United States Department of Agriculture

Forest Service Fire Management

Volume 51, No.4 1990 Notes United States Department of Fire Agriculture Management Forest Service An international quarterly periodical Notes devoted to forest fire management Volume 51, No.4 1990

Contents Short Features

3 Wildland-Urban Interface Emergency Responses: 8 Incident Business Management Coordinator Positions What Influences Them? William G. Bradshaw Hanna J. Cortner, Robert M. Swinford, and Michael R. Williams 13 Acquisition Guidelines for FEPP Francis R. Russ 9 The Haines Index and Idaho Wildfire Growth Paul Werth and Richard Ochoa 15 Proceedings of 1988 Interior West Fire Council Annual Meeting and Workshop 14 Vegetative Management in the Wildland-Urban Martin E. Alexander and Gordon F. Bisgrove Interface Dick Manning 22 National Advanced Resource Technology Center Course Schedule for Fiscal Year 1992 16 A Power Backpack Pump With Foam Capability Tom French 25 The 1992 National Wildland Fire Training Conference 18 The 1988 Wildland Fire Season: Revisions to Wage, Equipment, and Training Standards 27 FIREFAMILY Returns, Revised Katie Mac Millen Donna M. Paananen

21 A Laser-Based Forest Fire Detection System 42 The Range Finder J.P. Greene Jim Shotwell

23 Computer Calculation of the Keetch-Byram Drought 43 Fire Training Index-Programmers Beware! J. Howard Parman Martin E. Alexander

26 FCFAST: Fort Collins Fire Access Software Larry S. Bradshaw and Patricia L. Andrews Fire Management Notes is published by the Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business 28 Hurricane Hugo and the CL-215 required by law of this Department. George Brooks and Fred Fuchs Subscriptions may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing once. Washington, DC 20402.

Send suggestions and articles to Chief, Forest Service (Attn: Fire Management Notes), 32 The Florence Fire: Lesson in Incident Command P.O. Box 96090, U.S. Department of AgricUlture. Washington, DC 20090-6090.

Cooperation Edward R. Madigan, Secretary Francis R. Russ Charles A. Knight U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager F. Dale Robertson, Chief Doris N. cetarter 34 Fire Behavior Service Center for Extreme Wildfire Forest Service Editor LA Amicareila, Director Activity Fire and Aviation Management Charles L. Bushey and Robert W. Mutch

U.S. Department 01Agriculture programs, services. and employmenl are open 10all on Ihe basis of merit, without regard to race, color, sex, religion, national origin, age, or disability.

Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience 01 the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual actnors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Front Cover: Firefighters in protective clothing fight to save structure in wildland. Management Notes.

2 Fire Management Notes Wildland-Urban Interface Emergency Responses: What Influences Them? Hanna J. Cortner, Robert M. Swinford, and Michael R. Williams Professor, School ofRenewable Natural Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ: and. respectively, USDA Forest Service, fire prevention officer, Fire and Aviation Management, Washington, DC. and district ranger. Plumas National Forest, Greenville Ranger District, Greenville, CA

Introduction beyond their traditional wildland fire­ other Federal, State, and local fighting role? resource management agencies and The wildland firefighters' job is These concerns. highlighted by the public safety organizations. In total, changing, in large measure from serious interface fire events of recent approximately 230 Forest Service problems associated with the years, led the Forest Service to employees and 100 cooperators were wildland-urban interface. More undertake a policy analysis examin­ interviewed. development is occurring at the edge ing these issues. The study examined This article examines five factors of forest boundaries, on tracts of pri­ agency policy and the actions forests the study concluded influenced the vate land within forest boundaries, have taken or anticipate will be type and level of response national and in metropolitan areas within easy taken. to respond, equip, and train in forests make to structural fire and drives of the forest. There are more the areas of structural fire, search other emergency assistance situa­ residents, more tourists, and and rescue, emergency medical tions. The five factors are: presence, increased values at risk. Wildland assistance, and hazardous materials. public expectations, agreements, sup­ firefighters are increasingly encoun­ pression priorities, and national tering structural fires and other mobilization. nonwildland fire emergency assist­ Who is to speak on behalf of those ance situations. resources when decisions are made Presence Historically, it has been common to permit urban expansion in the practice for wildland firefighters in interface? There are two kinds of presence to the USDA Forest Service to respond consider: the presence and capa­ to reported structural fires, vehicle bilities of the Forest Service and the fires, vehicle accidents, and other sit­ To conduct the study, a joint For­ presence and capabilities of the local uations where emergency assistance est Service-University of Arizona emergency assistance organizations. is required. However, the frequency study team visited 16 national forests In many remote districts, there is no of these situations is increasing as throughout the country. One-half of organized fire protection. In this" no interface pressures intensify. There the forests was randomly selected, man's land," the Forest Service is are concerns that wildland firefight­ one from each Forest Service admin­ the only fire department. Structures ing resources are being committed to istrative region except Alaska. The present a threat to wildlands, and the structural protection at the expense of other half was selected to represent a Forest Service is the only one there wildland resources. Moreover. man­ geographical diversity as well as a to respond. Moreover, even if the agers, crews, and cooperators are diversity of interface situations. agency's capability is limited and in concerned whether their wildland Overall, the 16 forests varied widely reality not much can be done to save training and equipment adequately in the size of their fire programs, the structure, there is still a need to prepare them to deal with the budgets, workforce organization, and respond; to do otherwise would risk increasing and varied emergency complexity of cooperative arrange­ public censure. This need even tran­ response situations they now face. ments. The site visits, conducted scends meeting the test that says Questions have also been raised between October 1989 and February response should be related to a that perhaps it is the complex set of 1990, lasted approximately 1112 days. "threat to the national forest." Con­ cooperative and mutual aid agree­ During the first day, roundtable dis­ sequently, on one forest, personnel ments with State and local fire and cussions were held with selected reported responding to a structural emergency response organizations district and forest personnel from all fire even when there was a foot of that are placing personnel in non­ levels of the forest organization­ snow on the ground. wildland fire situations. Do the from first responders to members of Many kinds of emergencies involv­ agreements have explicit provisions the management team. On the second ing vehicles and individuals-traffic or create informal expectations that morning, another roundtable discus­ collisions, shootings, falls, and lost wildland organizations will move sion was held with personnel from children-s-can occur on or near wild-

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 3 lands. Forest Service stations that that fact helped to keep them out controversy and political headaches. represent authority and signify offi­ of the vise of public pressure. On the other extreme, the local cial help. Stations along a highway, Another way to reduce presence organization may be a professional especially in areas distant from any might be to use contracts and agree­ and well-trained and -equipped outfit. other official-looking organization, ments to tum over responsibilities to Generally, the more sophisticated the are the natural, first choice for any­ local authorities. Generally, however, local responder, the less the per­ one seeking help. Government forests did not believe this would be ceived need for the Forest Service to personnel and facilities represent tele­ a good idea. Several felt it was a become involved in structural fire­ phones and radios, answers, and politically infeasible option, par­ fighting. Local responders are often assistance. ticularly in local areas. "This first on the scene. During incidents, In areas where there may be wouldn't fly!" and "It would be the responsibilities are divided between locally organized capabilities, Forest second dumbest thing we ever did, structures and wildlands; the local Service presence can still necessitate and I can't remember the first!" entities fight the structural fire and a response. If a Forest Service engine were two of the comments heard at the Forest Service defends the wild­ looks like a fire truck-lights, hose, the site visits. Other responses citing lands. In many areas, local entities and sirens-and acts like a fire truck, disadvantages to this option focused want to become more proficient in to the public, it is a fire truck. The on the need for a wildland fire orga­ wildland firefighting techniques, public does not distinguish among nization for national mobilization and because they are often the first the color of trucks and draw conclu­ prescribed fire activities, the high responder to wildland incidents and sions about which color truck cost of contracting, and the loss of they now have residences in the belongs to which agency and the dif­ ability to direct strategies and tactics wildland interface to protect from ferent roles and capabilities of trucks based on natural resource concerns. advancing wildfires. and crews. Most forest personnel rec­ Nevertheless, several individuals Another consequence, however, of ognize this and understand the need expressed a preference for this cooperating with well-trained and to make a response. They do respond option, especially in areas where -equipped structural firefighting or and do what they can to fight the fire there are full capability fire organiza­ all-risk units is that their level of or medically assist the injured, even tions and where public expectations expertise and sophistication may if they believe their actions may be are for a full all-risk response. begin to drive Forest Service outside of policy. To say it's another Cooperator organization and desires to reach the same level of truck's responsibility would be unac­ capability are also part of presence. competence. ceptable. The Michigan Department In some instances, areas may be cov­ of Natural Resources learned this the ered by local organizations, but their Public Expectation hard way when personnel failed to training and capabilities may be lim­ respond to a structural fire as ited. The telephone for the volunteer To the public, a firefighter is a requested. As a result of the political department may be in the rear of the firefighter. The public does not fallout, the State legislature added local grocery store and unstaffed at understand the difference between structural responsibilities to the night. In some areas, local volunteers wildland and structural firefighting department's mission. showing up poorly equipped at a and that individuals typically trained One alternative, perhaps, is to wildland fire threatening or involving in one kind of firefighting are not minimize the appearance of being an structures present safety problems to trained in the other or that the equip­ all-risk fire organization (trained and the Forest Service. Decisions must be ment carried and used for each kind equipped to respond to all types of made about how to balance safety of incident is different. In an emer­ hazardous emergencies and to render and volunteer efforts. Failure to be gency, the public expects help, and medical assistance). One forest with sensitive about community needs and government officials in uniform or a significant fire interface problem desires to be involved has, on more dressed as emergency personnel are did not have any engines. They felt than one occasion, created needless looked to for help.

4 Fire Management Notes When residents of a large metro­ What Was Said? Here Are Some Quotations politan area visit a forest, it is unlikely they realize that the level of "When it is a close community that you are part of and friends and emergency service is different than neighbors are urging that something be done, it is hard not to push what they left behind just a few yourself. " miles or hours away. New residents in forested areas are increasingly "It's more complex now. Because we are dealing with homeowners and bringing with them the expectation more values at risk, there is more to think about in terms of strategies about fire protection and emergency and tactics." service they left behind in the city. "If you go life, property, and then natural resources, you never get to They expect the local government the resources." representative to provide them fast, efficient, and professional emergency "We are part of the community and cannot refuse to assist." service. But as one Forest Service employee noted, "Here, when some­ "When you're the only light for miles, people knock on your door for one calls 911, the phone doesn't help. " ring." The obligation and expecta­ tion to respond is therefore directed "If we don't respond to a call, we are not fulfilling the agency's mis­ to the only other visible official sion of serving the people." presence-the Forest Service. "People are trapped between policy and political and moral situations." As part of their professional duties, Forest Service personnel have "The forest is being forced into situations where structures are encoun­ traditionally been expected to be an tered, just like county agencies are being forced into wildland active part of the community. This firefighting. " has been part of the ethic of the agency, underscored in the reward "The Forest Service is beyond the point of standing alone." system, documented by studies such as Herbert Kaufman's "The Forest "'We cross boundaries as if they aren't there." Ranger" (1960), and glamorized in television series like "" Lassie" and films like"Always." On the one assuming that the agency or the indi­ the homebuyer . Homeowners do not hand, community involvement vidual can singularly draw the line want to assume the costs of protec­ presents informal and effective may be a flawed assumption. Once tion for living in a hazardous opportunities to educate local leaders enmeshed in the traditions and mores environment if the costs can be and residents about the Forest Serv­ of a local community, defining civic passed off to the government ice role and the limits to Forest duty and civic obligation is a com­ (Gardner et al. 1987). To the extent Service capabilities. Yet, there are munity function. government responds or absorbs mixed signals. While the benefits of It is politically rational behavior some of the costs, this represents an civic service are acknowledged and for communities and individuals to indirect subsidy to the interface touted by management, no one in avoid assuming costs if the costs can homeowner. management wants the local ranger be passed off to some other party­ to give away the store. So there are especially the government. Devel­ Agreements and Cooperation also messages not to overcommit opers do not want to assume finances or organizational resources additional costs of designing fire-safe With or without formal cooperative to civic service. Knowing where to environments or structures if the agreements, forests are using the draw the line can be difficult. Also costs can be avoided or passed off to "closest forces" concept in response

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 5 to emergencies-the unit closest to agency has been taking; the pen­ potential problems for the cooperat­ the incident responds regardless of dulum is swinging the other way. ing entity. What happens when a jurisdictional boundaries. In areas of Obligations to be involved in fire local citizen calls the local station intermixed ownership or of develop­ protection and suppression activities and the responding unit and individ­ ments surrounded by national forest outside forest boundaries are increas­ uals are not equipped or trained to land, this means that the Forest Serv­ ing. Cooperative arrangements are assist? The cooperator, not the Forest ice truck may be the closest unit to becoming more numerous, com­ Service, is likely to receive the polit­ many structural fires and other emer­ prehensive, and complex. The basic ical fallout. The move-up-and-cover gency situations. The closest forces premise of the National Wildfire provisions on the three forests visited concept implies coverage of non­ Coordinating Group (NWCG), which in one State were a sore point National Forest System land. It also was initiated by the Forest Service, is between the cooperator and the means that structural entities may be "better fire management through agency. the first to respond to a wildland cooperation." The agency's Partnership is not cost free. While incident and the agency benefits from Wildland-Urban Fire Protection Ini­ there are many benefits, there are this. Thus, not surprisingly, one tiative has expanded and furthered costs that should be explicitly recog­ frequently cited benefit of the coop­ cooperation by embracing the nized and accounted for. To foster erative agreement is that it allowed National Fire Protection Association the spirit as well as the letter of the closest forces concept to work. as a cooperating partner, which cooperation. personnel often need to Nonetheless, as practiced, closest brings in the structural fire com­ go beyond what is legally required. forces do increase the likelihood that munity. Partnerships have been There must be a demonstrated Forest Service units and crews will promoted in virtually all aspects of willingness to help out in situations be responding to nontraditional fire Forest Service management, and For­ where there is no threat to NationaJ incidents and other emergency est Service-sponsored publications Forest System lands, for example. situations. promote "building interagency coop­ Doing the job and then working When, in December of 1989, the eration" (Swinford and Tokle 1988). things out afterward is in the spirit of agency authorized forests to acquire Both cooperators and forest personnel cooperation. A hesitancy to act self-contained breathing apparatus for believe there is no going back. To because it may later be discovered use in situations where smoke from survive, both entities need each that the incident did not occur within structures, vehicles, or dump fires other. the forest's protection boundary or involved hazardous materials, it rec­ An agreement with a provision for because it is unclear how the costs ognized that acquiring such moving to and covering another will be divided is not seen as co­ equipment could move the agency agency's station when it is on-call operation, but as bureaucratic beyond its traditional wildland roles (move up and cover) potentially entrenchment. There is a price to and responsibilities. A letter advising places Forest Service personnel in partnership-c-taking risks, stretching agency personnel about the new pol­ situations they are not trained, policy, and maintaining operational icy cautioned: "One way to reduce equipped, or inclined to encounter. and fiscal flexibility. the exposure of Forest Service In most instances because coopera­ employees to non-traditional tors understand the agency's Suppression Priorities emergencies upon our wildfire sup­ capabilities and limits, they avoid pression capacity is to minimize our trying to put agency personnel in Agency policy does not specifi­ obligations to protect non-National such situations. Nevertheless, agency cally identify wildfire suppression Forest System land, particularly personnel have been put in such sit­ priorities. There is no explicit policy developed lands, to the extent feasi­ uations. Moreover, the inability of stating that agency priorities are life, ble and practical." the Forest Service to fulfill the property, and then resources. Nev­ This enjoinder, however, conflicts responsibilities implied by a move­ ertheless. the fire planning and in reality with the direction the up-and-cover provision can create analysis system and the fire suppres-

