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Home , Makhanlal Chaturvedi, Manohar Shyam Joshi, Seth Govind Das, Upendranath Ashk

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~worldbOOk.com SECTION 26 Vol. II r? H1NDl AlPHAB£T

Vowels Consonants aT 3f a Gfi' ka ta pa ja

au­ f a ~ kha tha pha ra

~ f ga ·s da ba (1 la

t T T gt)a G aha bha Cf va

-~ u ~ n3. ur na ma

-&~ n ca ta ~a C"\ cr

cha ~ r ~ q- tl-IG. sa c.. ~ 1Z '" e ja da tr sa ~ :r -t ai jt'a a­ dha Q. ha

,., aTr t 0 n::l na aft T au

Numbers 0 'xt l..t C; Z ~ ~ \ ~. \9 ~ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The Republic of , or Sharat, is a land more than 4,500 years old. Sixteen percent of the world's population lives in India (931 million). This means one out of every six people in the world lives, there with 733 people per 2.2 km 2. The two major religions are Hinduism (83 percent) and Islam (11 percent). India is home to one of the largest Muslim population, with 100 million.

In many ways, India is still the separate continent that it began as geographically. It has a rich variety of geographical features and climate. Even its fossil remains are unique. When India collided with the Asian continent, the Himalayas were born.

India began with the settlement of two large ethnic groups, the light-skinned Indo-Aryans (North­ Central), and dark-skinned Dravidians (south). The Dravidians arrived first in 2500 BCE in the Indus Valley which is now Pakistan and western India. Thus, began the Harappa cMlization. In 1500 BCE, the Aryans (nobles/pure) invaded and drove the Dravidians south. It was these Aryan invaders who brought their horse-drawn chariots, knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. This gave them a military and technological advantage over their neighbours. They also brought their gods, patriarchal family system, and a new social order that provided the infrastructure of the caste system.

In 1000 CE, Asian and Islamic groups from the areas of ancient Persia and Afghanistan settled in the north and central areas. Their descendants can still be found in Bihar, and West. Bengal.

In 500 BCE, Buddhism arose, challenging the caste system. Many empires rose and fell from that time to 600 CE, when Hinduism once again reigned supreme. After the Hun invasion, northern India broke into smaller kingdoms that were united with the coming of the Muslims.

By 1192 CE, the Muslims had taken control over the Ganges Basin. Two great kingdoms emerged: the Hindu southern kingdom of Vijayanagar and the Muslim northern kingdom of Bahmani.

Mughal emperors entered the Punjab from Afghanistan. They defeated the Sultan of Delhi in 1525, and so began northern India's Golden Age.

The Maratha Empire grew in the 17th century and took over Mughal lands. The Maratha consolidated power in central India until they, too, fell to new invaders, the British. The Portuguese, French, Danes and Dutch also had holdings in India.

Mahatma Gandhi launched his passive resistance to British rule that eventua.lly gained India's independence, but at a great cost - the partition into Hindu and Muslim areas. As large Muslim populations were on opposite ends of India, a mass exodus of people ensued.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 1 Caribbean Ten million people moved: Hindus and Sikhs to India and Muslims to Pakistan. More than 250,000 were killed in the migrations.

Since that time, three of the Gandhi family leaders have been assassinated: , Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi. LINGUISTIC BACKGROUND

With 364 million speakers, Hindi is one of the world's leading languages, the third most commonly used language after Chinese and English. It is spoken as a first or second language by almost a half billion people in India.

Hindi is the major language of the states of Bihar, , Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, and the lingua franca of Northern India. Speakers of Hindi can also be found in Bangladesh, Belize, Botswana, Fiji, Germany, Guyana, Kenya, Mauritius, Nepa.l, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, South Africa, Suriname, Trinidad, Uganda, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States, Yemen and Zambia.

Hindi belongs to the Indo-Iranian, Central Indic branch of the Indo-European language family. The language families of all Indian languages can be broken into two main groups: Indo-Aryan (547 groups) and Dravidian. Hindi, GUjarati and Punjabi belong to the former group.

Hindi is a direct descendant of Sanskrit through Prakrit and Apabhramsha. It has been influenced and enriched by Dravidian, Turkish, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese and English.

Hindi is related to Marathi, Nepali and Northern Indian dialects. and Hindi are structurally the same. Hindi re'flects more of its Sanskrit (perfected) origin in vocabulary, whereas Urdu draws on Arabic and Persian; the real difference exists in the script.

