuel modification to mitigate increased exposure due to ' convective and radiant heat transfers.

Figure 3-2.4(b) Defensible Space (Slope)

3-3* Fuel Modification Plan.' (See Appendix A, Figures 4-2 Roads, Streets, and Ways. Roads, streets, and A-3-3(a-d)). ways shall provide for unobstructed traffic circulation during an emergency. Access to fuelbreaks and 3-3.1" Modification of Fuel Types. Where consistent greenbelts, when required by the authority having with ecological factors, less fire-prone vegetation jurisdiction, shall be provided from roads, streets, shall be encouraged. and ways. All vehicular access and gates servicing such access shall meet the specifications provided 3-3.2 Reduction of Fuel Loading. Trees and brush herein. All roads shall be designed and constructed shall be cleared away from structures for a distance according to standards published by the American that is determined to prevent ignition of either the Association of State Highway and Transportation structure or the vegetation, should the other burn. Officials, but shall also meet the minimum requirements Vegetation existing away from the immediate area of the set forth in this document. structure shall be thinned and pruned to prevent a fire from being carried toward or away from the structure. 4-3 Private Roads, Streets and Ways, Fire Lanes, Annual grasses within 30 ft (9.1 m) of structures shall Parking Lots, and Driveways. All fire lanes, private be mowed to 4 in. (10.2 cm) or less. Ground litter streets, parking lots, and driveways shall be designed shall be removed annually. Over-mature, dead, and and constructed according to NFPA I141, Fire Protection dying trees shall be evaluatd as to their potential to for Planned Building Groups. ignite and to carry fire. All trees determined to contain such potential shall be removed. 4-4 Specific Design Requirements.

3-3.3 Mitigation of Slope and Apsect Impact. Slope 4-4.1 Access Routes. All developments shall have more and aspect greatly affect the potential for carrying than one access route. The design of access routes fire, and very little opportunity exists to modify them shall consider traffic circulation and employ looped directly. Where degree of slope and/or aspect are .road networks. determined to affect the hazards, greenbelts or fuel-breaks shall be provided. 4-4.2 Public Vehicular Easements and Rights of Way. (a) Public vehicular easements and rights-of-way Chapter 4 Roads, Streets, and Ways shall be of sufficient width to accomodate the traveled way, shoulder, parking spaces, vegetation modification, 4-I General. Roads, streets, and ways, whether public and other local requirements on or along a road, or private, shall provide for safe simultaneous access street, or way. for emergency fire equipment and civilian evacuation. The authority having jurisdiction may permit (b) Easements shall be obtained from adjacent modification of access requirements when the structures property owners where needed to comply with paragraph being protected are provided with private fire (a) above. protection systems.

740 NFPA 299

/. 12" " 12' 4'

ilder Shou

Figure LI-4.4 Traffic Lanes All-Weather Surface

4-4.3 Road Surface. All roads and road structures shall be graded and surfaced ana of sufficient design to support the weight •of 20-ton vehicles.

4-4.4 Width of Traveled Way. Simultaneous access for emergency vehicles and the evacuation of residents s~all be provided for by a traveled way of not less than 24 ft (7.3 m).

4-4.5 Maximum Grades. Grades shall be no greater than ~ . Minimum 40' imI lO percent, except the authority h,~ving jurisdiction may allow steeper grades where mitigation measure~ can be agreed upon by the fire chief and the road engineer. I 4-4.6 Minimum Grades. Roads shall have a minimum grade of not less than 0.5 percent in order to prevent pooling of water in the trave3ed w;~y. Drainageshall be provided to protect a primary road when it intersects with a secondary road.

4-4.7 Curve Radius. No road shall be constructed with a curvature radius of less than 100 ft (30.5 m), measured at the center line.

4-4.8 Shoulders.