6 Fire Management Notes sion priorities established in interfering in the affairs of local in a community. personnel are travel­ operational guides lead to this deter­ communities, On the other hand, not ing to other areas of the country mination. So do policy interpretations taking action to prevent the creation where they report encountering struc­ by agency leadership (Davis 1990). of hazardous interface situations may tural situations as well as a vast array Because of the growth of the inter­ be placing costs on the Nation's tax­ of other emergency incidents--dump face. concerns have been raised payers as well as harming the fires in New Jersey, earthquakes in about the imp! ications that adherence Nation's natural resources, To what San Francisco. and oil spills in to this policy may entail. As one for­ extent does the professional man­ Alaska. Experience from the Greater est commentator indicated. "If you ager's charge to manage and protect Yellowstone Area fires where crews go life, property. and then natural the public's lands entail managing spent their entire time protecting "a resources. you never get to the threats from beyond the boundary') barn and a corral" is still fresh in resources. ,. One significant issue Like the adage that good fences people's memories. While individual concerns the level of natural resource make good neighbors. it may be Con­ forests may not see the need for losses that might occur as fire sup­ sistent with a good neighbor policy training in structural fire situations at pression resources or personnel are to prevent hazards from being created home. they see the need to be pre­ diverted from high-valued natural and to provide incentives for local pared for the situations encountered resource areas to the defense of communities and residents to redeem oftcforest. structures-regardless of their value. their responsibilities. Actual The Incident Command System As the interface grows. the situation experience may prove that Oregon's (lCS) is also perceived as promoting becomes ever more problematic. decision to reaffirm the primacy of the ability of personnel to take their Because of its concern over this natural resources over property in its skills and apply them to a whole issue. the State of Oregon recently wildland suppression priorities is range of emergency and disaster sit­ restated the suppression priorities for infeasible (Which we believe will uations. The Forest Service has its State forestry department during occur). If so, preventive actions to played a leadership role in the for­ wildland fire situations. They are: minimize the number of situations in mulation and dissemination of the life. resources. and property. On the which such choices have to be made ICS. Expectations exist that it will other hand. the Michigan legislature may be the only feasible and prudent continue this role. "It is after all," added structural firefighting to the policy option. commented one employee, "called responsibilities of its natural Finally, as Federal health and the incident. not the fire, manage­ resources department. If States are. safety requirements are tightened to ment system. ,. as Supreme Court Justice Brandeis protect workers from hazardous situa­ once commented. great laboratories tions. it is likely that training and Conclusion for experiments. the messages equipping standards will not be received from these two States defined just by the agency but also As the existing wildland-urban provide no clear clue as to the feasi­ by external sources. Such sources interface expands and new interface bility of reaffirming or revising the could include the Occupational is created, there will be more struc­ Forest Service's de facto policy in Safety and Health Administration and tural fire and other emergency this regard, the National Fire Protection Associa­ assistance incidents, especially in The question that arises is who is tion (the recognized authority for the rural areas, where the Forest Service to be the guardian of the natural development of industry standards for is a key emergency response unit. resources? Who is to speak on behalf firefighter health and safety). Policy revisions and clarification and of those resources when decisions are innovative management actions will made to permit urban expansion in National Mobilization be needed to ensure that the agency the interface? On the one hand, being is able to fulfil! its primary wildland a good neighbor may mean eschew­ No matter how well interface fire suppression and resource protec­ ing the appearance of dabbling and responsibilities have been worked out tion responsibilities, while it also

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 7 responds to the changed social and Incident Business tions. Contact with any of the institutional environment represented Management Coordinator coordinators listed below provides by the wildland-urban interface. Positions access to the entire network-for deal­ Options to reduce presence and ing with preseason issues and serving as a hotline for urgent problems as minimize public expectation will Incident business management coor­ well as their other business manage­ need to be explored. While it is dinator positions have been established ment support activities. The highly unlikely that fire suppression in the Washington Office and the coordinators can rapidly share infor­ priorities or national mobilization offices of each region and the North­ mation about unusual situations. See practices will (or should) be changed, eastern Area State and Private table I for a list of the Forest Service minor modifications in implementa­ Forestry, People in these positions coordinators and information on how tion can help reduce presence and coordinate the full range of business they can be reached .• management support needs for inci­ mitigate some of the adverse con­ dents. They are primary contact points sequences when crews are exposed to William G# Bradshaw, Incident for tackling issues and resolving prob­ business management coordinator, hazardous interface situations. For lems arising from the administrative Fiscal and Public Safety Staff, Wash­ example, fire analysis and planning support for emergency response opera- ington, DC procedures, operational guides, and training courses for incident Table I-Forest Service coordinators management teams can emphasize decisionmaking under risk that is Region Name DG address Telephone number sensitive to resource values as well Region One Mike Ramos M.Ramos:R01 A (406) 329-3331 as to the political and human realities FTS 585-3331 of human life and property. Region Two Peter Gilmour P.Gilmour:R02A (303) 236-9575 FTS 776-9575 Finally, cooperation and mutual Region Three John Coil J.Coil:R03A (505) 842-3185 aid agreements are part of the prob­ FTS 476-3185 lem and part of the solution. On the Region Four Tina ledger T.Ledger:R04A (801) 625-5805 one hand, provisions that place the FTS 586-5805 agency in hazardous nonwildland fire Region Five Virginia Clark V.Clark:R05A (415) 705-2573 FTS 465-2573 emergencies can be avoided. Agree­ Region Six Arnie Masoner A.Masoner:R06A (503) 326-6580 ments can be more closely evaluated FTS 423-6580 to ensure that expectation, role, and Region Eight Gerald Tyler G.Tyler:R08A (404) 347-2659 responsibility are clear, and that the FTS 257-2659 resulting relationships are effective Region Nine Harlan Smid H.Smid:R09A (414) 297-3625 FTS 362-3625 and financially and politically equita­ Region Ten Teresa McAlister T.McAlis1er:R10A (907) 586-8731 ble. On the other hand, because of FTS 586-8731 reduced budgets and personnel cut­ Northeastern Area Jack Horton J.Horton:S24A (215) 975-4147 backs in all sectors, cooperation State and Private FTS 489-4147 has become a political imperative. Forestry Washington Office Bill Bradshaw B.Bradshaw:W01 B (703) 235-9698 Cooperation among all emergency FTS 235-9698 response organizations at all levels of government will be needed to pre­ vent, plan for, and respond to paradise or bardeground? Journal of Forestry. policy response toward wildland fire hazards interface emergencies. II SS(I}: 26--31. by urban home-owners. Landscape and Kaufman. Herbert. 1960. The forest ranger. Urban Planning. 14: 163-177. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Swinford, Robert M.; Tokle, Gary O. 1988. Literature Cited Press. 259 p. Building interagency cooperation. Quincy, Gardner. Philip D.; Curtner. Hanna J.; Wida­ MA: National Fire Protection Association. Davis. James B. The wildland-urban interface: man. Keith. 19~7. The risk perceptions and 28 p.

8 Fire Management Notes The Haines Index and Idaho Wildfire Growth 1

Paul Werth and Richard Ochoa

Fire weather meteorologists, National Weather Service, Boise, ID

Introduction Extreme fire behavior, with crown­ 2,000 and 5,000 ft IDS!). A mid­ ing and long-range spotting, was elevation index was developed for The growth of wildfires is related exhibited by the fire when the the Great Plains and the Appalachian to three broad factors: fuel type, Haines Index number was 5 or 6. Mountains using 850-700 millibar topography. and weather. The But when the index lowered to 4 or data (approximately 5,000 and National Fire Danger Rating System less, fire activity significantly 10,000 ft msl). A high-elevation and the Fire Behavior Prediction Sys­ diminished. index is used for the mountainous tem combine these factors to predict Western United States using 700-500 the probability and severity of wild­ millibar data (approximately 10,000 land fires. However. these systems in the Eastern United States had and 18,000 ft msl). have mixed results in predicting identified unstable air and low mois­ Comparing large fires and nearby extreme fire behavior conditions ture as major contributors to fire upper air data, Haines developed his characterized by intense crowning severity. Haines contacted wildland Lower Atmospheric Severity Index, and spotting. Extreme fire behavior fire management units throughout the which indicates the potential for large is rare. but when it occurs, fires burn country requesting information on fire growth. Temperature lapse rate-s­ with intense heat and spread rapidly. their worst fire situations over a stability-s-and moisture values are endangering life and property. 20-year period. Information was combined, resulting in the Haines An atmospheric index. the Lower received from 30 States regarding 29 Index using: Atmospheric Severity Index (LAS!) major fires in the West and 45 fires Haines Index developed in 1988 by Donald in the East. Data from one to three Stability + Moisture Haines, a research meteorologist with radiosonde stations closest to each = (Tp, - TpI) + (Tp, - Tdpi] the USDA Forest Service. addresses fire were examined to determine air­ =A+B the problem of how weather pro­ mass lapse rates and moisture values motes extreme fire behavior over the fires. (Radiosonde weather where T is the temperature at two conditions. This index uses the stations launch instrumented balloons pressure surfaces (PI.P2); and Tp, and environmental lapse rate (temperature that measure atmospheric tempera­ Tdp, are the dry bulb temperature difference) within a layer of air cou­ ture, relative humidity, pressure, and and dewpoint temperature at a lower pled with its moisture content to wind.) The 0000 GMT/1800 MDT level. All temperature values are determine a LASI number. temperature and dewpoint profile for written in centigrade. This paper compares the values of the evenings on which the fires were Illustrated in table I are the lapse LASI or the Haines Index. as we will reported were constructed for one of rate and moisture limits used in the call it. with what occurred on recent three layers between 950 and 500 low-, mid-, and high-elevation large Idaho fires in an attempt to milli bars (approximately 2,000 and Haines indexes. determine its predictive capabilities 18.000 ft msl), depending upon the The Haines Index equals the sum of with regard to large fire growth. elevation of the fire. Due to large factor A (stability) and factor B differences in elevation across the (moisture): Haines Index-Background United States. three combinations of Haines Information atmospheric layers were used to con­ Index Class ofday struct the LASI. (A + B) (potential for large fire) Research conducted earlier on fires Figure I shows a map of the 2 or 3 very low IA related article. "Evaluation of Idaho wild­ United States divided into three 4 low fire growth using the Haines Index and water regional elevations. Much of the 5 moderate v~por im~gery.·· was published in the preprint Eastern United States. excluding the 6 high of the procccdinus of the Fifth Conference of Appalachian Mountains, uses a low­ Mountain Meteorology: 1990 June 25-29; Boulder. CO. Boston. MA: American Mete­ elevation index computed from 950­ Haines found that only 10 percent orological Society: 1l'\7-193. 850 millibar data (approximately of large fires occurred when the class

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 9 of day was very low (Haines Index 2 or 3) though 62 percent of the fire­ season days fell in the very low class. Forty-five percent of the fires were associated with the high-class days (Haines Index 6), while only 6 percent of the days fell in that class. Instability and dry air are key parameters that must be present to result in a high Haines index num­ ber. Instability can be caused by either warming the lower levels of the airmass or by cooling the upper levels. When warming below and cooling aloft occur at the same time, Low elevation = the airmass rapidly destabilizes. In Mid elevation Q the Western United States, this High elevationli:ll occurs when cooling, associated with an upper trough of low pressure, Figure I-Map or the United Slates divided into three' regional elevation» (Haines 1988). moves over a surface thermal trough or "heat low." An increase in mois­ Table I-Stability and moisture limits in the low-, mid-, and high-elevation Haines indexes ture usually accompanies the upper trough, but at times a "tongue" of Elevation Stability term Moisture term very dry air wraps around the leading Low 950--850 mb "T 850 mb "T - dewpoinl edge of the upper trough resulting in A = 1 when 3 ·C or less B = 1 when 5 ·C or less A = 2 when 4-7 ·C B = 2 when 6-9 °C low relative humidities at the surface. A = 3 when 8 ·C or more B = 3 when 10·C or more Figure 2 displays a typical weather Mid 850--700 mb "T 850 mb "T - dewpoinl pattern that produces a high Haines A = 1 when 5 'C or less B = 1 when 5 ·C or less Index in the Western United States: a A = 2 when 6-10 'C B = 2 when 6-12·C thermal trough at the surface, a 500­ A = 3 when 11 'C or more B = 3 when 13·C or more millibar trough moving onto the West High 700--500 mb "T 700 mb'T - dewpoint A = 1 when 17"C or less B = 1 when 14·C or less Coast, and a "tongue" of dry air A = 2 when 18--21 ·C B = 2 when 15-20·C across the Sierra Nevada Range into A = 3 when 22 ·C or more B = 3 when 21 °C or more the Great Basin and Northern Rockies. This is the classic pattern in developing his index. gated in an attempt to correlate the associated with the "breakdown of Haines Index and large fire growth. the 500-millibar ridge." Nimchuk One of these wildfires was the devas­ Idaho Wildfires and the Haines tating Lowman Fire of late July and and Janz (1984) state that the break­ Index down of the 500-millibar ridge is early August of 1989. clearly associated with severe wild­ fire behavior. However, not every The Haines Index is the first The Lowman Fire "breakdown of the 500-millibar attempt to construct a formal firc­ ridge" will produce extreme fire weather index based upon features of weather conditions-both instability the lower atmosphere. Does it work? The Lowman Fire was one of and dry air must be present. Haines To answer that question, wildfires in many fires that started on the Boise has addressed these two parameters central Idaho (fig. 3) were investi- National Forest during an outbreak of

10 Fire Management Notes activity began to increase. Extreme many years. burning conditions developed the The rate of spread (ROS) exhibited afternoon of July 29. (See fig. 4.) by the Lowman Fire. is plotted Crowning and spotting pushed the against the Haines Index in figure 5. fire 5.75 miles (9 krn) to the north­ On the morning of July 29 (from the east. The fire burned through the 0600 MDT Boise radiosonde), the eastern edge of the small town of Haines Index number 6 (fig. 6) indi­ Lowman destroying 25 buildings and cated a high potential for large fire a number of vehicles and closing growth. At approximately 1400 State Highway 21. All residents of MDT, the fire made a rapid run Lowman were evacuated. Fortunately toward the northeast at well over 75 -- 500 millibar heights there were no injuries or deaths. The chains (1,508 m) per hour. Tempera­ - - Surface pressure (MSL) fire continued to spread toward the ture at the time was between 90 and L =Low northeast during the next 3 days, but 95 OF (32 and 36 CO) with the rela­ H = High at a lower rate. Cooler temperatures tive humidity as low as 8 percent. o= Dry air and higher relative humidities moved Surface winds were measured at 5 to over the fire August 2 with very little 10 miles per hour (8 to 16 km/h) Figure 2---Tvpical SI'lfOptic situation that pro­ acreage lost after that date. The size with occasional gusts to 15 miles per duces {/moderate to high Haines Index value. of the Lowman Fire (over 46,000 hour (24 krn/n), but were much acres or 18,616 ha), its extreme fire stronger near the fire front due to behavior, and the loss of homes and strong indrafts into the smoke col­ personal belongings will make the umn. For the next 3 days, the Haines Lowman Fire one to remember for Index fell to 5, still indicating a

• Lowman

Boise

Figure 3-Map ofIdaho with wildfire locations. dry lightning on July 26, 1989. The fire spread only a short distance the Figure 4--Late afternoon satellite picture showing large smoke plumes from fires in central following day, but by July 28, fire Idaho and northeast Oregon.

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 11 Haines Index 77 Chains per hour 6 80 - Haines Index

~ ROS (rate of spread, chains per hour) 5 60 *3

* *3 4 40

*2 3 20

Figure 6--Haines Index map [or 0600 MDT. July29. 1989. Solid contour indicates a value of 5 or greater; dashed contour. 6. (The Great 27 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 Falls. MT. and Grand Junction. CO. data are July 27 - August S, 1989 missing for July 19, /989.)