The Greeks knew the continent of India as Sind, named for the region traversed by the River Sindhu. The Greeks went on to name the whole continent by that regional name (similar to what Cartier did with Canada). As the Achaemenian Persians' area of conquest included the Greek Sind in the sixth century BCE, the S was replaced with H to become Hind. Alexander the Great invaded and conquered parts of India as well as defeating the Persian army. Hind became India as ancient Greeks lacked the alphabetical character for H, thus dropping it in the name.

Hindi started to emerge as Apabhramsha in the seventh century, and by the 10th century, became stable. Several dialects of Hindi have been used in literature. Braj was the most popular literary dialect unm it was replaced by khari boli in the 19th century.

Prakrits and Classical Sanskrit began as early as 750 BCE with the modern Devanagari script emerging in 1100 CEo

Hindi was originally a form of Hindustani spoken in . The British began to encourage its growth during the colonial period in order for it to be used as a standard language among government officials.

In 1947, Hindi was originally chosen as the official language, but its failure to win acceptance by speakers of other languages forced it into a co-official role. This is due to the south having so few Hindu speakers, and the upper classes believing that speaking English was a mark of being well educated.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 2 Caribbean • SCRIPT: Hindi is written in a script called Devanagari, which means writing of gods. Originally, Hindi, like Sanskrit, was written with a reed pen. There are 7 basic strokes to the letters. Words begin with a consonant, and are read with a short a if no vowel symbol or diacritic is added, except when there is a consonant in the final position. EX: pa written as p, but bas is written as bas. If the vowel is a long aa, then it is written as a consonant + the T symbol. LINGUISTIC COMPARISON ENGLISH HINDI LANGUAGE Indo-European Indo-European FAMILY (West Germanic branch) (Iranian, Central Indic branch) WRITING - alphabet, Latin script - alphabet, Devanagari script (based on SYS'rEM - non-phonetic Sanskrit) - written from left to right - phonetic - letters disconnected - written from left to right - printedlwritten script - letters disconnected - one script # OF LETTERS 26 31 consonants + 11 vowels VOWELS 6 written, 15-16 spoken 11 vowels with diacritics called matra - matras used after a consonant 10 vowel signs exist. However, the diacritics are vowel sounds, too, that are added to the consonants. If a diacritic is not written or a vowel symbol, then the consonant is read with the short vowel sound of a =11th vowel. The vowels are divided into 2 groups: short and long pairs for the 5 vowels. DIFFERENT th (this, the), w, ng (sing) - voiceless/unaspirated Ip, t, k, chi CONSONANTS - Ifltongue in curled position - voiceless/aspirated Ip, t, k, chi - Ifhlsame as the Itt but aspirated - voiced/unaspirated fb, d, D, i, gl - voiced/aspirated fbh, dh, Dh, ih, ghl - Id/is produced further back in the mouth. - !WIhalfway between a wand v - Irltongue trilled - Ixllike German or Scottish ch - Ir, rh/tongue flaps; sounds only exist in Hindi CAPITALIZATION - begins new sentences - no capitals, one size only with capitals The end of a sentence is indicated by a parallel line I.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 3 Caribbean COMBINATION - each syllable has vowel/ - each syllable has vowel and consonant OF LETTERS consonant sound sound - many consonant clusters - begins each word with consonantlvowel unit NUMBERS - written from left to right - written from left to right - non-Arabic numerals ORDER • sentence - subject + verb + object - subject + object + verb - time words at end or - time words anywhere beginning of sentence

• adjective - adjective + noun - adjective + noun Adjectives reflect the gender they refer to: aa, usually masculine, ee, usually masculine plural, ii, usually feminine singularlplural. hii is added to what is being emphasized.

ARTICLES - no articles, one (eek) can be added, but optional

• indefinite - a, an + noun - noun alone

• definite - the + noun - noun + prefix such as yeh/veh to specify which one - inflected for gender, number, case Hindi nouns, besides having gender, have 3 cases for inanimate and animate objects. They refer to the position in the sentence and relation to the verb. They are direct, post positional and vocative (calling/addressing). VERBS - subject separate - subject included - verb only inflected for - verb inflected for subject, gender and some verbs(to be) number and in some tenses - verbs referring to animals use different suffixes

The verb to be is used to replace the verb to have in Hindi.