(a) Improved gravel shoulder width shall be a minimum of 4 ft (I.2 m) on each side of the traveled surface. Cul de sac Hammerhead-T

(b) On roads with an average daily traffic in excess of 1000 vehicles per day, shoulders shall be constructed to the same specffications as the traveled way. Figure 4-4.10 Cul De Sac and,Hammerhead-T Turnarounds • 4-4.9 Parking• Where parking is to be allowed along the traveled way, at least 9 ~t (2.7 m) of improved 4-4.11 Driveways. width shall be provided (see Figure 4-4.4). If curbs are not provided, then shoulders shall be constructed (a) All driveways shall provide a minimum accordingto section 4-4.8. u6obstructed width of 12 ft (3,.7 m) and minimum unobstructed •vertical clearance of 15 ft (4.6 m). 4-4.10 Dead End Roads. (b). All curb cuts at entrances to driveways or other (a) In areas of extreme hazard severity private ways shall be of sufficient width to permit classification, as identified in the wildland/urban safe travel by emergency Vehicles at all times of year. interface and wildland/urban intermix assessment, Chapter 2, dead end roads shall not exceed 600 ft (c) Turnouts shall be designed and constructed every (183 m) in length. 400 ft (122 m) along the driveway's length.

(b) In all other areas, dead end roads shall not (d) A turnaround shall be provided at ali' building exceed I000 ft (305 m) in length. or structure sites on driveways over 300 ft (91 m) in length and shall be within 50 ft (15.2 m) of the (c) All dead end roads shall have a turn-around at building or structure. the closed end of at least lO0 ft (30.5 m) diameter measured at the outside of the traveled way. However, (e) In addition, where applicable, all driveways where wildfire hazard severity is classified as low, shall conform with NFPA I141. the authority having jurisdiction may approve a hammerhead-T designed turnaround, to provide emergency 4-4.12 Gated Entrances. vehicles with a 3-point turnaround ability.• (a) The clear opening provided through the gate shall be 2 ft (0.6 m) wider than the traveled way.

741 NFPA 299

12'

Traffic lane

Driveway

Figure 4-4.11 Driveways

(b) All gates Shall be located at least 30 ft 6-2 Notification. The authority having jurisdiction (9.1 m) from the public right-of-way and shall open shall be notified in writing before any water system is inward, allowing a vehicle to stop without obstructing constructed, altered, or removed and before site traffic on the publtc road. development or construction of any structure commences so that fire protection can be evaluated and ample Chapter 5 water supply capabilities pertinent to such construction can be established. Standards for Signage of Streets, Roads, and-Buildings 6-3 Evaluation of Water Supply Needs. 5-I General. To facilitate the locating of a fire and to avoid delays in response, all roads, streets, and 6-3.1 Authority. The fire protection agency having buildings shall be designated by names or numbers on jurisdiction shall evaluate all buildings, proposed and sivns clearly visible and legible from the roadway on existing, to obtain information required for computing which it is addressed. minimum water supply. Information obtained from plans or on-site surveys and determinations made and recorded 5-2 Visibility.of Street and Roa~ Signs. Street and shall reflect the water supply category required'. The road signs shall be located at intersections and computation of minimum water supplies for ot~er than legible from all directions of vehicle travel for a municipal, domestic, or fixed fire protection systems. distance of not less than lO0 ft (30.5 m). shall be in accordance with NFPA 1231.

5-3 Size of Letters, Numbers, and Symbols for Signs. 6-3.2 Design, Construction, and Maintenance. Based All letters, numbers and symbols shall be a minimum of upon the water supply evaluation, the authority having 4 il;. (10.2 cm) in height, with a I/2 in. (I/3 cm) jurisdiction shall approve the design, construction, stroke, be reflectorized and contrasting with the and maintenance of water supplies and distribution background color of the sign. systems to ensure that fire protection concerns have been addressed and adequate water supplies and access 5-4 Height of Street and Road Signs. Signs shall be thereto have been provided. mounted 6 to 8 ft (2 m) above the surface of the road, unless local conditions or existing standards prescribe 6-4 Minimum Water Supply Requirements. Water shall be otherwise. available to provid9 a minimum fire flow of 250 gallons (946 L) per minute for 2 hr. 5-5 Names and Numbers on Street and Road Signs. Newly constructed or approved public and private roads and 6-5 Static Water Supplies. The design and streets must be identified by a name or number in a construction of, and access to static water supplies consistent system that provides for sequenced or shall be according to NFPA 1231. patterned numbering and nonduplicated naming within each jurisdiction. 6-6 Signage of Water Supplies. Each fire hydrant or access to water shal] be identified as follows: 5-6 Signs Indi'cating Special Conditions. On other than through-trafflc roads, signs identifying pertinent (a) a reflectorized marker, with a minimum dimension information shall be placed at the entrance to such of 3 in. (7.62 cm) , shall be loacted on the driveway road. address sign signifying tile hydrant location and on a fire retardant post located near the.fire hydrant, and 5-7 Installation of Road and Street Signs. Signs shall be installed in a horizontal orientation and (b) a fire retardant reflectorized sign with the prior to final acceptance of road improvements. words "DRAFT WATER" or "PRESSURE WATER" having letters a minimum of 4 in. (10.2 cm) in height, with I/2 in. 5-8 Addresses for Buildings. All buildings shall be (1.3 cm) stroke, reflectorized and contrasting to the issued an address and street number by the authority background color, shall be located near the hydrant or having jurisdiction. Accessory structures are required access to water. to have a separate address. (c) The sign post shall be within 3 ft (0.9 m) of 5-8.1 Size of Letters, Numbers, and Symbols. Letters, said fire hydrant or access to water, with the sign no numbers, and symbols indicating addresses shall be a less than 3 ft (0.9 m) nor greater than 5 ft (1.5 m) minimum of 4 in. (10.2 cm) in helght'wlth a I/2 in. above the ground and visible from the driveway. 1.3 cm) stroke, be contrasting with background colors and visible from the road. Chapter 7 Structural Design and Construction