H~ure 5-Haines Index compared with rate of spread (ROSJfor Lowman Fire, July 27 to Al/~U.H 5, 1989. Key: 6 = high, 5 = moderate. 4 = (ow. and 2-3 = very (all'. *3 moderate potential for large growth. values across the Western United Although the ROS dropped to 25 States was also produced twice a chains (503 m) or less per hour, the day, based upon the 0600 and I800 fire continued to move too quickly to MDT upper air data. The Haines fight effectively. The Haines Index Index was then compared with the (fig. 7) dropped into the low-very acreage burned on the Boise Fire *2 low range August 2, resulting in a Weather District (Southern Idaho, significant drop in the fire's ROS (5 western Wyoming, and extreme chains (IOl m) or less per hour). southeast Orgeon) to sec if there was Extreme fire behavior, with crown­ a correlation between days in which ing and long-range spotting, was the index was in the high category exhibited by the fire when the Haines and the occurrence of large fires. Index was 5 or 6, but when the index Between July and September, the Haines Index was 6 (high potential Figure 7---Haines Indo mapfor 0600 MDT. lowered to 4 or less, fire activity sig­ Augus/ 2, 1989. Solid con/our indicates a value nificantly diminished. for large fire growth) on only 6 per­ of5. (The Great falls, MT, and Grand Junction. cent of the days. Over 75 percent of CO. data are missingfor AUlI'ust2, /989.) the burned acreage occurred on these 1990 Results . days. The Haines Index was 2; 3, or 4 (very low or low potential) on 68 Summary During the 1990 fire season, the percent of the days. Only 7 percent Boise Fire Weather Office included of the acreage burned on those days. The Haines Index, which combines the Haines Index in the daily fire Needless to say, fire activity on the values for instability and dry air, is a weather forecasts. A computer­ Boise Fire Weather District in /990 valuable. indicator of the potential for generated map of Haines Index verified the Haines Index. large fire growth. Dry air affects fire

12 Fire Management Notes behavior by lowering fuel moisture, Acquisition Guidelines for breathing apparatus. protective which results in more fuel available FEPP clothing, tactical communication sys­ for the fire and by increasing the tems, trailers, generators, vehicle parts probability of spotting, Instability Staying within the authority and and tires. light bars and sirens, and affects fire behavior by enhancing the intent of the legislation authorizing the materials to fabricate and maintain vertical size of the smoke column, lending of Federal Excess Personal these items, This list does not include resulting in strong surface winds as Property (FEPP) to the State Foresters furniture. building materials, office supplies and equipment, or handtools, air rushes into the fire to replace air to help meet the national need for These lists are not comprehensive. evacuated by the smoke column. rural and wildland fire protection capability and resources can some­ Other items not listed here could pos­ This is the mechanism by which fires times be confusing. Under this sibly come up for decision. create their own wind. When the legislative authority, State Foresters Haines Index number is 5 or 6, the and their fire service cooperators have Agreements in Place probability of extreme fire behavior acquired trucks. tools. and other items (crowning and spotting) significantly directly related to fire suppression. Each cooperator must have an increases. Fire behavior is usually Here is some guidance for program agreement in place with the State For­ [ow, with only minimal fire growth. managers on what types of items are ester that outlines the terms and when the index number is 4 or less. unacceptable for acquisition as FEPP conditions of the loan of property The Haines Index is best suited to and the circumstances in which FEPP before the State Forester authorizes a plume-dominated fires: that is. fires items can be used. specific loan and delivers the where the power of the fire is greater property. than the power of the wind or the Unacceptable Items for FEPP Further information on the FEPP Prugram program can be obtained from the atmosphere. Wind is not a parameter regional or Washington Office FEPP of the Haines Index. The index has The following types of items cannot manager. - yet to be tested on fires driven by be acquired as FEPP in this program: winds, such as Santa Ana and Sun­ Hazardous materials, recreational and Francis R. Russ, property manage­ downer where the power of the wind athletic equipment, nonfire protective ment specialist, USDA Forest Service, is greater than that of the fire. - clothing, firearms, office machines. Fire and Aviation Management, sedans, cameras, paint, cement mixer Washington, DC, and chairman of the trucks, asphalt spreaders, trash com­ FEPP Study Group Literature Cited pactor trucks, street sweepers, bucket trucks and cherry pickers, truck­ Brotak. E.A. 1976. Meteorological conditions mounted posthole diggers, and associated with major wildland fires. New appliances (special authorization Haven. CT: Yale University. 163 p. Ph.D. necessary) . dissertat ion. Davis. R.T. 1969. Atmospheric stability fore­ cast and fire control. Fire Control Notes. Acceptable Items for FEPP Pro­ 30(2): 3-4. gram Fire Suppression Activities Haines. D.A. 1988. A Lower Atmosphere Severity Index for wildland fire. National In addition, State Foresters can Weather Digest. 13(2): 23-27. acquire for loan to fire service cooper­ Nirnchuk. N. ami Janz. B. 1984. An analysis ators. including State conservation of upper ridge breakdown in historical prob­ camps and inmate crews, only those lem fires. Internal report. Edmonton, AB: items which are designed for. or can Alberta Energy and Natural Resources, be modified for, direct use in fire sup­ Forest Service. 13 p. pression activities. These will normally be limited to the following: Trucks. tanks, firetools, Winches, hoses. nozzles, air compressors,

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 13 Vegetative Management in the Wildland-Urban Interface

Dick Manning

Freelance writer. Missoula. MT

Just outside Missoula, MT, there "They seem to have been very were small, "The situation is very is a well-used and well-loved canyon careful and sensitive to a lot of different today," says Cathy Stewart, that bears the scar of catastrophe. issues." a former silviculturist with the Mis­ Some 1,200 acres (486 ha) of snags -s-Bill Farr, member of area homeowners' soula Ranger District on the Lolo and stumps testify that fire ran Pattee association National Forest,' "because the dense Canyon's south edge, leveling six undergrowth protected by fire sup­ homes in the beat of an hour. pression creates what is known as a Yet in the years since this fire in pression has altered the nature of 'fire ladder.' Using the fuel of the 1977, Forest Service officials have Western forests, rendering them, undergrowth, the fire can leap to the learned much about what makes such ironically, far more susceptible to crowns of the ponderosa, sweeping fires roar as well as some hard destruction by castastrophic fire. We the canyon in destruction." lessons about the volatile mixture of need go no further than Pattee Arno observed, "It was the leap­ forests and homes. With those Canyon to learn what has happened. ing of that ladder that caused the lessons in mind, they returned in Pattee Canyon lies close to the 1977 inferno." Stewart added, "The 1990 to Pattee Canyon, this time to Forest Service Intermountain dense stand of trees also makes the the unburned north side, and began a Research Station and the University forest far more susceptible to beetle unique project to prevent a horrifying of Montana, both centers for the infestations and other plagues, bit of deja vu for the residents there. study of fire ecology. Steve Arno, a especially mistletoe, that, in tum, kill Understanding the basis of the fire researcher with the Intermountain more trees than was formerly the project, however, requires more than Fire Sciences Laboratory and Jim case and create an even greater dan­ a look at the scar. The project's Habeck of the University'S Botany ger of fire. " rationale lies at the collision point Department, examined the canyon between two long-term trends that carefully. Their definitive study The Challenge and the Action Plan have reshaped the forests of the found that a very different ecosystem Northern Rocky Mountains. existed before the days of Smokey Here was a rare occurrence, a Bear. coincidence of interests: By heeding Changes in Pattee Canyon Reading the living record of nature's design, the health of the for­ stumps dating back to the early est would be improved at the same First, more people are choosing to 1700's, they found that until 100 time people's houses are protected live in the woods. Such factors as years ago, the site typically hosted from fire. The challenge then became increased mobility, affluence, and anywhere from 3 to 14 trees per how to best achieve the goal of leisure time have combined to cause acre, virtually all towering ponderosa returning the forest where people development to creep up the slopes pine. In 1987, the same site held now lived to its natural state, a chal­ of canyons and hillsides adjacent to from 200 to nearly 4,500 trees per lenge the Missoula Ranger District urban areas. Pattee Canyon, which acre. Further, the majority of the addressed in an environmental assess­ empties into an urban area of about trees now, especially the smaller ment and decision reached in the 80,000, is no exception. It is dotted ones, were Douglas-fir. summer of 1989. with expensive homes, many of them The difference was fire. The In some areas, the decision would tucked next to heavily forested tracts researchers found that from 1750­ have been simple. The Forest Service of Federal, State, and private timber 1900, fire swept the area at 5- to­ is increasingly using fire to fight fire lands. to-year intervals, killing the by thinning volatile forests with pre­ It is the second trend, nearly a encroaching Douglas-fir and leaving scribed bums. The solution for Pattee century's worth of fire suppression, the more fire-resistant ponderosa pine Canyon was not that easy. "The tool that poses the greatest peril not only and western larch. Those natural fires to those homes but also to the were relatively mild because they 1Currently Stevensville Ranger District sil­ ecosystem of the canyon. Fire sup- occurred when the encroaching trees viculturist on the Bitterroot National Forest-

14 Fire Management Notes was ruled out in the more visually the area's homeowners' aSSOCiatIOn. be a healthier forest, more fitted to important areas of the canyon, Instead of relying on prescribed nature's design, more parklike and largely because of the residents' con­ fire, the Forest Service will thin open to recreation, and more hospita­ cerns about the appearance of a tree stands in the area, using ble to the homes people have built to blackened forest," said Dan Bailey, horses instead of tractors to skid trees find peace in the shelter of the trees. zone fire manager on the Lola and lessen the effects of the project. For additional information about National Forest who worked with Ultimately, the project will cover 210 the project, contact: Dan W. Bailey, homeowners. "We felt we couldn't acres (85 ha) , but in the first phase, Zone Fire Manager, Lola National take the criticism," Bailey said. This completed in 1990, only about 42 Forest, Missoula Ranger District, was a sensitiviry the homeowners acres (17 ha) were thinned. Subse­ Building 24a Fort Missoula, acknowledged and appreciated. quent phases will be initiated every 5 Missoula, MT 5980 I; telephone "They (the Forest Service) seem to years to soften the effects of the thin­ 406-329-3933 and FTS 585-3933.• have been very careful and sensitive ning and to allow residents to adjust to a lot of issues," said Bill FaIT of to the changes. The end result will

Proceedings of the 1988 States, and Australia attended, Thirty­ tinguished speakers, and a half-day six invited presentations were made, fieid trip to Banff National Park. The Interior West Fire preceded by a keynote address and proceedings have now been published. Council Annual Meeting followed by a workshop summary, in Registered participants will automat­ and Workshop four technical sessions on the follow­ ically receive a copy. Others wishing ing topics: to obtain a copy should request the The last joint session of the Inter­ 8 Fire management problems and Information Report NOR-X-309 mountain Fire Council and Rocky opportunities (M.E. Alexander and G.F. Bisgrove, Mountain Fire Council was held at • Fire research programs in support technical coordinators; 1990) from Jackson. WY. in October 1987. One of fire management decisions and Forestry Canada, Northwest Region, of the major decisions made by the solutions Northern Forestry Centre, 5320-122 members of both councils at the busi­ • The role of new technologies, Street. Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6H ness meeting was the consolidation of analytical systems, and support 3S5. c the two councils into one council to services in fire management Martin E. Alexander. and Gordon be known as the Interior West Fire activities F. Bisgrove, respectively, fire Council (IWFC). The principal goal of • Fire management actions and research officer, Forestry Canada, both these organizations has been the practices Northwest Region, Northern Forestrv general improvement of wildland fire The program also featured vendor­ Centre, Edmonton, AB, and superin: management practices through par­ exhibitor displays, a poster session, a tendent, Alberta Forest Service, ticipation in a central forum of luncheon and banquet with dis- Whirecourt Forest, Whitecuurl. AS member agencies. The current council members arc (in alphabetical order): Alberta, Colorado. Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska. North Dakota, Northwest Territories, Saskatchewan, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. The first annual meeting and work­ shop of the IWFC was held October 24-27, 1988, at Kananaskis Village, AB. The theme of the 1988 meeting and workshop was' 'The Art and Sci­ ence of Fire Management. " Over 265 The L()((~I' at KWWIIl/Skis. Kananaskis, AB. Cunnda: Sin: (It" [he First 11I[<'I";Or We.11 Fire delegates from Canada. the United Council AJlIiI/liI Mee[il1K and Worksl",l'. October 2-1-27. IWili.

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 15 A Power Backpack Pump With Foam Capability

Tom French

Warehouse foremall.PayetteNationaIForest.McCaff.ID

During the 1990 fire season, per­ long and Ih inch (I 2 mm) inside packaged in 4-ounce bottles. Screw sonnel on the Payette National Forest diameter. The tube has 6. Jlih-inch the aspirating nozzle either on the converted a power weedsprayer into (4-mm) holes drilled 1/4 inch (7 mm) spray handle or to the end of the a power backpack pump for fire sup­ from the end and is attached to the wand attachment. Start the engine. pression operations. using Class A spray side of a standard Federal Sup­ and apply foam. To use a straight wildland fire foam and an aspirating ply Service (FSS) Fedco Backpack stream, simply unscrew the foam nozzle. and then tested its perform­ Twin Tip Nozzle. First. the small nozzle and screw on the straight tip. ance. We successfully used this bell on the end of the spray side of which is the other side of the Fedco backpack pump for both hotline and the twin tip nozzle must be filed off Twin Tip Nozzle. mop-up operations. It was especially to allow proper ratio of air to water useful for mop-up because of its effi­ and foam. Then. the tube is attached cient production of high-quality to the nozzle by brazing or with "sil­ Using this power backpack pump, foam. ver" solder. When finished. the we were able to produce a foam holes should be aligned just below line 700 feet long and 1 foot wide The Backpack Sprayer the nozzle tip. in 5 minutes and 12 seconds.

We used a Maruyama Power How To Use Backpack Sprayer. Model MS-045. The quality of foam can be with these specifications: Fill the backpack pump with 6 gal­ adjusted by adding more foam to the lons (22.7 L) of water and add 4 water and by increasing or decreasing Characteristics Specifications ounces (113 gm) wildland fire the engine speed. A slow engine Dimensions 14 x 16 x 23 foam-we use Monsanto WD-88 I speed creates a wet foam. and a (length x inches (365 x width x 410 x 590 height) mrn)

Weight (empty) 16.5 pounds (7.5 " '.• I kg) .j Chemical tank capacity 6 gaJlons (23 L) Fuel tank capacity 1.6 quarts (1.5 L) Maximum 360 psi (14 pressure kgf/cm-) Normal output I .6 quarts per tlow minute (1.5-7 Llmin) .~ I Revolutions per I minute (RPM) 6.500 Fuel Gas:Oil mixture (25: I) Cost $350.00 J The Aspirating Nozzle .- .-"­ The nozzle is made from a brass tube which is 4 inches (102 mm) Maruyama power backpack pump. Aspiratin[? nozzle.

16 Fire Management Notes Yellowpine's Fire Survival Story

The small back country town of Yellowpine. 10. is only accessible by snowmobile in the winter months. The town has a fire engine. but in winter it is snowed in. This town fights fire with the power backpack pump carried to the fire scene on a snow machine. It is the only way Yellowpine firefighters can reach the fires. This innovative list of the power , weed sprayer and aspirating nozzle uses as described here can be further expanded. For instance. agencies. rural fire districts. farmers, and oth­ ers that stock power weedsprayers can easily convert these sprayers to Lvnn Bleeker. Pavette National Forest engine foreman. demonstrates the use ofpower backpack firefighting tools by just adding 4 pUJIlp. ounces of wildland fire foam to 5 gallons of water and attaching an higher engine speed. a dryer foam. boats. Use Aqueous Film Forming aspirating nozzle. Using this power backpack pump, we Foam (AFFF) 3-perccnt foam and were able to produce a foam line 700 the aspirated nozzle tip. Recommendations feet (213 m) long and I foot (0.3 m) • Clean heavy equipment radiators wide in 5 minutes and 12 seconds. in the field. After our use and testing this year, III Wash cars. boats. airplanes. and we have recommended these modi­ Other Applications equipment. fications of the sprayer to the G Spray nonflammable degreaser on manufacturer: Replace the plastic The power backpack pump and engines, lawn mowers. chain tank with a flex tank: reposition the aspirating nozzle has other uses, saws. aircraft engines. tools. and throttle linkage, and improve the besides wildland fire suppression: equipment. backpack and strap design. These 40 Spray for weeds and pests. o Apply fire retardant chemical to modifications should be completed o Disinfect the inside of campground the shake roofs of houses in the by the fire season of 1991 .• outhouses. wildland-urban interface. o Mark trees with paint for timber The nozzle tip can be used on a sales. Fedco Trombone Backpack Pump to o Paint or stain fences. logs, houses. produce foam. using 4 ounces (113 and decks. gm) of wildland fire foam in the o Waterseal driveways. bricks. and water. cement. With these applications. this a Wash outside house windows. sprayer can be utilized year-round o Keep as extinguisher in shops, and not just during fire season. warehouses, lumberyards. and

1990 Volume 51. Number 4 17 The 1988 Wildland Fire Season: Revisions to Wage, Equipment, and Training Standards Katie Mac Millen Editor. Montana Department ofStat« Lands. Missoula. MT

The Problem background. not only where they seen in [988. In the fall of that year. had come from. but what their the Northern Rockies Coordinating The extreme 1988 fire season was employment status was-whether Group (NRCG) and the Montana the first time in Montana that wild­ they were full-time. part-time. or State Fire Chiefs Association decided land agencies called on a significant volunteer firefighters and whether at their annual postseason conference number of local government firefight­ union or nonunion. Some wage vari­ to do something about the inconsist­ ing forces or equipment for help-­ ations were extreme. For instance. a ent wage and equipment rates' and nothing like the one or two water California company officer was paid matching of engine type to fire situa­ tenders and their crews of previous $600 per shift while Montana com­ tion, They put together a nine­ seasons. Abruptly, firefighters from pany officers were paid $5.60 per person task force. Eventually. 23 all kinds of backgrounds and all parts hour, Not only were rates for wages people joined the task force to make of the country were mixed together and equipment inconsistent. but the a 32-member interagency committee in one location. As the firefighters training required and the way engines under the Fire Chiefs Association. talked to each other. they soon found were typed for a particular job varied Represented were the USDI Bureau out that vastly different rates were enough to affect performance. Dis­ of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land being paid for similar equipment and sension ebbed and flowed throughout Management, and the National Park crews. the long fire season, Service: the USDA Forest Service; The hiring agencies had contracted Idaho Department of Lands: and engines and crews from throughout How To Find a Solution Montana's Department of State the country at disparate rates. What Lands (DSL), Fire Services Training equipment and wage rates were The season forced all Montana fire School. State Fire Chiefs Associa­ depended on how quickly a fire­ agencies, both hiring and serving, to tion, State Fire Marshal Bureau. and fighter crew or crew supervisor sized look at how well---or how poorly­ Volunteer Firefighters Association. up the situation and bargained they had been cooperating. The result The committee's goal was to astutely. Just how hard people nego­ of this look was to say' 'never create standards in three areas: mini­ tiated was partly based on their again" to the confusion they had mum training, matching engine type more precisely to the fire situation, and contract rental and pay rates for apparatus and personnel. The com­ mittee developed objectives for each topic, broke up into three subcom­ mittees to address the three issues, and spent the winter of 1988-89 developing standards.

The Three Subcommittees­ Wrestling With Each Issue and Finding a Solution

Training, The training subcommit­ tee had it fairly easy. The problem was that the National Wildland Coor­ dinating Group (NWCG). whose L-.__ standards most agencies use, had Stale of Montana and Forest Service Type VI engines in Cooke Citv, MT, minimum training requirements for

18 Fire Management Notes ·wildland firefighters, but not for The interagency committee was health and safety. structural firefighters at wildland able to find a way out of the dis­ Rates for Equipment and Per­ incidents. The subcommittee realized sension of the 1988 fire season sonnel. The subcommittee on wage that the National Fire Protection because everyone wanted a work­ and equipment rates had by far the Association's (NFPA) 100I standards ing product. toughest time resolving its diffi­ for structural firefighters would round culties. In trying to create an out NWCG's wildland qualifications umbrella rate system, it had to solve by adding wildland firefighting stand­ engines that agencies in other West­ the rate problems for both engines ards for structural firefighters at ern States were building and using. and employees, contracted or wildland incidents. They adopted the The subcommittee standardized the employed directly. However, dis­ qualifications of the NFPA 1001 engine typing in three ways. First, agreements about how to move standards and recommended that the they considered the newer ways that toward a set of standards continued interagency committee ask NWCG to engines were actually being built and to obstruct the committee. The adopt them as well. used and revised the criteria by difference in philosophies Engine Typing. The engine typing which engines were being typed to between wildland and structural subcommittee had it a little tougher. reflect that reality. The new criteria, firefighters formed the basis of the NWCG's fireline handbook at the some slightly different from disagreements. time described eight Incident Com­ NWCG's and some additional, The subcommittee decided, rather mand System (lCS) engine types. defined three structural engine types than try to change philosophical (The ~November [989 edition of the and four wildland engine types. Sec­ approaches to firefighting • to look at handbook lists seven engine types.) ondly, they adopted NFP A 1901 the collected data and study the range These descri ptions of the ICS engine standards for structural fire appa­ of rates then being paid for emer­ types included such characteristics as ratus. The NFPA standards more gency equipment. At the time, the feet of hose and hose size, pump specifically define the minimum Western State Fire Managers, work­ pressure, and water capacity; how­ apparatus and safety features required ing on behalf of the Council of ever, they did not offer the degree of for each engine. Finally. they Western State Foresters, had just distinction for each engine type that adopted NFPA 1500 standards for finished a study surveying equipment people out in the field needed to decide whether an engine could per­ ".' form adequately on a job. The NWCG standards also did not match the NFPA's 190 I (fire appa­ ratus) or 1500 (health and safety) standards. During the 1988 fire sea­ son, this had meant firefighters might find themselves working with engines not capable of protecting or fighting structural fires because they did not have the minimum structural fire­ fighting equipment. such as self­ contained breathing apparatus. Fur­ thermore, at the time, the NWCG described decade-old engine-typing categories based originally on California-typing. These typing divi­ sions did not now match the types of National Guard in Yellowstone National Park.

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 19 rates in 17 Western States. l Using midway in the pay-scale range of the come up with the end product. The the study results, the Western State local government rates for each ICS process resulted in the 10 agencies Fire Managers plotted the range of position on a fire and the newly present agreeing to use the methods pay rates for emergency equipment defined engine types. The subcom­ of training, engine typing, hiring, by State. The subcommittee also mittee agreed to the proposed rates. and payment described here. realized that pay for Federal Excess All the pay rates were lower than the After the committee agreed to the Personal Property was too complex a Federal rates, but overtime pay levels new set of standards, it passed them topic to dictate standards for, but out the difference between the two on to the NRCG to implement. The would have to be decided instead on pay systems. In other words, the NRCG in turn christened two groups a case-by-case basis. agreed-on pay rate for each position of its own to look into the matter: the For personnel rates, the committee is a lower hourly wage than the For­ rate group and the equipment group. started with an already existing mas­ est Service's rate but roughly equal The two groups in the NRCG ter agreement between the Federal when an overtime differential is fig­ reviewed and then agreed to imple­ Government and the States of Idaho ured in. ment the typing and rate changes and and Montana. Since most firefighters All agencies and fire services in issued them as the Interagency Fire of the 1988 fire season were paid the northern Rockies are now paying Business Management Handbook. All either the high Forest Service AD and getting paid the same amount for 10 agencies in the agreement can (Administratively Determined) rates equivalent equipment, and pay rates now use the handbook. with no overtime or the lower State for personnel are mostly standard­ For the 1989 fire season, the com­ rates plus overtime, the committee ized. The DSL changed its own pay mittee put out a draft set of these had to choose which of these pay rates as a result of the agreement. standards part way through the sea­ systems to adopt as the norm. (Fed­ Because of DSL's ties to county fire­ son, and the field tested them for the eral emergency firefighters are fighting, the agreement also desig­ better part of the season. During the exempt from the Fair Labor Stand­ nated DSL to be the main contact winter of 1989-90, the committee ards Act. 2) The master agreement and center for hiring for all local fine-tuned the typing standards again. stated that cooperation with local government fire forces. There now is This standardization is an ongoing governments was desirable. Because a set of guidelines detailing how to process-NRCG maintains its two DSL already had well-established ties Use local government forces in the groups, so representatives from the to most local government forces most efficient manner, and the DSL original agencies can review stand­ through its county cooperative pro­ should soon have complete avail­ ards yearly. Any time these standards 'gram (49 out of 56 counties), the ability lists, pulled together from data do not work, NRCG can change ~ committee interpreted "cooperation" from all affected counties. This orga­ them-they are not etched in granite. and "desirable" to mean sticking to nizational system, the guidelines, and The main goal has been reached: what the local governments were lists will help in hiring and sending There are agreed-on standards ,accustomed to-e-essentially, close to the geographically closest force with throughout the northern Rockies. DSL pay rates. the right equipment and personnel­ The interagency committee was In the end, the DSL developed and standard and suitable-e-tc fires able to find a way out of the dissen­ "proposed a payment matrix, usually throughout Montana. sion of the 1988 fire season because everyone wanted a working product Where We Stand Now There had been too much variation in .. IAlaska. Arizona. California. Colorado. 'Hawaii. Idaho, Kansas, Montana. Nebraska. areas important to fighting fire effec­ Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota. Oregon. The subcommittees made their tively, The standards, an impressive South Dakota. Washington. Wyoming. and recommendations to the larger com­ accomplishment, were built with Utah. mittee, which reviewed and voted on determined cooperation between the '5 U.S.c. §5102(C)(19). 7 U.S.c. §2225·6. them. On all levels, it took a great using and the sending agencies .• 43 U.S.c. §t469. deal of movement and compromise to

20 Fire Management Notes A Laser-Based Forest Fire Detection System

J.P. Greene

Fire resource manager, Florida Division of Forestry, Fire Control Bureau. Tallahassee. FL

In the Southeastern United States, fire detection technology, including humans start more than 90 percent of the laser system. wildland fires. Detection as well as The laser system prototype is cur­ prevention and suppression has long rently installed at Labouheyre, near been one of the priority efforts in a Bordeaux, in southwestern France. successful fire management program. This is a flat, coastal region with , Automated lightning detection sys­ extensive plantations of the French tems have greatly improved the maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), detection of naturally occurring fires, \ which makes it very much like the , but we still detect human-caused fires timbered areas of the southeastern ., ..,.. ",.~' J in much the same way we have since U.S. coastal plain. Many of the 121­ ~-~ the initiation of fire protection in the foot (37-meter) concrete water towers C United States-a-by human observation in the area house fire lookouts. The -----==~- from either a lookout tower or, in prototype laser system is installed in recent years, from aircraft. such a tower. Detector head for Blomme laser-based detec­ The Florida Division of Forestry tion system. depends on lookouts in some 180 towers, supplemented by aircraft When the laser beam strikes an The current prototype unit, in patrols, to spot smokes over the 25 obstruction, whether solid as a operation since June 1990, is approx­ million acres (l0.1 million ha) of tower or insubstantial as a smoke imately 9 feet (2.8 m) high and forest and wildlands in the State. column, energy is returned to the weighs about 500 pounds (227 kg). Staffing and maintaining the lookout transmitter, which determines the Production models would be some­ system entails an expenditure of direction of the target and com­ what smaller and lighter. more than $2 million per year. The putes its range. During a recent demonstration at division, in seeking more efftcient Labouheyre, three test fires of straw and economical methods of fire were lit. The first was detected at a detection, is exploring new tech­ range of 5 miles (7.5 krn) approx­ nologies associated with the detection The system consists of a pulsed, imately 5 minutes before it was of forest fires. infrared laser projected through a visible to an observer in the tower. rotating optical system that aims the The second was detected and dis­ New Detection Technology beam 2 minutes above the horizon. played at the control center at the When the beam strikes an obstruc­ same range. The third was not A French team of engineers is well tion, whether solid as a tower or detected at a range of 9 miles (15 along toward the development of insubstantial as a smoke column, krn) due to wind dispersion of the such a technology-laser-based forest energy is returned to the transmitter, rather scant smoke column. Factory fire detection. The Blomme Automa­ which determines the direction of the smoke has been detected at a range tion Department de la Societe target and computes its range. The of 16 miles (25 krn), but the reliable Nouvelle Jules Verger-Delporte, data is transmitted to a central con­ limit of the system is considered to located in Maisons-Laffitte near trol facility (in this instance at Mont be about 12 miles (20 km) due to the Paris, is a firm primarily oriented de Marsan, about 25 mi or 40 km curvature of the earth. toward the development and produc­ away) via telephone or radio, and the tion of electronic and computer location of the return is plotted on a Strengths and Limitations control systems and machinery for computer map. The unit is pro­ the manufacture of semiconductors. grammed to ignore "authorized" The prototype of the laser detec­ In recent years, it has taken an active returns, such as radio towers and fac­ tion system works convincingly. It role in the development of new forest tory smoke. reliably detects fires at a considerable

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 21 range while the fires are still small in National Advanced Resource Technology Center Course size. Its performance should be Schedule for Fiscal Year 1992 expected to equal or exceed that of a human observer under most condi­ The USDA Forest Service, National Advanced Resource Technology Center tions. Particular strengths of the (NARTC), Marana. AZ, provides national-level training courses to wildland system include 24-hour automatic management agencies here and abroad. The Forest Service selects courses based detection, very sensitive detection, on suggestions from other participating natural resource agencies, including the automatic alarms and controls, cen­ National Wildfire Coordinating Group. Students arc nominated to attend by their own agencies. tral reporting and control by One For detailed information, the course schedule, and nomination forms. contact operator for several detectors, soft­ the Director. NARTC. Pinal Air Park, Marana. AZ 85653. FrS 762-6414; ware adaptable to any land survey commercial (602) 629-6414; DG~NARTC: W06k FAX 762-6413. system, accurate fire location with one-way sightings, and the ability to see two smokes in the same direction Date Course at different distances. The system is limited by its December 1-6, 1991 Senior Level Aviation Management Course inability to discriminate between January 6-10. 1992 National Fire-Danger Rating System Applications smoke columns and isolated rain Course showers, blinding by the rising and January 13-17. 1992 National Fire-Danger Rating System Operations setting sun for about half an hour Course over a 5 degree are, and range reduc­ February 2-7, 1992 National Parks and Wilderness Fire Management tion by rain and fog. Course March l-n, 1992 National Fire Management Analysis System Current Status Technician Course March 9-13, 1992 National Fire Management Analysis System The permitting process in the Manager Course United States has yet to be formally undertaken, but Blomrne personnel March 30-April 9, 1992 Fire in Resource Management Course feel that approval can be obtained for April 13-17. 1992 Watershed Emergency Bum Team Leaders and this use because the laser beam is Seeding Managers Course optically dispersed and the energy is not concentrated in one spot for an extended period. In addition, the apparatus has safety interlocks which automatically shut down the laser in case of malfunction. Industrial development of the sys­ tem has just begun, so costs in the United States have not been deter­ mined. However, the system appears to offer a viable alternative for the detection of forest fires in some areas of the United States and is expected to be available soon. 0

22 Fire Management Notes Computer Calculation of the Keetch.. /BYlram Drought Index-Programmers lBewall"e~ Martin E. Alexander! Ph.D. scholar, Department (~r Forestry, Australian National University, and visiting fir« researcher, National Hushfire Research Unit, CSIRO Division of' Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra. Australian Capital Territory

The Keetch-Byrum Drought Index not 0.830 (fig. I). The end result of tralia, Bureau of Meteorology, or KBDI (Keetch and Byram 1968) this error is a drought factor that is Melbourne. Victoria), it's clear that hils been or is stil1 being used as a always slightly higher than the cor­ the errors in Equatiom 15 and 18 guide for estimating the cumulative rect value (table I). Crane (1982) were both typographical in nature. moisture deficiency in deep duff or also suggested that the last constant and the constant in the former should upper !ioil layers. Such informiJtion is in the numerator of Equation 15 on have been 0.2113. It's worth noting needed for planning fire management the same page should have been that the drought factor tables con­ operations in many regions of the tained in Keetch and Byram's (I 968) world (McArthur J966, 1967; Che­ report, which are based on Equation ney 197 L Mount [972; Valentine ... there are two significant 18. arc correct however. 1972: Wade and Ward 1973: Burgan, typographical errors in USDA For­ Just how insignificant are these Fujioka, and Hirata )974; Just 197B; est Service Research Paper 8E-38 sources of error in calculating the Noble. Bary. and Gill 1980: Crane dealing with the drought index KBDI? On a day-to-day basis, the 1982: Sirakoff 1985; Swart 1986; developed by John J. Keetch and error may have only a small effect on Burgan J988; Melton J989: Don­ George M. Byram ..• the mis­ the resultant value (table I). How­ aldson and Paul [990: Jordan 1990). prints in Equations 15 and 18 have ever, a computer-calculated value As well, the KBDI has been' widely been corrected in a 198B-revised would eventually depart considerably utilized in various fire research stud­ reprinting of the publication •... from the correct value due to the ies (Burgan 1976: Haines, Johnson, cumulative nature of the KBDL and Main 1976; Dayananda 1977: especially during a rainless period Miller 1978; Olson 1980: Lorimer 0.213 instead of 2.113. However, in (Fujioka 1991). There will of course and Gough [982. 1988: Hall and a review draft of Keetch and Byram always be differences between Gwalcrna [985; Johansen 1985; Van (1968) dated October 22, 1966. equation-calculated values and those Wagner 1985; Burrows 1987: Gill, which was kindly provided by D.R. deri ved from tables when it comes to Christian, Moore, and Forrester Packham (Commonwealth of Aus- fire danger indices (Deeming [975). 1987: Brown. Booth, and Simmer­ man 1989). It has come to my attention (Crane 1(83) again that there are two sig­ English unit equation [corrected] trom Keetch and Byram (1968) nificant typographical errors in the original 1968-published USDA Forest dO =0 [800 - OJ [0.968 exp (O.0486T) - 8.30] dT x 10-3 Service Research Paper SE-38 deal­ 1 + 10.88 exp (-0.0441 R) ing with the drought index developed by John 1. Keetch and George M. 8.1. unit equation from Crane (1982) Byram. Crane (1982) determined that [203.2 - OJ [0.968 exp (O.0875T + 1.5552) - 8.30] dT x 10-3 the equation used to calculate the dQ 1 + 10.88 exp (-Q.001736R) daily drought factor was in fact incorrect. The last constant in the numerator of Equation 18 on page 31 Syrnbot Quantity English umts S.1. units of Keetch and Byram's (1968) pub­ dO Drought factor 0.01 in mm o Moisture deficiency' 0.01 in 0101 lication should have been 8.30 and T Oaily maximum temperature of °C R Mean annual precipitation In O1m dr Time increment = 1 day =! day

I The author. a fire research officer with the 1 Yesterday's KBDl or value as reduced by the daily net precipitation lI.e.. the amount in excess Of0.20 in or 5.1 01011. Northwest Region of Forestry Canada stationed at the Northern Forestry Centre in Edmonton. AS, is presently on professional development Figure I-The two versions oj tile equation used 10 caicuiate the daity drought factor ill comparing and educational leave in Australia. the Keetch-Byram Drought Index (KRDI).