Chapter 6 Emergency Water Supplies 7-I General. All buildings in the wildland/urban interface or wildland/urban intermix shall be designed 6-I "General. This chapter describes the process by and constructed to minimum structural design and which provisions for emergency water supplies shall be construction criteria. evaluated, designed, constructed, and maintained.

742 NFPA 299

7-j.~l Minimum Requirements. Struct"-uPes and Chapter 9 Referenced Publications dem1~lopments in ~r adjacent to wildland fire hazard areas shall be located, designed , and constructed in a 9-1 The following dncuments or portions thereof are manner to minimize the possibility of ignition from a referenced within this standard and shall be considered wildfire and to minimize the spread of a structural part of the requirements of this document. The edition fire to the wildland. indicated for each reference is the current edition as of the date of the NFPA issuance of this document. 7-2 Roofing. Class C roofing shall be the minimum roofing classification for all roofs and installed to 9-1.1 NFPA Publlcatioqs. National Fire Protectlon preclude entry of flame or embers. Association, 1Batterymarch Park, P.O. Box 9101, Quincy, HA 02269-9101. 7-3 Vents, Overhangs, and Stilt Construction. NFPA 256-1987, Standard Methods of fire Tests of Roof 7-3.1 Vents. Vents shall be screened with a Coverings corrosion-resistant, noncombustible wire mesh with a mesh not to exceed nominal I/4 in. (0.6 m) in size. NFPA ll.41-1990,'Standard for fire Protection in Planned Bu!Id!ng Groups 7-3.2 Overhangs. Eaves, cantilever balconies, and similar undersides of overhangs shall be. enclosed with NFPA 1231-1989, Standard on Water Supplies for materials that equal or exceed I/2 in. (I.3 cm) "- Suburban and Rural Fire Fighting sheathing. Appendix A 7-3.3 Stilt Construction. The underside of decks and structures with stilt foundations shall be enclosed This Appendix is not a part of the requirements of with the material specified in 7-4. this NFPA document, but is included for information purposes only. 7-4 Exterior Vertical Walls. Exterior vertical walls shall be c'onstructed of at least I/2 in.~(1.3 cm) A-Z-1 Weather is the most critical element. Wind, sheathing or equivalent material and s~l extend from wind direction, and frontal activity are the prime ground level to roof line. factors in most major wildland fires. The topography element ke~ issue is slope. Slope modifies fire spread 7-5 Windows.~ and creates more drafting and preheating ahead of the I fire. Slopes over 50 percent are especially critical. 7-5.1 Glass. Safety, tempered, or double-paned glass shall be used in the construction of structures. Fuel beds should be evaluated in terms of continuit Y. arrangement, and fire history. Additionally, fuel Beds .7-5.2 Orientation. All glazed openings shall be in heavy brush and/or.woodland-timber should be oriented so that they do not face concentrations of evaluated for abundance of down dead fuels. vegetative fuels that are within 30 ft (9.I m), unless such openings @re provided with solid shutters. Response times are an indirect factor that should be evaluated specially in a developing wildland/urban 7-6 Chimneys and Flues. inter~ace. An important question that must be asked is: Can resources and personnel arrive in time to 7-6.I Outlet Screen. Every chimney, flue, or vent protect structures and valued resources prior to the shall be provided with an approved spark aErester fire? consisting of 12-gauge welded or woven wire mesh not exceeding I/2 in. (I.3 cm). A-2-3.1 The map should show elevations (slope contours)., A color coding system should be used to 7-6.2 Construction. Chimney outlets shall be show grasslands (yellow), medium brush (blue), heavy constructed with lO ft (3.1 m) clearance from all brush (red), and woodland or timber (green). vegetation and obstructions. A-2-3.5 Table A-2-3.5 shows an example"of the 7-7 Manufactured Homes. Manufactured homes shall meet calculations for several sample units or areas. all applicable construction and safety standards and in additi'on provided with full skirting constructed of Table A-2-3.5 Wildland/Urban Interface or material as specified in 7-4~ Any porches and sundecks shall be constructed of nonflammable or listed fire Wildland/Urban Intermix Hazard Rating retardant materials. Fuel Slope Structure Interface Chapter 8 Hazard X Hazard + Hazard = Hazard Public Fire Prevention and Firesafety Unit Rating Rating Rating Rating Information and Education Dunville 2 4 9 i.7 8-I Information and Education Plan. The authority Jerry Flat 3 2 6 12 having jurisdiction shall prepare a fire prevention and Crossroads 2 3 5 11 firesafety public information/education plan. The Hope Lake (a) 3 l 3 6 p]an,.at a minimum, shall identify and analyze: Hope Lake (b) 1 3 2 5