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 23 Table 1~/ncrease in the value of the daily drought factor of the Keetch-Byram Drought Index Crane. W.J.B. 1982. Computing grassland and (KBDI) as a result of the typographical error ill Equation 18 ofKeetch and Byram (1968). Please forest fire behaviour, relative humidity and , note that due to the. nature of the error in Equation 18, the increase above the actual value is inde­ drought index by pocket calculator. Aus­ pendent ofdaily maximum temperature. tralian Forestry. 45(2): 89-97. Crane. W.J.B. 1983. Fire danger lind drought index **waming**. Institute of Foresters of Mean annual Yesterday's KBDP or value as reduced by the Australia Newsletter. 24(4): 27. precipitation daily net precipitation Dayananda, P.W.A. 1977. Stochastic models for forest fires. Ecological Modelling. 3(4): (in) (mm) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 309-313. 10 254 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Deeming, J.E. 1975. Calculating fire-danger 20 508 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0 ratings: computer vs. tables. Fire Manage­ 30 762 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 ment Notes. 36(1): 6-7.9. 40 1,016 1.8 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.3 0 Donaldson, B.G.: Paul, J.T. 1990. NFDRSPC: 50 1,270 2.4 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.0 0.7 0.3 0 The National Fire-Danger Rating System on 60 1,524 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.7 1.3 0.8 0.4 0 a personal computer. Gen.lech. Rep. SE­ 70 1,778 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 61. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of 80 2,032 4.0 3.4 2.8 2.3 1.7 1.1 0.6 0 Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 49 p. un the original lormulation cttne KBDI, 800 represented the maximum possible value. However, the metric or SJ. unit scale of the KBDI technically limits the value to 203. Fujioka, F.M. 1991. Starting up the Keetch­ Byram Drought Index. In: Proceedings of the II th conference on fire and forest mete­ To my knowledge, an errata to In: Maciver. D.C.: Auld, H.; Whitewood, orology: 1991 April 16-19. Missoula, MT. Keetch and Byram (1968), which R., eds. Proceedings of the 10th conference Bethesda, MD: Society of American For­ on fire and forest meteorology: 1989 April esters Iin press]. highlights the aforementioned prob­ 17-2\~ Onawa. ON. Ottawa, ON: Forestry GilL A.M.: Christian, K.R.~ Moore, P.H.R.; lems, has never been issued. Canada and Environment Canada: 406-412. Forrester, R.t. 1987. Bushfire incidence, However, the misprints in Equations Burgan. R.E. 1976. Correlation of plant mois­ fire hazard and fuel reduction burning. Aus­ 15 and 18 have been corrected in a ture in Hawaii with the Keetch-Byram tralian Journal of Ecology. 12(3): 299-306. 1988-revised reprinting of the origi­ Drought Index. Res. Note PSW-307. HaiL J.B.: Gwalema. W.N.K. 1985. Drought Berkeley. CA: U.S. Department of Agricul­ indices and fire danger indices at Morogoro, nal publication, although no mention ture. Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Tanzania. Forest Ecology and Management. of these corrections is made. This Forest and Range Experiment Station. 6 p. 10(2): 125-134. note has been prepared to alert those, Burgan. R.E. 1988. 1988 revisions to (he 1978 Haines, D.A.: Johnson, V.J.; Main. W.A. who may be calculating the KBDI by National Fire-Danger Rating System, Res. 1976. An assessment of three measures of computer, to these two errors, since Pap. SE-273. Asheville, NC: U.S. Depart­ long term moisture deficiency before critical ment of Agriculture. Forest Service, fire periods. Res. Pap. NC-131. St Paul, it's not always readily apparent Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest whether they have been detected by 39 p. Service, North Central forest Experiment other users. The corrected version of Burgan, R.E.: Fujioka. F.M.: Hirata, G.H. Station. 13 p. Equation 18 and the one rederived by 1974. A fire danger rating system for Johansen, R.W. 1985. Effect of drought on I, " Crane (1982) in terms of the Interna­ Hawaii. Fire Technology. 10(4): 275-281. live fuel moisture content. In: Donoghue, Burrows. N.D. \987. The Soil Dryness Index L.R.: Martin, R.E .. eds. Proceedings of the tional System (S.I.) of units are for use in fire control in the south-west of eighth conference on fire and forest mete­ " presented here (fig. I) in the interest Western Australia. Tech. Pap. No. 17. oralogy: 1985 April 29~May 2: Detroit, MI. of completeness. Furthermore, the Perth, WA: Western Australian Department SAF Pub!. 85-04. Bethesda, MD: Society references compiled here constitute a of Conservation and Land Management. of American Foresters: 47-51. selected bibliography on the KBDI.. 37 p. Jordan, D.W. 1990. The value of drought Cheney, N.P. 1971, Forest industries feasi­ index in the Country Fire Authority. In: Pro­ bility study. Zambia. Fire protection of ceedings of the third Australian fire weather Literature Cited industrial plantations. FO:SF/ZAM 5 Tech. conference; 1989 May 18-20: Hobart, TAS. Rep. 4. Rome, ITALY: Food and Agricul­ Melbourne, VIC: Commonwealth of Aus­ Brown, LK.: Booth, G.D.: Simmerman, D.G. ture Organization of the United Nations. rralia. Bureau of Meteorology: 133-139. 1989. Seasonal change in live fuel moisture United Nations Development Programme. Just. T.E. 1978. Extreme fire weather in of understory plants in western U.S. aspen. 71 p. Queensland. Tech. Pap. No.9. Brisbane,

24 Fire Management Notes OLD: Queensland Department of Forestry. American Foresters: 241-245. Van Wagner. C.E. 1985. Drought, timclag , 17 p. Sirakoff, C. J985. A correction to the equa­ and fire danger rating. In: Donoghue, L.R.; Keetch. J.J.: Byram. G.M. 1961L A drought tions describing the McArthur forest fire Martin, R. E.. eds. Proceedings of the eighth index for forest fire control. Res. Pap. SE­ danger meter. Australian Journal of Ecol­ conference on fire and forest meteorology; 38. Asheville NC: U.S. Department of Agri­ ogy. 10(4): 481. 1985 April 29-May 2; Detroit. Ml. SAF I.- culture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Swart, R.K. 1986. Drought index for planta­ Publ, 85-D4, Bethesda, MD: Society of Experiment Station. 32 p. [Revised Novem­ tions. Johannesburg, SOUTH AFRICA: American Foresters: 178-185.

I, ber 1988.J First Bowring Protection Consultants (Pty) Wade, D.D.; Ward. D.E. 1973. An analysis I' Lorimer, e.G.: Gough, W.R. 1982. Number Limited. Bp. of the Air Force Bomb Range Fire. Res. of days per month of moderate and extreme Valentine, J.M. 1972. Drought index for fire Pap. SE-105. Asheville. NC: U.S. Depart­ drought in northeastern Wisconsin. 1864­ control-a measure of seasonal severity. ment of Agriculture. Forest Service, 1979. For. Res. Note 248. Madison. WI: For. Establish. Int. Rep. No. 23. Rotorua, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Depart­ NEW ZEALAND: New Zealand Forest 38 p. ment of Forestry. 14 p. Service, Forest Research Institute. 15 p. Lorimer. c.o.. Gough, W.R. 1988. Frequency of drought and severe fire weather in north­ eastern Wisconsin. Journal of Environmental Management. 26(3): 203-219. The 1992 National McArthur. A.G. 1966. The application of a Wildland Fire Training drought index system CO Australian fire con­ trol. Canberra. ACT: Commonwealth of Conference Australia. Department of National Develop­ ment, Forestry and Timber Bureau. Forest The conference sponsored by the Research Institute. 18 p. National Wildfire Coordinating McArthur, A.G. 1967. Fire behaviour in Group's Training Working Team eucalypt forests. Lean. No. 107. Canberra. every other year is scheduled to be ACT: Commonwealth of Australia, Depart­ held in 1992 in Orlando. FL. on Feb­ ment of National Development, Forestry and ruary 20-22. at the Clarion Plaza Timber Bureau. 36 p. Hotel Convention Center on Interna­ Melton. M. 1989. The Keetch/Byram Drought tional Drive. Index: a guide to fire conditions and sup­ pression problems. Fire Management Notes. The theme of the training con­ 50(4): 30-34. ference is "Training. Performance. V isi o n s of Tomorrow Miller. R.K. 1978. The Keetch-Byram Technology-Visions of Tomorrow." Drought Index and three fires in upper Many varied training sessions, with Michigan. 1976. In: Preprint Volume, 5th speakers and workshops. will high­ national conference on fire and forest mete­ light this theme. An important topic funds in the next fiscal year. For fur­ orology; 1978 March 14-16; Atlantic City. for all of us will be the new fire ther information, contact Jim Whitson, NJ. Boston. MA: American Meteorological suppression curriculum and its Florida Division of Forestry. 3125 Society: 63-67. development. Conner Boulevard. Tallahassee. FL Mount, A.B. 1972. The derivation and testing I, Plan now to attend this important 32399-1650; telephone 904-488­ of a soil dryness index using run-off data. conference, and be sure to budget 6111. • Bull. No.4. Hobart, TAS: Forestry Com­ mission. Tasmania. 31 p. Noble. I.R.: Bary, G.A.V.; Gill, A.M. 1980. McArthurs fire-danger meters. Australian Journal of Ecology. 5(2): 201-203. WILDFIRE... Olson. CM. 1980. An evaluation of the Keerch-Byram Drought Index as a predictor of foIiage moisture content in a chaparral Don't Let It Get community. In: Martin, R.E.; Edmonds, R. L.: Faulkner, D,A,: and others. eds, Pro­ ceedings of the sixth conference on fire and Too Close To Home! forest meteorology; 1980 April 22-24: Scat­ tie. WA. Washington, DC: Society of FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND CONSUMER SERVICES· DIVISION OF FORESTRY

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 25 IFCIFAS1r: foU"~ COHOUilS lFo re Access SO)f~waU"e

Larry S. Bradshaw and Patricia L. Andrews

Research meteorologist, Systems for Environmental Management, Missoula. MT, ami team leader. USDA Forest Service. Intermountain Research Station. Missoula, MT

For at least a decade, fire man­ Paananen. and Burgan 1990) runs of FCFAST removes the burden of agers have recognized how much the FIREFAMILY. In the same way that remembering (or learning) FCCC computer can accomplish in helping datasets are extracted from a library. syntax and using a text editor to them to plan, No one would dispute, F1REFAMILY's passing files may be put values in appropriate columns however. that computer use can be downloaded to the fire manager's on ordered records for every complicated and time-consuming­ local computer. application. especially when a manager doesn't use a particular software package Program Structure very often. The Fort Collins Fire Forest Service Data General Sys­ Access Software (FCFAST)I is a util­ FCFAST is menu-driven and uses tems. On the Forest Service's Data ity designed to assist the casual user data-entry screens to solicit required General system, FCFAST is a CEO­ of the USDA Fort Collins Computer information, which is checked for integrated program located at the Center (FCCC) in accessing two validity_ There is also on-line context staff level of the Information Systems databases and one software package sensitive help. The on-line help is (IS) area, It automatically submits often used in fire management plan­ not intended to replace the user's runstreams to FCCC. Users are noti­ ning. It removes the burden of guides for the systems that FCF AST fied by IS when jobs are sent to and remembering (or learning) FCCC accesses-a basic knowledge of the received from FCCC. syntax and using a text editor to put required information is expected. Personal Computers. The PC ver­ values in appropriate columns on However, from the on-line help, the sion creates runstreams for ordered records for every application. input prompt for each input field, transmission to FCCC over a tele­ The databases FCF AST accesses and error messages on invalid phone modem. Completed runs are are: entries. users can quickly construct "captured" on the Pc. If an o NFWDL-The National Fire error-free runstreams for transmission NFWDL data file was downloaded. Weather Data Library (Furman and to FCCC. the captured file may be processed Brink 1975) for analysis by PC-based software o NFODL-The National Fire Implementation such as PCFIRDAT (Blanchard Occurrence Data Library (Yancik 1989). The PC version requires no and Roussopoulos 1982) There are two versions of specific communication package­ FCFAST does flat perform analysis FCF AST. One is for use on the only that the software be able to on datasets from a library-it extracts Forest Service's Data General com­ transmit a PC file to a remote com­ and optionally downloads them to a puters. The other is a personal puter and log screen activity to a PC remote site where a fire manager can computer (PC) version. FCFAST was file. access the information. written using the Forest Service The other function of FCF AST is Application Toolkit (FSAT-Screcn Program Availability to generate F1REFAMILY (FIRDAT, Utilities Library) to achieve a CEO­ SEASON. and FIRINF) runs at like format (menus. data entry FCFAST (both DG and PC ver­ .' FCCC, and optionally. create "pass­ screens, and function keysj.? The PC sions) is available to Forest Service ing files" when the fire manager version uses PCFSAT (Aviation and users through the USDA Forest Serv­ needs them. FCFAST will generate Fire Management, Pacific Northwest ice, Software Reference Center either 1978 (Main, Straub, and Research Station, Seattle, WA) to (SRC). SRC is accessed via the Paananen 1982) or 1988 (Main, achieve a similar interface. INFO_CENTER user application from the CEO interrupt menu. The PC version of FCF AST can I This work was supported in part by funds also be obtained from the following provided by the USDA Forest Service. Inter­ ~CEO stands for Comprehensive Electronic mountain Research Station (Agreement No. Office software, the Data General Corporation source: Forestry Resources Systems INT-fi8343-COAl. program used throughout the Forest Service. Institute, 122 Helton Court, Flor-

26 Fire Management Notes ence , AL 35630; telephone 205-767­ FIREFAMILY Returns, the various product, to work. For 0250. Revised example. the guide includes 14 illustrations of the kinds of computer output FIREFAMILY will generate. It Support The USDA Forest Service's North also provides blank lead cards that can Central Forest Experiment Station II be photocopied, filled in and given to FCFAST is supported by the For­ recently published FIREFAMILY a computer specialist for·proce:sing. est Service, Washington Office, Fire 1988, a revision of the 1982 user's Those who have access to FCFAST guide to fire planning with historical and Aviation Management; telephone will find that it is a quick and easy weather data. Authors of the new (406) 329-4950, FrS 584-4950. [] method to generate run streams needed FlREFAMILY version arc William A. for FlREFAMILY. Main. Donna M. Paanancn, and Literature Cited Appendix IV, which is completely Robert E. Burgan. new. describes how FIRDAT FIREFAMILY 1988 reflects Blanchard. Heather. 19l19. PCFIRDAT-user's addresses the four combinations of changes resulting from the 1988 revi­ manual. Sacramento, CA: California Depart­ 1978 and 1988 fuel model sets and sions of the National Fire-Danger ment of Forestry and Fire Protection. 16 p. styles of weather data. Fire managers Furman. R. William; Brink. Glen E. 1975. Rating System (NFDRS). Improve­ may choose any of these combina­ The National Fire Weather Data Library: ments include: tions. For instance, if users decide to what it is and how 10 use il. Gen. Tech. e Increased drought response run a 1988 fuel model set with the Rep. RM-19. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. o More flexibility to reflect the mois­ 1988 style of weather data, they will Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. ture content of live fuels discover that the program will modify Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experi­ e Better estimates of fire danger in ment Station. 8 p. the l-hour. lO-hour, IOO-hour, and the autumn Main, William A.; Straub. Robert J.: 1000-hour fuel loads to account for e Better estimates of fire danger Paananen, Donna M. 1982. FlREFAMILY: changes in fuel availability due to following rain Fire planning with historic weather data. deep drying or wetting of litter and Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-73. SI. Paul, MN: e A new set of 20 fuel models to duff. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest implement the changes You can order your copy of FIRE­ Service. North Central Forest Experiment Sta­ The FIREFAMILY program has FAMILY 1988 from the North Central tion. 31 p. three routines: FIRDAT. which uses Station Distribution Center. One Main, William A.: Paanancn, Donna M.: daily weather data to compute fuel Gifford Pinchor Dr., Madison. WI Burgan. Robert E. 1990. F1REFAMILY rnoistures, components. and indexes 1988. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-13ll. SI. Paul. 53705-2398: telephone (608) of NFDRS; SEASON. which reveals MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest 384-5237. [I' you have any questions patterns of fire weather severity over Service. North Central Forest Experiment about FIREFAMILY. contact Hill many years; and FIRINF. which can Station. 35 p. Main in East Lansing. MI at (517) analyze combinations of two variables Yancik. Richard F.: Roussopoulos, Peter J. 355-7740. [] 1982. User's guide to the National Fire such as the burning index and the Occurrence Data Library. Fort Collins. CO: ignition component. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Each of these routines is thoroughly Donna M. Paanancn. technical writer, Service. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range discussed in FJREFAMILY 1988 with North Central Forest Experiment Sta­ Experiment Station. 25 p. an emphasis on how the user can put tion, East LUIl.l'iIlR. MI

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 27 Hurricane Hugo and the Cl-215

George Brooks and Fred Fuchs

USDA Forest Service. Fire and Aviation Management. respectively, wildland-urban interface manager. Region 8. Atlanta. GA. and assistant director. Washington, DC

September 22. 1989. will be long remembered in the States of North and South Carolina. Hurricane Hugo came ashore leaving in its path mas­ sive destruction to property and tl forest resources. These States had little time to contemplate the destruc­ tion at hand: the specter of another disaster loomed on the horizon­ wildfire. The force of Hugo had decimated the standing timber resources. What remained, was a "jackstrawed" woodland situation sure to impede accessibility and suppression strat­ egies normally employed within the States. State and Federal agencies moved quickly to avert disaster. Their

The CL-2I5 enabled a quick Canadair's CL-215 unloads foam 0/1 extremely hot fire spot. Photograph: Courtesy of Photographic response to most flres-s-some Services Canadair. threatening structures in places where "jackstrawed" timber and wet ground limited tractor plow engine, amphibious air tankers have equal to those identified for the access. water-scooping and foam-mixing Francis Marion National Forest in capability. It was thought they would South Carolina. give early strike capability in areas At the request of the State of actions included assessments of the with limited access and protection for South Carolina, the conditions in extent of damage and analysis to the I million people and their homes Sumter County were recreated in fire determine the needed level of fire within the Hugo area. management computer models. Sup­ pression action using various , protection. Basic fire suppression r efforts within the Hugo impact area South Carolina's Sumter County: combinations of CL-215 airtankers, traditionally centered around the trac­ Conditions and Suppression medium helicopters, and tractor tor plow unit operating in light litter Response Analyzed plows were then applied in the model with an absence of the larger 1000­ of conditions in the county. Impor­ hour fuels. The situation following The State of South Carolina identi­ tant to this analysis are the following Hugo would require a break from tra­ fied two counties best representing assumptions: dition for suitable fire protection and Hugo damage: Sumter County with • The CL-215 airtanker could suppression capability to have some light-to-moderate damage overall but respond to a fire within 25 min­ measure of success. pockets of heavy damage caused by utes. This would include 8 minutes One aspect of the States' readiness tornadoes imbedded in the hurricane departure time, 15 minutes flight plans included the lease of three Can­ and Berkeley County with heavy time. and 2 minutes for sizing up adair CL-215's from the Canadian damage. The effects of Hurricane the fire conditions and disburse­ province of Quebec. These twin- Hugo in Berkeley County were rated ment of the first load.

28 Fire Management Notes • Additional CL-215 drops could Review of CL-215 Operation in It is in this spirit of cooperation that II occur every 15 minutes with North and South Carolina the Forest Service, along with the reloading from designated water States of North and South Carolina, sources . The USDA Forest Service is elected to review, after the 1990 fire • Lakes suitable for CL-215 opera­ directly responsible for the protection season, the suitability of the Canadair tions are located within 15 miles of approximately 191 million acres CL-2l5 air tanker as a resource for of the representative fires. CL-215 (77.3 million ha) of National Forest suppression activities within the airtankers can also operate and System lands and as a partner in Hugo-damaged area. This was an refill from the ocean offshore from cooperation with the 50 States pro­ empirical review, relying heavily on Berkeley and Charleston Counties. tecting 805 million acres (325.8 ha). the observations of field suppression

+- CL-215 lanker base

A Fire with base as water SOurce

b FireWithlake Ofrfver as watersource

,= . .

CL-215 ranker base map. (NOles: Water available for helicopters within i mile (1.6 km) of all fires. Scoop mode used all 26 fires (60%). Tanker base used as water source all i5 fires (40%). Average distance ofsuitable water source: CL-2i5-17 miles (27 km): helicopler-i mile (/.6 km).)

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 29 forces and their opinions about the Table I-SIIIIIII/m:," dataforfires IIlifi=iIl,!; had suitable water sources nearby to usefulness and practicality of the CL-2/5 air II/nken allow the scooping mode to be Canadair CL-215 in meeting their employed and ensure shorter turn­ '. needs. Item Data around times. Number of fires 41 By comparison. water sources suit­ Review of Data Average size of fire at able for helicopter bucket or tank " first drop (acres) 18 (7 hal refill were located for all fires within The normally more severe winter Average distance I mile (1.6 km) or less of the fire. In Tanker base to fire and spring fire season failed to mate­ (miles) 24 (39 km) addition. hclibases averaged 15 rialize. The above-average rainfall Helibase to fire (miles) 15 (24 km) miles (24 km) to the fire compared served to lessen the immediate threat Tanker water source to with the 24 miles (39 km) for the of wildfire during the period of time fire (miles) 17 (27 kml CL-215's. Previous evaluations by the CL-215's were assigned to loca­ Heli water source to the USDA Forest Service have con­ fire (miles) 1 (1.6 km) tions in North and South Carolina. Performance data cluded that for the shorter distances However, comments from State fire Number of drops 224 between the fire and scoop site (15 suppression agencies indicated that Total gallons dropped 260,580 mi or 24 km) helicopters with the above-average, cyclical rainfall (986,374 L) equivalent water or retardant capacity served to increase the use of the CL­ Gallons per hour 4,234 (16,026 L) tend to be more effective than the Flight hours 61.54 215's and to decrease that of the Cost data CL-215. Basically, this is due. as tractor plow units with their access Flight time $113,849.00 would be expected. to the shorter limitations. See table I for data on Cost per gallon 2.83 pick-up times and therefore shorter CL-215 use. Standby 625,477.00 cycle times within the range of dis­ Total 739,326.00 tances. At ranges above 15 miles (24 Observed results krn), Discussion (average) the study concluded that due to Fire size at first drop the faster cruise, speed of the CL­ The States of North and South (acres) 18 (7 hal 215. it begins to overcome the Carolina are satisfied that the Fire size at end (acres) 30 (12 hal scooping-time increment. resulting in CL-215 airtankers met the intended Size of acreage saved lower cycle times for the CL-215 (acres) 85 (35 hal objectives. They provided a quick Total value saved per compared with the helicopter. response to fires located in areas of fire $91,000.00 The evaluation also determined extreme fuel loading, limited access. that light-to-medium helicopters and wet ground conditions. Prelimi­ working in threes could not contain nary analysis assumed water refill tion on the positioning of the tankers. fires where the forward rate of spread capability within 15 miles (24 km) of Avcragc distance to the fires in North exceeded 10 feet (3.1 m) per minute. the fire. In actuality. this distance and South Carolina from the air­ However. larger helicopters with averaged 17 miles (27 km), closely tanker base averaged 24 miles 09 retardant capacity equal to or greater approximating the initial assumption. kill). This appears to be satisfactory. than that of the CL-215 were able to Previous studies of the CL-215 based again on the initial assump­ contain the fire. It is interesting to have all concluded that the cost­ tions of the analysis. Of some note that 2S out or 41 fires were effective operation of the air tanker is concern. recognizing the limited described as running or exceeding the predicated on the close proximity of number of fires. is the rather high 10-feet (3-m) per minute rate of suitable water sources to utilize the percentage of refill operations at the spread. scooping mode. Without the water­ tanker base in lieu of scooping. For However. when considering heli­ scooping design feature. the CL~21 S 40 percent or 16 of the fires. the copters as an alternative. the element becomes an expensive fixed-wing air tankers returned to the fixed base for of cost may be a limiting factor. The tanker. This raises an important qucs- refill. Only 60 percent of the fires Boeing 107 with a capacity of 1.000

30 Fire Management Notes gallons 0,785 L) of retardant costs References pared for the California Department of Porestry.] 40 p, ~I approximately $3.000 per hour and may not, unless operating from a Anthony, Donald F. 1985, Los Angeles City U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Serv­ ice. J973. The CL-215: summary of irs portable water source in most areas, Fire Department position on CL-215 Cana­ dair aircraft. [Internal report.] Los Angeles. performance as an air tanker. deliver a significant additional incre­ (. CA: Los Angeles City Fire Department. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Serv­ ment of retardant. In addition, the 14 p. ice. Southern Region. 1989. An analysis of use of helicopters does present other Guerin, A.M. 1985. The Canadair CL-215 the effects of Hurricane Hugo on the State factors which need to be considered option for California. [Canadair Ltd. presen­ of South Carolina, Berkeley and Sumter Counties, and U.S. Forest Service. Francis that make any direct galion-far-gallon ration to California Stale Senate Committee on Approprianons.] 22 p. plus attachments. Marion National Forest Fire Management or cost-for-cost comparisons relative Krass. Robert J. 1982. The superscooper, a Program. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of at best, practical look at the CL-215. [Report pre- Agriculture, Forest Service. Southern A discussion of this review would Region. 32 p. not be complete without considering the values at risk. Life and property were the primary concern of the State agencies, The review reveals CL-215 costs seem high by traditional stand­ ~ ~QUE.-­ ards ($J 8,032 per fire). The RJRA estimated value of property and f\rrYOUR 6R'QUET6 IN A resources saved or protected. how­ ever. totaled $3.7 million or an FIREPROOF 6l.JCKET/ average of $9 [ ,000 per fire. This is equal to a benefit cost ratio of 5 to I. It would appear that this is signifi­ cant and justifies using the CL-215's.

Conclusion

Based on the data collected, subse­ quent review, and comments from suppression forces in North and I"~, South Carolina. it appears that the CL-2) 5's provided a significant fire suppression resource. The CL-215 enabled a quick response to most fires. Even in areas where heavy downed timber and wet ground limited tractor access, fires were contained that were in many instances threatening structures. Thus, the primary objectives of pro­ tection of life and property were realized through employment of the Canadair CL-215's.•

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 31 The Florence Fire: lesson in Incident Command Cooperation Charles A. Knight Fire information officer (retired), USDA Forest Service. Rocky Mountain Region, Pike and Sail Isabel National Forests, Pueblo, CO

A more rugged, inaccessible, and was so dissected, steep, and rough it merce National Weather Service remote location to suppress a wild­ was not possible to reach many parts (NWS), and Utah National Guard land fire probably does not exist of the main fire. During the after­ joined the fray. anywhere in the Western United noon of August I as winds increased, Communication. Fire suppression States. Sheer canyon walls and verti­ the Florence Creek Fire blew up. By continued for the next 9 days before cal rock outcrops with well over 100 nightfall, the fire size had grown to the fire was declared contained on percent slopes typify the Florence 2,500 acres (l ,0i2 ha). August II. Because of the remote Creek drainage located in the Hill A call was made for a Class II location, communication with support Creek Extension of the Uintah and Incident Command Team. Ed Storey dispatch at the Vernal Fire Center Ouray Indian Reservation of north­ from the Utah Division of State was impossible on the first day. eastern Utah. The Florence Creek Lands and Forestry responded. His Necessary communication equip­ area is well known locally for its val­ team arrived at Fort Duchesne, UT, ment had already been committed by uable desert bighorn sheep habitat and were briefed by the BfA on the the Interagency Fire Control Center and its populations of elk and mule fire's progress. Initial strategy was to in Boise, 10, but it had not arrived. deer. Some buffalo are in the general contain, rather than directly attack However, BLM communication vicinity. The summer of 1990 was the fire, because of the difficult ter­ leader Bart Lewis of BLM's Vernal the fourth consecutive year of rain in the fire vicinity. District and Forest Service communi­ drought in northeastern Utah, so fire cations technician Everett Lemons of hazard was extremely high in July the Ashley National Forest came to and August. How State and Federal agencies the rescue. Bart and Everett, ham Florence Creek was the scene of a and the Ute Indian Tribe worked radio buffs, set up a direct computer summer lightning storm on July 31, together on the Florence Fire is communication link via "packet 1990. As a result, seven separate probably one of the best examples radio" from the Incident Command fires were ignited. These fires began of cooperation in a fire emergency Base Communications Unit through burning in a variety of vegetation since the inception of the Incident the Blue Mountain node "Dina" to a including Douglas-fir, ponderosa Command System. bulletin board system at the Vernal pine, aspen, Gambel oak, pinyon Fire Center. This system provided pine, mountain mahogany, bitter ongoing communication daily brush, sagebrush, and grasses. Cooperative Action through the duration of the fire. In This is the story of how State and addition to communications tied to a Federal agencies and the Ute Indian Personnel. Early on August 2, system support dispatch, they also Tribe worked together fighting that fireline construction by dozers and established a radio-telephone inter­ . fire. It is probably one of the best handcrews was underway in the rela­ connect, giving to fire personnel F examples of cooperation in a fire tively flat plateau country bordering essentially the same access as a tele­ emergency since the inception of the the canyons of Florence Creek. By phone line, which includes direct Incident Command System. that evening, 261 personnel from the long distance calls from the incident Uintah and Ouray Indian Reserva­ base. The Situation and the Strategy tion, USDI BIA and Bureau of Land Another communication system Management (BLM), U.S. Depart­ proved extremely valuable in getting Six of the fires were extinguished ment of Agriculture (USDA) Forest the upper hand on this very stubborn by the U.S. Department of the Inte­ Service, Utah Division of State and dangerous fire. A satellite dish, rior (USDJ) Bureau of Indian Affairs Lands and Forestry, and Interagency part of a mobile weather unit, (BIM and Uintah and Ouray Inter­ Crews were on the fire. In the fol­ received weather information directly agency Crews on the first day, but lowing days, firefighters and support from Washington, DC, which was the fire in Florence Creek was an personnel from the USDl National interpreted for the Incident Command entirely different matter. The terrain Park Service, Department of Com- Team by Brenda Graham of the