i T Valley 1 .I 2 3 (a) specific hazards (b) risks A-3-2.4 Abnormal accumulations of down,.dead fuels, (c) fire causes caused by age class, snow kill, and disease may be (d) applicable prevention and safety programs color coded(brown) ahd plotted on the map. These (e) target audiences areas can be addressed with a fuel management program discussed in ,Chapter 4 of this standard. (f) activities. The plan shall utilize a variety of communication techniques to achieve desired objectives. A-3-3.1 An example would be the substitution of perennial grasses to annuals. (See Appendix C for a sample public information/educatlon program and delivery techniques.)

743 NFPA 299

Limbed-up trees Examples of fuel modification

Wildland fuel bed '.

Fuel break

Figure A-3-3(a) Example of Fuel Modification

Fuel bed (un-modified)

}rush

Fuel bed modified (mosaic pattern)

Figure A-3-3(b) Wildland Fuel Bed Unmodified and Modified

744 NFPA 299

I Overstory "~

Understory

Before No fuel ladder-woodland Fuel ladderpresent Limbedup-brush removed

Figure A-3-3(c) Shaded Fuel Break Concept "

• I

Unmodifiedfuel bed Modifiedfuel bed (limitededge) (mosaicpattern) (maximumedge effect)

Figure A-3-3(d) Edge Effect

745 NFPA 299 Appendix B Publication References B. Remember, you must attract your audience to the display, so make'it attrative, interesting, The following documents or portions thereof are and compelling. Use posters, photos, captions,. referenced within this standard for informational graphics, slide programs, puppets, and skits that purposes only and thus are not considered part of the involve the viewer. Keep handouts to a minimum, requirements of this document. The edition indicated but ensure that they reinforce your message.. Have for each reference is the current edition as of the knowledgeable people on hand to answer questions date of the NFPA issuance of this document. and present your message personally. Consider sharing a space or setting up adjacent to other In addition to the wildland fire protection analysis groups or agencies that present similar themes or described in Chapter 2, a number of other analysis messages. methods have been developed a~ross the country..Each method addresses problems common to a particular C. Parades'provide another opportunity to present section of the country. Each differs in the amount of a firesafety message, althouth the p~esentation data required and the complexity of the analysis. To should be kept simple and be able to withstand the assist the authority having Jurisdiction develop the stresses of a ~oving vehicle. "- analysis process that best fits local needs and concerns, a number of references are listed below and II. Roadside Signs may be obtained from the issuing agency. A. Roadside signs can present a wide variety of Aids to determining Fuel Models for Estimating Fire fire prevention messages to the general public, Behavior, Hal E. Anderson, United States Department of but should be kept simple and clear to traffic Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and driving by at high speed. 4 ft X 8 ft signs are Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report considered the standard, but signs as small as INT-122, Ogden, UT, 84401, April 1982. 4 ft X 4 ft can be used effectively.