32 Fire Management Notes NWS. Hourly weather reports and

" forecasts proved extremely valuable as the team developed strategies to put out this fire. Helicopter Use and Safety, A firefighting tactic that was critical to the success of the team's effort was the use of helitack crews that rap­ pelted from hovering helicopters, sometimes as much as 250 feet (76 m) on ropes to reach inaccessible areas to construct heJispots. Only in this way was it possible to bring in fire crews to reach parts of the fire. The utilization of these highly skilled crews to do this critical task enabled the fire team to implement a direct attack down in the canyons to pre­ vent the fire from hooking under control lines constructed on the ridges above. This technique enabled the fire team to implement the direct attack strategy in the canyons after it recognize other aircraft and avoid Uintah and Ouray Indian Tribes. became safe to do so. The final fire collision. The lamp and bracket sys­ Their task WaS to begin rehabilitation size in this valuable wildfire habitat tem Steve designed can be installed of the soils and slopes exposed to was 5,700 acres (2,307 ha), about 30 anywhere on any model helicopter at rain and wind by the fire. percent of what it would have been a COst of $150.00. Earlier in the The outstanding cooperation of all without this fire suppression effort. summer, he designed and installed the personnel that worked so closely Alex Stone, helicopter manager the lamps and bracket on an AST AR together to reach a common goal was and rappel foreman. reported 15 Helicopter. Bill McMillan, helicopter achieved primarily by the total dedi­ operational rappels achieved with the program manager for the Southern cation and years of practice by the construction of I J helispors and the Region (Region 8), says these lights men and women of Ed Storey's team suppression of one spot fire outside have significantly added to safety, working together as an Incident the control lines between August 3 especially when flying in heavy Command team .• and 9. smoke and intends to recommend the Helicopter safety increased signifi­ optional usc of the Whelen Micro­ cantly on the Florence Fire. A Bell Max Beam light system on contract 204-B helicopter flown by pilot aircraft specifications for helicopter Steve Lotspeich of Crane Helicopter operations. Services, Alamo. CA, used twin "Whelen Micro-Max Beam" sealed Containment and Control lamps mounted on the forward mirror frame. These lOO,OOO candle-foot Sunday, August 12. the Florence lamps. which project a flashing or Creek Fire was declared contained steady light beam straight ahead sim­ and controlled, and Ed Storey's team ilar to a flashlight, helped pilots turned the fire over to the BIA and

1990 VOlume 51, Number 4 33 Fire Behavior Service Center for Extreme Wildfire Activity Charles L. Bushey and Robert W, Mutch President, Montana Prescribed Fire Services, lnc., Missoula. MY, and research applications leader, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MY

Introduction in Missoula, MT, is responsible for The expanded fire suppression expanding the fire suppression orga­ organization, referred to as the Fire management organizations nization to meet the needs for Regional Incident Coordinating Orga­ often respond to severe wildfire sit­ increased fire planning, priority set­ nization (RICO) (figs. I and 2), has uations without a comprehensive ting, and safety. designated positions, which can be system for tracking fire behavior potential throughout a region. If such a system was in place, however, it Regional Agency heads, I- would serve as a basis for establish­ Forester agency MAC team ing preparedness and suppression representative priorities. Recognizing the practical MAC value of such information, the Forest I Service's Northern Region in the Director, Aviation and I Fire Management, r mid-1980's implemented a fire Icomptrollerr- USDA Forest I MAC team - behavior intelligence program that Service, MAC linked regional polygons of similar representative fuels and weather conditions through , a regionwide center known as the I I I I Fire Behavior Service Center. The Prescribed Regional Suppression Regional polygons, as developed by Robert fire aviation group prevention Burgan at Fire Behavior Project, specialist officer leader coordinator Intermountain Fire Sciences Labora­ tory (Burgan and Hartford 1988), augment the display of the National Plans Regional coordinator fire - Fire Danger Rating System informa­ coordinator tion for specified geographical areas. The Fire Behavior Service Center is activated and staffed during critical multiple fire situations to improve Agency Air service representative coordinator fire safety and fire suppression decisions. RICo This fire behavior intelligence Military program has provided essential service information and data to line officers, liaison coordinator coordinator fire management personnel, and overhead teams in a timely manner. We will describe the program with enough detail so that it can be used Finance Staging unit in other regions. coordinator coordinator -

Organization Figure l-Upper-le~'elchain of command for the Regional Incident Coordinating Organization (RICO) and Multi-Agency Coordinating (MAC) learn of Region I. * During periods of extreme or extensive wildfire activity, the USDA 'Member organizations of the Northern Region RICO and MAC team: USDA Forest Service Region 1; USOI Montana State Office Bureau at Land Management, National Park Service, and Bureau of Indian ANai's; and Idaho and Montana Forest Service's Northern Region's Departments at Slale lands. Member olganizaljons at the Greatel Yellowslone Area MAC team: USOA Forest SaNiee (Region I) regional fire coordinator Regions 1, 2, and 4; USOI National Park Service; and Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming Departments of Slate Lands.

34 Fire Management Notes filled and lenninated quickly as (fig. 3). The service center may be analysis for the immediate area may ., needed. When a severe fire season staffed with additional specialists if be required. seriously affects different agencies or the situation warrants extra assist­ Ohjectives. It is important to rec­ fires are competing for resources ance, either in the service center ognize that the purpnse of the FBA's within the Northern Region, the itself or in the field. A list of "on­ at the Fire Behavior Service Center is Multi-Agency Coordinating Team call" fire behavior personnel and not to duplicate or replace the func­ (MAC) is activated. The MAC team "trainees" is maintained by the serv­ tions of FBA's on individual coordinates the interagency fire sup­ ice center to meet service center incidents. The staff at the service pression decisionrnaking process and needs or special assignments on fire center provides support to FBA's on relies heavily on the intelligence incidents. A minimum of two fire major fires and an overview of the gathered by RICO. behavior specialists at the service regional fire behavior situation to the The Fire Behavior Service Cen­ center allows those individuals to MAC team and RICO to assist in the ter and the Fire Behavior Analyst. alternate office and field respon­ establishment of priorities. Specific Within RICO under the Plans Sec­ sibilities and keeps the service center functions of the service center tion, the Fire Behavior Service office operated at all necessary times include the following: Center, operated by a fire behavior to issue reports and Fire Behavior • Map fire behavior severity zones analyst (FBA) or qualified fire Alerts as well as conduct periodic in the region and determine behavior specialist, may be activated briefing sessions with the MAC team order of priority. if multiple project fires are occurring and RICO. Satellite service centers o Update daily measurements or high fire spread rates and fire may be established for fire com­ from the region's Remote Auto­ intensities pose distinct threats to plexes or area commands, where matic Weather Station (RAWS) life, property, and natural resources additional specialized fire behavior network. e Update burning indexes, energy release components. and 1000­ Plans hour fuel moisture for designated coordinator polygons or critical stations and graphically plot on a daily basis. • Plot location and determine fire Fire information Sjtuation status behavior potential of wilderness unit leader unit leader prescribed fires on a daily basis. Q Gather, plot, and display wildfire perimeter data for all project fires. II. Fire weather Resource status e Provide fire behavior input to the forecaster unit leader daily RICO Situation Report. • Participate in regular briefings of

\ the RICO, MAC team, media, and others. Fire behavior infrared analyst unit leader • Brief on-call smokejumpers, inci­ dent FBA's, and overhead teams I about the regional fire behavior situation. Fire behavior Safety • Schedule as-needed reconnaissance service center unit leader flights of major fires with video support. Figure 2--Chui/J of command/or the Regional Incident Coordinating Organisation (RICO) plans • Maintain two-way communication coordinator position. with incident FBA's and provide

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 35 requested assistance on a case-by­ fire behavior intelligence for suppres­ 1988. In 1988, the Northern case basis. sion management decisions across the Region's fire season started early but • Make on site fire behavior service region until rain and snow started to the decision to activate RICO was visits to key fires in the region. fall 25 days later (Bushey and Goens not made until July 23. The Fire o Provide a pool of FBA's who are 1985). While other RICO functions Behavior Service Center was acti­ available to respond to the requests were deactivated, the service center vated and operational on July 26 and of incident FBA's to fulfill special remained to monitor weather and fuel would remain on active duty until assignments (for example, weather conditions in case of a return to a October 7. Other functions of RICO network monitoring, fuel model warm, drying trend. After the season were deactivated on August 7, identification and mapping, fuel was over, only minor changes were because of a reduction in the number model verification, fuel moisture found to be needed during a postfire of project-sized wildfires across the sampling, or BEHAVE terminal season assessment of the service cen­ region. But because of the strong operation). ter's operations. possibility of a future increase in fire During 1986, the need to establish activity, the physical facilities for, History of the Fire Behavior RICO was again necessary for a RICO were maintained so they could Service Center in the Northern short period of time, but without the be quickly reactivated if necessary. Region Fire Behavior Service Center. The By August 10, an increase in fire 1987 fire season found the Northern danger ratings and the number of First years. The first application Region with very dry fuel and hot, project fires resulted in RICO being of the RICO Fire Behavior Service dry weather, but few ignitions, with brought back to full operational Center concept in the Northern the main area of fire activity in the strength for what would end up being Region was in 1984 with the aid of Pacific Northwest. Thus, it was not the "second half" of the fire season the Forest Service Intermountain Fire necessary to activate RICO. (Bushey 1989). During this later Sciences Laboratory. The laboratory provided personnel to collect fire behavior, fire weather, and fuel moisture data and aid in briefing ses­ sions to key fire suppression planning personnel. The need for a service center during the 1984 fire season only lasted a week as the weather moderated and numerous project fires were brought under control. After the 1984 fire season, the organizational and data-collecting needs of the serv­ ice center were evaluated and restructured to operate directly under the RICO plans coordinator. These changes were implemented on July 15, 1985, when the RICO Fire Behavior Service Center was again activated with all functions located at the Aerial Fire Depot (AFD) in Missoula, MT. The service Figure 3-North Fork Fire (1988) in Yellowstone National Park moving toward community. center functioned effectively within When .~e~'eTe wildfires threaten people and communities. establishing a Fire Behavior Service the organization. collecting needed Center can improve fire safety and fire management decisionmaking,

36 Fire Management Notes period, another Fire Behavior Service and incident command centers with Center was established at West computer facilities, summarizing the Yellowstone, MT, to aid the fire sup­ current fire behavior and fire weather pression operations being conducted situation on a synoptic scale gener­ -~-----~11 on 1.2 millon acres (485,640 ha) by ally larger than usually available to " the Greater Yellowstone Area Com­ an incident FBA. These reports are - mand (GY AC). The GY AC satellite included in the RICO Situation Fire Behavior Service Center was Report and update observed fire staffed with qualified personnel from behavior trends; wilderness pre­ offices in Washington, DC, the USDA scribed natural fire status; fire Forest Service fire laboratories in behavior safety precautions; and fire Missoula, MT, and Macon, GA, and behavior advisories, watches, and individuals released from other fires warnings concerning regional trends (fig. 4). or local phenomena. The Fire Behavior Report also incorporates Fire Behavior Service Center short historical notes about other Activities severe fire seasons comparable to the current situation. These historical Functions. The main purpose of notes create interest in the RICO Fire the staff in the Fire Behavior Service Behavior Report because or the Center is to gather, interpret, and expanded perspective and are com­ Figure 5-Fire Behavior Service Center's disperse regional and interregional monly used by fire information morning briefing session 10 the RICO. the fire weather, fire danger indexes . officers (FlO). They arc posted on MAC team, and the Governor ofMontana and (Deeming et al. 1977), and fuel fire camp bulletin boards. to ensure Iris staff. moisture data in terms of expected and potential fire behavior for the RICO and MAC team members and other coordinating groups. This infor­ mation is presented in morning and afternoon briefing sessions to the RICO and MAC team group. Fre­ quently, special briefing sessions are necessary during periods of critical interest or for visiting dignitaries and " the public news media. It is impor­ ~1; tant that the service center personnel

have good presentation skills and can " interpret their information in a pre­ cise manner using terminology and graphics understandable by the lay person (fig. 5). Daily, or twice daily, Fire Behavior Reports, a part of the RICO Situation Report, are issued by

electronic mail to aJl forest super­ Figure 4---Fire behavior specialists provided valuable assistance to Greater Yellowstone Are4 visor offices, fire dispatch offices, Command in West Yellowstone in 1988.

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 37 an increased awareness of the current moving toward them that evening. other Forest Service regions that may fire situation. • Fire behavior information also was interact with ongoing fires in the Greater YeHowstone Area shared with the FBA at Mammoth Northern Region. Current fire danger Applications. The data collected are regarding observed fire behavior indexes. in particular the energy meant to support and complement measurements in sagebrush at release component. are graphed for fire behavior information require­ Crandall. key stations and trends compared ments of FBA's on fire incidents as • Information was also provided on with previous severe fire seasons. well as provide accurate knowledge the conditions that existed when The relative values for the indexes to FlO's for public news releases. fire burned over the Old Faithful are also mapped daily by polygon The two-way exchange of informa­ Geyser complex on September 7. within the Northern Region (Burgan tion between the service center and • Assistance was furnished to and Hartford 1988) (figs. 6, 7, and the incident FBA's is a critical inter­ provide a priority for Mammoth to 8). This system of displaying fire face to the successful function of the receive infrared coverage during behavior-related information by geo­ service center. This was clearly dem­ the night. graphic polygons within the Northern onstrated on September 9, 1988. at The Fire Behavior Service Center Region was termed ALERT (Antici­ the service center serving GYAC. was in an advantageous position to pated Level of Energy Release , Fire behavior that day had been very provide this requested and critical Timing). The system uses such , active over most areas of the Greater information, because it had been indicators as the energy release com­ Yellowstone Area. By late afternoon, gathering and dispersing fire behavior ponent, lOOO-hour fuel moisture, and four-to-five massive convection col­ intelligence on an areawide basis dur­ burning index that identify areas with umns were visible throughout the ing the severe fire season. severe fire behavior potential. This area. Two of the more active sites of Process. To achieve objectives information can be used as an aid in burning were the northwest side of designed for the Fire Behavior Serv­ pre-positioning fire suppression the North Fork Fire and the area near ice Center. the service center obtains forces and equipment, requesting the Old Faithful Geyser complex. updates of weather measurements contingency funds, and coordinating Late in the day. the North Fork Fire from the established network of wilderness fire management pro­ made a run northeasterly toward RAWS (Warren and Vance 1981). grams. By using predicted weather Bunsen Peak, threatening Yellow­ The RAWS are used to monitor the inputs to the National Fire Danger stone National Park's administrative dynamic nature of fuel moistures, Rating System. ALERT can be used site at Mammoth. Between 8 p.m, temperatures, relative humidities, and to anticipate the future timing of and midnight, there was a steady wind speeds for regional or intra­ energy release levels. ALERT was a stream of requests for information regional (area polygon with similar fire research development following concerning the ongoing fire situation fuel, weather, and topographical con­ the evaluation of the 1984 service such as the following: ditions) trends. Observed trends are center operation and has since • The FBA on Storm Fire to the east compared with previous severe fire become available on a national basis. wanted to know what was occur­ seasons. The RAWS data and Fire danger status in other Western ring on the rest of the fire complex National Weather Service (NWS) regions is also monitored to keep and why fire activity was rela­ information are used to track signifi­ track of the potential need for the tively quiet on Storm. cant weather patterns that could shifting of fire suppression resources. • The FBA on Hellroaring Fire affect fire behavior. Fire behavior These last activities were particularly wanted to know why the Billings analysts at the service center work important during 1988 when for a fire weather forecast was calling closely with the local NWS fire short time we entered into a multi­ for snow the next day. weather office. Fire Weather Reports regional severe fire situation • The overhead team at Mammoth issued by the NWS from across the involving the Forest Service's North­ wanted information about the loca­ Western United States are monitored ern, Rocky Mountain, Intermountain, tions of fire fronts that were for changing weather patterns in Pacific Southwest, and Pacific North-

38 Fire Management Notes west Regions (Regions I, 2, 4, 5, and 6, respectively) (Bushey 1989). r , · Close monitoring of precipitation events and patterns across the region is a regular duty and done in associa­ tion with evaluations of changing fuel moisture and fire danger trends. Nighttime l-hour fuel moisture recovery from either precipitation or increased relative humidity is tracked Seasonal Danger each morning across the region and Percentile Shade Level H-20 ~ Low made available to incident FBA's in 20-50 lIIIIl :v1()J~rate the morning Fire Behavior Report. 5Q.-fW ~ High Soil moisture (from RAWS measure­ 1\0--95 IIIIIIIIill Very High 9S-100~ ments and drought indexes) are Bxtrcrre periodically checked as a tool in evaluating current and near future fuel moisture trends, especially when soil moisture levels begin to approach the IOOO-hour fuel moisture contents. In connection with these evalua­ tions of current weather and fire danger conditions, real-time use is

made of data collected by other 11-45 ESS3 ~~~:~

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 39 and timely notification of fire crews How We Stay Informed already on fire incidents with con­ finned data of approaching RICO Situation Report: A twice-a-day report issued by the RICO and the thunderstorms with strong down­ MAC group to all agency offices and fire camps via FIRENET over the Data drafts. For example, fire crews on General computer system. These situation reports update the Northern Region's the 1988 Combination Fire on the wildfire and wilderness prescribed natural fire activity, current resource situa­ tion, the Fire Weather Report, and the Fire Behavior Report. Deerlodge National Forest, a new Fire Behavior Report: A report issued by the Fire Behavior Service Center, lightning-caused ignition actively usually within the RICO Situation Report. summarizing the current regional fuel being suppressed by both fire crews moisture situation, expected 24~hour~predicted~fuel~moisture trends, and poten­ and smokejumpers, were able to tial fire behavior based on synoptic scale weather information for the period. retreat to safety zones after a 45­ The report also updates wilderness prescribednatural fire status and frequently minute advance warning to the local includes information from historical fire behavior and fire weather for the date interagency fire dispatch office and safety notes that apply to the current fire behavior situation. informed them of a thunderstorm Fire Behavior Watch: Message sent by the Fire Behavior Service Center (Ire­ developing on the other side of the quently part of the Fire Behavior Report) to all agency offices and fire camps Sapphire Mountain range. This storm connected by FIRENET on the Data General computer system. The watch crossed the fire and caused the fire to reports the potential for erratic or severe fire behavior from anticipated changes 48~hour rapidly grow to over 5,700 acres in fuel or weather conditions during the next period. Fire Behavior Warning: Message sent by the Fire Behavior Service Center (2,307 hal. No injuries were reported (frequently part of the Fire Behavior Report) to all agency offices and fire and no fire shelters deployed. camps connected by FIRENET on the Data General computer system. This Radiosonde readings from Western warning reports potential erratic or severe fire behavior from anticipated changes NWS and Canadian Weather Service in fuel or weather conditions during the next 24-hour period. stations are used in tracking high­ Fire Behavior Alert: A fire behavior or fire safety message. preceding or fol­ elevation atmospheric features that lowing a Fire Behavior Warning, sent by the Fire Behavior Service Center to may have significant impact on ongo­ specific agency offices and fire camps, via the Data General computer system ing fires or future regional fire and followed up by telephone communication, concerning dangerous conditions danger. These atmospheric features observed on an ongoing fire that may be applicable to other fires within the such as subsidence inversions, strong same geographic region or similar fuel type. winds, and reverse wind profiles (Byram 1954, Rothermel and Gorski 1987, Bushey 1990, Bushey in prep­ aration), and the upper-level freezing level wind speeds and direction from arc not occurring on a particular fire zone in mountainous terrain are very these atmospheric soundings are also incident, the FBA is in a better posi­ difficult for an FHA on a fire important as input into computer pro­ tion to make predictions if they are incident to monitor without the jections by the service center to informed of the potential and know assistance of a fire weather forecaster analyze convection column orienta­ that these events may be taking and are sometimes best viewed from tion, dispersion, and impact on place elsewhere under similar fire a regional scale rather than a single sensitive receptor sites by particulates conditions. point on the landscape. Fire Behavior and reduction in visibility. Fire look­ The active monitoring of environ­ Watches and Fire Behavior Warnings outs and helicopter pilots can act as mental conditions and ongoing fire have been issued from the Fire an important source of information in behavior as well as a knowledge of Behavior Service Center concerning supplementing data from the widely historical extreme fire behavior pat­ atmospheric features of these types scattered, twice daily readings terns allows for the advanced for their potential, or known, ongo­ obtained from the radiosonde warning of the potential for signifi­ ing effect on either wildfire behavior atmospheric profiles. Even if certain cant wildfire events. These activities or regional scale fuel beds. Upper- weather or fire behavior phenomena by the Fire Behavior Service Center

40 Fire Management Notes allowed for early warnings of poten­ Scapegoat Wilderness onto the plains the potential for increased dangers in tial extreme fire behavior events to of the northern Rocky Mountains, an already dangerous occupation, occur in early September 1988. burning 117,330 acres (47,483 hal especially when their alertness may These warnings allowed for com­ with conifer crown fire rates-of­ have been dulled after being on the munity and fire camp evacuation spread up to 9 miles per hour (15 fireline for extended periods during plans to be developed and imple­ km/h) (Bushey in preparation). severe fire seasons, is the ultimate mented in connection with local Other Services, In addition to the responsibility of all FBA's. Thus, the sheriff departments and disaster monitoring and reporting of environ­ Fire Behavior Service Center adds a assistance organizations. The infor­ mental conditions and fire behavior, significant new dimension in the col­ mation was utilized by the the Fire-Behavior Service Center has lection, analysis, and distribution of Governor's staff to execute recrea­ also taken on many other varied fire behavior information on a tional restrictions throughout the duties. These have included the brief­ regional or areawide basis that can State of Montana and to set back the ing of incoming overhead teams, materially assist the efforts of RICO, opening date of upland gamebird smokejumpers, and fire crews pass­ the MAC team, and incident over­ hunting season. Neither decision was ing through the Aerial Fire Depot head teams. Implementing the popular in a State where the public about the current fire behavior and concept can return important divi­ tends to be independent-minded and fire weather situation across the dends to fireline safety and fire protective of their outdoor recreation, region and at the incident to which management programs.• but both were important in suc­ they are headed. The service center cessfully restricting the potential is a good place for an incoming FBA Literature Cited sources of new wildfire ignitions dur­ to get "oriented" about a new inci­ Burgan, Robert E.; Hartford.tkobcrta A. ing a period of extreme fire danger dent. Service center personnel have 1988. Computer mapping of fire danger and and limited additional fire suppres­ also been involved in the active fire location in the continental United States. sion resources. When the predicted monitoring, fire behavior prediction, Journal of Forestry. 86(1): 25-30. extreme fire behavior arrived on Sep­ and periodic perimeter mapping of Bushey, Charles L. 1989. The 1988 fire sea­ son in the Northern Rocky Mountains: a tember 6 and remained active in the ongoing prescribed natural fires dur­ chronology of weather, tire occurrence, region until September 9 (the first ing the wildfire season. At the end of behavior and growth. Missoula. MT: U.S. warnings were issued on September the fire season, service center person­ Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 2) in the form of a dry-cold front nel are suitable individuals for Northern Region, Aviation and Fire Man­ with extreme winds and a surfacing documentation of either the fire sea­ agement. 369 p. Bushey, Charles L. 1990. The 1988 Red jet stream, the fire suppression orga­ son or particular unusual incidents Bench Fire: documentation of fire behavior, nizations were as prepared as because of their access to the neces­ fire weather, and the prebum fuel conditions possible. No lives were lost because sary information. This can be in the North Fork of the Flathead River Val­ of the fire behavior even though expressly important with incidents ley. Final Report for Cooperative Agreement numerous fire fronts ran for miles that may experience future legal No. INT-89439-RJVA for the U.S. Depart­ ment of Agriculture. Forest Service, with the wind, sometimes through problems resulting from injuries or Intermounta.in Research Station, Ogden. UT. local communities in their paths damage. 2 vol. 137 p. [Copy on file at the Inter­ (Bushey 1989, Bushey J990, Bushey mountain Fire Sciences Laboratory. in preparation). The Canyon Creek Conclusion Missoula. MT.] Fire, for example, was one of several Bushey, Charles L. fin prcparation.] Docu­ The Fire Behavior Service Center mentation of the Canyon Creek Fire. Final that had been targeted by the service concept has proved useful in the report for the Lolo National Forest, Mis­ center as susceptible to extreme fire Northern Region and has on several !>oula. MT. behavior. This fire during one burn­ occasions been referred to as Bushey. Charles L.: Goens. Dave. 19H5. 1985 ing period, starting the afternoon of possibly having saved firefighting Fire Season. Missoula, MT: U.S. Depart­ September 6, ran for 21 miles personnel from injury. To keep ment of Agriculture. Forest Service, Northern Region. Aviation and Fire Man­ (34 km) out of the mountains of the overhead and crews aware of . agement. 23 p.

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 41 Byram, George M. [954. Atmospheric condi­ Forest and Range Experiment Station. 63 p. Diego, CA. Boston. MA: American Mete­ tions related to blowup fires. Sta. Pap. SE­ German. Stephen C. 1988. U.S. Department orological Society: 191-196. 35. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of of the Imerior , Bureau of Land Management Warren, John R.·,Vance. Dale L. 1981. Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeast Forest initial attack management system (lAMS) Remote automatic weather stations for and Range Experiment Station. 34 p. information package. Boise, 10: Boise Inter­ resource and fire management agencies. Deeming, John E.~ Burgan. Robert E.~ Cohen. agency Fire Center. 35 p, Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-116. Ogden. VT: Jack D. 1977. The National Fire Danger Rothermel. Richard c.; Gorski, Carl J. 1987. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Rating Systcm-1978. Gen. Tech. Rep. Cause of the Butte Fire blowup. In: Pro­ Service, Intermountain Forest and Range INT-39. Ogden. UT: U.S. Department of ceedings of the 9th conference on fire and Experiment Station. 11 p. Agriculture. Forest Service. Intermountain forest meteorology; 1987 April 21-24; San

The Range Finder Best Use and Limitation (for instance roads) is on a gentle slope perpendicular to your line of The way I use the Osborne The fire or unknown landmark sight. The higher road on the right Firefinder to plot exact distances from referred to in the first step and the sights in at 4 inches in the distance , lookouts to fires or unknown land­ known landmark in the third must be tape. and the lower road on the left marks requires absolutely no mental at identical elevations. sights in at 5 inches on the distance calculation and is error free if used The range finder is most useful in tape. Using the average distance (4'h within its limitations. This simple sys­ areas where landmarks are poor or inches) of these two landmarks. plot tem and its limitations are described unavailable. It works best at lookouts the fire. Should the distance between below. that are significantly higher than the known and unknown landmarks be surrounding area. but is efficient at all different than the example above, dif­ , Procedure lookouts that include some flat terrain ferent ratios will be necessary. in their seen areas. Accuracy will sometimes vary with this alteration of the range finder .• , • Place the sliding peep hole sight A moderate slope can also be and the top crosshairs on the base accommodated once the lookout has a of a smoke or an unknown working knowledge of the procedure. Jim Shotwell, Odell Butte lookout. For example, a smoke situated half­ Crescent Ranger District, Deschutes landmark. way between two known landmarks National Forest. Crescent, OR • Keep your eye lined up behind the peep hole sight and crosshairs as you slowly rotate the sight bearing Tape for delineating line of sight ring. (Clka. dlstanca tapa) • Stop rotating the ring when you Rear sight intersect a known landmark such as Sliding peep hole sight a road, river, meadow, clearcut, Handle for turning sight ring ridge base, butte base. Upper plate with graduated ring • Note the position of this landmark on the distance tape. • Rotate the sight bearing ring back to Leveling screws L:~:::;;;iIIlI!!l:IiI"Tape adjustment screw the original azimuth and usc this Vernier position on the distance tape to plot Orientation adjustment screws the exact distance of the fire or landmark from your lookout. (Hint: Try to keep both eyes open Tracks for sliding or shiftingfire I during the second and third steps. finder withoutchanging orientation It isn't vital to the procedure, but will help user see small landmarks that are obscured by the crosshairs.) Diagram ofthe Osborne Firefinder.

42 Fire Management Notes Fire Training! Tough for Fire Fitness Program or That night I slept on the sidewalk GMTFFP. If successful, I could mar­ underneath the street light. To make it For the first time in 6 years (fire ket it and be some sort of yuppie guru more realistic, I put some gravel season of 1989) I didn't go on any consultant making big bucks. As a under the sleeping bag. ( found a cas­ wildfires. I was ready though. I consultant, I would stroke my chin, sette tape of motor and generator trained and prepared for this fire sea­ nod sagely whenever someone asked noises to play on my Walkman as I son better than any previous. I was in me a question, and never give them a dozed off. I had a neighborhood kid the best shape of my life. straight answer. But first I had to try with a loud car stereo drive slowly by. How did I do it? The first thing I the program on myself. I figured a Another neighbor woke me at inter­ did was lose 20 pounds. I did that by week would be plenty. vals asking if this was the Mt. Hood giving up the things I loved; pizza. On Monday I went to work as crew. The area dogs were an potatoes of all kinds, pasta, beef, usual, but with a twist. The alarm unplanned but handy irritant, i pork, lamb. chili. com, crackers. clock woke me at 4: 15 a.m. For especially when one woke me with a white bread, fried anything, chips. breakfast, r ate some halfway warm wet feeling. cookies, and icc cream. I ate so much defrosted frozen pancakes off the flim­ I varied this routine every day by poultry and seafood I felt like the stcsr paper plates I could find. I used the addition of different events. One "chicken of the sea." But no sacrifice a plastic fork typical of fire camps so day I slid down a rope to make my j would be too great; I was going to be it broke as 1 worked up my first hands sore. On another, I walked to I in the best shape of my firefighting mouthful. I sat at my patio picnic work barefoot. I trapped a squirrel in I career. table in the predawn dark. I turned on my red pack and had him chew up my Then I worked on my endurance. I a fan to blow ashes from the Weber underwear. I put a rock inmy shoe. 1 l have two sons under 6 years of age at barbcque across the picnic table. Then had a street person talk to me in a home so I decided to do everything nourished. I left for work. loud voice for 5 hours about the cos- I they did. When they ran, I ran. When I walked to work carrying a shovel mic significance of mayonnaise. II they walked, I walked. When they and a fifty-pound pack. In the pack I had a guy in a faded green uni- slept, I slept. I lasted 3 days. After were rocks and underneath the rocks form pop up randomly with the I that. all I could do was sleep, no mat­ was my lunch in a paper sack. I thought of the day-things like this: I ter what they were doing. peeled the plastic off my flat sandwich • "We didn't bring you here to But I got my stamina up. My and dropped it in the dirt before I ate think." weight was down and my strength it. I made sure the meal was too salty. • "You can't get new batteries for increased, bur I felt 1 was ignoring an I drank no cold water during the time your head light until you bring in important point. I was missing a key I was on the GMTFFP. I drank water the dead ones. " clement. Then while reading "The specifically heatcd to 105 OF and laced • "Not until you get this form signed Goat Roper News," it slapped me with quinine to get that sour fire camp by the Ie, all the chiefs, and bring between the eyes like the free end of a taste. a note from your mother." L pigging string. I was omitting mental After work I rode home in the trunk • "It's a great idea but don't do it preparation. of a neighbor's car. My wife had fried again unless the Ie clears it." I needed a program that toughened a chicken for supper. I took my sup­ • "It's logical. clear. and concise. myself up mentally-something that per on another flimsy paper plate and That's the reason we won't use it." would make me immune to hurry-up­ poured the leftover grease from the I got to admit GMTFFP worked and-wait, the ridiculous decisions by skillet on my portion to give it that swell. After a week, J had experi­ know-nothing overhead, and the For­ fire camp flavor. Again I sat at the enced all the mental situations of a est Service-way-is-the-only-way picnic table. I turned on the fan again wildfire. I was ready. I had my physi­ attitude. I had to devise my own pro­ and set a full garbage can next to it cal fitness up. I was mentally tough. gram since no one had ever thought of for an extra touch. The problem was I had absolutely no such a thing. I had 50 transients come to my desire to fight wildfire so 1 didn't. So I developed the Get Mentally house for a shower. I stood at the end Maybe GMTFFP worked too of the line to make sure all the hot well. 'Reprinted from the Oklahoma Forester's a water was used up by the time I got regular column in "The Sidetrack." J. Howard Parman, forester, Bureau Bureau of Land Management. Eugene, there. I used two hefty paper towels to of Land Management, Eugene Dis­ OR, District newsletter, October 1989. dry off when I got done. trier. Eugene, OR

1990 Volume 51, Number 4 43 United States Department of Agriculture

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