Fire Safe Guides for Residential Development in B. Messagesmay include "Hazardous Fire Area," California, California Department of Forestry and Fire "Burning Permits Required," "Spark Arresters Protection, POB 94244, Sacramento, CA 94244-2460, Required," or many other traditional messages. printed 1980. The winning poster from a school contest can be painted on the roadside sign to recognize the Protecting Residences from Wildfires: A Guide for winner and present a pertinent theme. Homeowners, Lawmakers and Planners, Howard E. Moore, General Technical Report PSW-50, United States C. Obtain written permission from private Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific landowners or prepare agreements with county or Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, 1960 state highway departments. Solicit corporate Addison St., Berkeley, CA, 94704. sponsorship for signs and billboards. Keep the slgns in good repalr and current with the season Fire Hazard Rating: For Existing Wildland and message. Residential Developments or Single Structures in Montana, Montana Department of State Lands, Missoula, III. Group, Youth, and Club Programs MT, 59801. Opportunities to present prevention and safety Wildland/Urban Interface Fire Protection: A National messages to group, youths, and clubs should focus Problem with Local Solutions, August 1988, National on their group activities, specifically to their Fire Academy, Federal emergency Management Agency, outdoor programs. Washington, DC. IV. Developing and Delivering Presentations Wildland Fibre Protection Analysis, Georgia Forestry Commission, Box 819, Macon, GA, 31298. A. General Guidelines: Define your topic for presentation. Outline the points to be covered, Sierra Front Classification Procedures, Forest based on attention span, knowledge, and skill Supervisor, Toiyabe National Forest, 1200 Franklin Way, level and interest. Be sure the presentation Sparks, NV, 89431. focuses on the message you decided. Develop the full presentation as outlined. Ask someone else Appendix C to review your presentation. Rehearseand time your presentation. Remember to speak clearly and Public Firesafety and Fire with inf]ection in your voice. Use good posture, Prevention Informatlon/Educatlon keep eye contact, and use your hands for emphasis.

This Appendix is not a part of the requirement of B. Slide-Video~Graphic Presentations: If this NFPA document, but is included for information developed as an independent program, or in" purposes only. conjunction with an existing speech, the program should be complete and complementary. Develop a The following outlines various types of information story board to prepare a complete flow of thoughts and education programs and techniques that can be and cover all points with appropriate slides or utilized for fire prevention and firesafety information film. Choose tl~e right graphic-visual display to programs. present your points, based on program objective, size of audience, location of audience, and, of The choice of programs and techniques will depend on course, the budget you have to work with. Use an analysis of the problem, the target audience, and progressive disclosure of information to keep your the desired objectives. Generally, programs that audience with you and prevent information include personal contacts are the most effective and overload. Keep the story in line with the should have the highest priority. visuals. Write the scrip't as you develop your visuals. Label and number your slides and I. Exhibits and Displays graphics.

A. Exhibits and displays are excellent means of Rehearse and review your program for smoothness presenting broad interest messages to the general and time. Make sure the right equipment is on public. As with school programs, a general hand for your presentation. Consider "canned" message or theme should be selected, The story programs for useby less technically knowledgeable board development process works well with this staff. Graphics must be visible to the person in format. the farthest corner of the room.

746 NFPA 299 V. Mass Media Newsletters: Professional and"community newsletters often provide opportunities to present Mass media campaigns provide excellent focused messages-to target audiences even opportunities to disseminate general and specific regionally directed. Lead time and publishing firesafety messages to a broad spectrum of the frequency will vary widely. public. Progressive or phased campaigns can capitalize on preceding messages or piggyback on E. Who to Contact-Visit recent events. Mass media contacts inform the publ4c and raise thei.r level of awareness and Media contacts and telephone numbers change understanding, as well as marketing an agency's frequently, too. Keepyour lists up to date, and image. stop by to see the reporters periodically.

A. Developing a Campaign Print Media: Identify the city desk editor, feature editor, assignment editor, and beat As with any fire prevention presentation, a reporters. Find out the IEad times and central message theme must be identified publication dates. Obviously, a professional public relations agency can prove cost may be prohibitive. Search for Television:" Who are the news director and assistance from local universities, or corporate assignment editor? What types of program formats . donations of air time, professional assistance, are available? What are the lead times to materials, or financial support. schedule?

The theme may be broad, allowing many specific Radio: Who is the oews director? Who is the areas or messages to be included under that. public affairs director? What is the lead time umbrella, whether seasonal or regional in nature. for program scheduling? What format is best, . audio cassette tapes or script, for public service Developing a goal: The defined goal should announcements? consider the target audience, area distribution, level of awareness or information to be received, F. Preparing News Releases and the result to be accomplished. Probably the most common type of mediacontact. B. Target Audiences They provide brief, factual, informative materials to assist an editor in developing a story. The The target audience may be very broad or very lead paragraph should present a synopsis of the narrow, but be identified and included as news and include: who, what, when, where,and " compatible with the message theme. why. Write in present tense and be concise yet clear. All releases should include the following: _. /C. Setting Time Frames Contact name, title, agency, and phone number A catchy headline (optional)• Time frames will vary with the type of media used, Double-spaced text the seasonal nature of the message presented, and Two-page maximum text the timelines of the message. The value of your Include photographs, preferably 8 in. X lO in. message can be increased through good time. glossy black and white, with your story, including a caption describing the photograph and D. Getting to Know the Medi.a identifying all people in the photograph

'To effectively disseminate a firesafety message, , G. When to Use a News Advisory you must know and Understand the needs and constraints of each type of media outlet. News advisories inform or remind the media about an upcoming event and are most often used to Newspapers: Local daily and weekly newspapers secure broadcast or news coverage of an event. provide good outlets for det,~iled stories with ' Use the who, what, where, and when scenario when readable local angles. Hard news, those stories writing the news advisory. Keep it brief and of immediate interest, such ,is fire, have short write in the future tense. lead times, and information should be provided as soon as possible and as completely as possible. Ensure thatthe news advisory arrives several days Soft news, those feature stories or campaign before the event. Follow-up your advisory with a messages have longer lead times, allowing phone call reminder-just prior to the event. publishing during an appropriate time period, such as a holiday, or the beginning of fire season. H. .Public Service Announcements Contact the newspaper to determine who you should talk to, depending upon the type of story. PSAs can be taped on audio cassettes for radio, video cassettes for television, or written in Television: Again, time frames will depend on the script format for live reads. Like news and type of news and the individual station format. feature presentations, PSAs must grab the Feature-type stories should allow for good listener's/viewer's attention and provide clear, pictures and action or examples to take advantage concise message delivery. Lengths vary: 15T30 of television's visual nature. Talk shows and seconds for radio, 15-30 seconds for television. public affairs programs are excellent vehicles to Take the opportunity to include you~ agency name present a complete story, covering all of the and/or logo in the PSA. PSAs should be ma!led or issues. Plan ahead. Lead times to. schedule these delivered with a cover letter and written types of programs shoul.d be 6-8 weeks, yet program transcript a minimum of 4 weeks before you want it length can run from lO minutes to l hour. to air.

Radio: Most radio news stories are limited to Solicit corporate sponsorship to support the cost - 30-60 seconds to cover the whole issue. Lead time of the filming and production. Always follow up for program scheduling may exceed 4 weeks. The, with a call to the station to determine when the question-answer format of radio talk shows can PSA will air, what time slots, and how many times. allow an in-depth presentation and discussions with the audience. Weekly calendars and public I. Feature Articles service announcement times can introduce activities, exhibits, and other firesafety The preparation of a feature length artlcle or a programs. letter to the editor can allow you to control the story content. Contact the newspaper for specific details about length, format, and publication.

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J. Using a Recognized Spokesperson

Benefits of a spokesperson: It's always easier to sell an idea when the person presenting the idea is recognized and respected in the community. The spokesperson may be just someone local or may have regional recognition in many of the households throughout the nation. This person presents credibility that helps to market your product or service. The spokesperson tends to convey a neutral position, thus not having the bias that an "official" might have.

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