EX: I have 2 brothers becomes My 2 brothers are. She has a cold becomes A cold is to her. PRONOUNS • subject - always written - always written; suffix added to show function • object - differs from subject - suffixes =function in sentence - appears after verb • possessive - differs from above - prefix used to show possession (adj) - appears before noun All pronouns are inflected for number and case but not for gender. Pronouns have 2 forms: emphatic and non emphatic.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 4 Caribbean Hindi pronouns have 5 classes: personal, interrogative, inde'finite, re'f1exive, relative as well as 5 cases: subject, post positional, possessive, direct-indirect object and ablative. They also differ for singular and plural. Pronouns, thus, have 5 classes, which inturn, have five cases that in turn have 2 forms, depending on number. PREPOSITIONS POST POSITIONS - appears before noun, - appears after noun into the room EX: the room Into - 2 forms: bare =just post positional in, inside, outside... - compound = 'from + in, inside, outside... (noun + postpositional or noun + dee + postpositional) PLURALS - adds suffix s, es, ies - masculine nouns ending in a change to e - has few irregular forms for plural EX: larka (boy), larke (boys) - feminine nouns ending in I change to Iya for plural EX: larkl (girl), larklya (girls) - nouns that end in I and not feminine, change to e - can also drop suffix if number used EX: 5 shirt or 5 shirts TENSES - 3 forms of verb, - 3 forms of suffixes to show present, past, past part. present, past, future tenses - tenses changed with ed - tenses changed by suffix added to suffix, whole word or with infinitive to be, to have, will - inflected for number, gender, person - 2 auxiliaries inflected for number/person, not gender Perfect tenses are expressed differently: EX: ENGLISH HINDI o has been since is o has been __ing since is ing o sincelfor + time - see indicates time word EX: She has been here for 1 year. = "see" 1 year she has

COMMANDS - infinitive form of verb - root of verb + suffix 00 (informal), Iyee (formal) ?FORM - question word/auxiliary verb - intonation/question word + verb + subject EX: Hotel where Is? - verb + subject - yes/no type word kyaa (what) begins ? EX: What this hotel good Is? NEGATIVE - uses auxiliary verbs - negative prefix added, naa FORM - to be + not - prefix changes with tense

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 5 Caribbean VERBI - verb + to + infinitive - main verb + infinitive, no to 2ND VERB FORMALITY - 3 levels - 3 levels LEVELS - levels changed by use - informal uses infinitive verb, you form of of modals and longer tum used sentence structures - semiformal = infinitive + suffix - formal = semi + plural form + e - you form of aap used - suffix}1 is used as an honorific, meaning sir As a sign of respect, boys touch the feet of both parents. Girls touch the feet of their mothers. SWEARINGI - involves subjects of - usage frowned upon OATHS sexlbodily functions - women usually use god's or goddess's name in curses - comparison of person being bad to evil things to express anger - children use stupid or animal names in insults VOCABULARYI - higher level of writing - some from Sanskrit as well as Urdu and FOREIGN uses Greek/Latin Persian INFLUENCE

WORDS FROM HINDI: Many clothing terms, food words and words to do with crime have come 'from Hindi. bandanna, bangle, basmati, bungalow, cheetah, cheroot, chintz, chit, chutney, coolie, cot, cummerbund, cushy, dingy, dungaree, Himalaya (abode of snow), juggernaut (from Juganath, the name of an Indian god whose image gets carried around the town in a huge cart once a year), jungle, khaki, loot, pundit (learned), samosa, sari, seersucker, shampoo (massage), thug (from a Hindu sect, Thugees, that would kill people for the goddess, Kali), toddy WORDS FROM SANSKRIT: Two words associated with Nazi Germany are from Sanskrit: Aryan and swastika. The words include Hindu religious terms, precious stones and food items. Aryan (noble, same root as Iran, originally referring to Indo-European people, later used by Germany to denote Germanic people), ashram, avatar, Banyan, beryl, brilliant (eat's eye), camphor, candy (crystallized sugar), crimson, ginger (antler shaped), guru (teacher), hemp, indigo, lacquer, mandarin (counsellor, used for a government officer) mantra, musk, Nile (blue), nirvana, opal, orange, pepper, Punjab (five rivers), raja, Singapore (lion city), swami, sugar, swastika (lu:;k, originally a Buddhist symbol for luck, still found on Hindu and Buddhist temples in India), yoga LEARNING OF - word recognition, phonics, - learn 7 basic strokes using reed pens WRITINGI syllables READING Literacy rate: 52%: 65.5% males, 37.7% females

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 6 Caribbean CULTURAL BACKGROUND

Hindu is a word that originally referred to the people of India. It comes from the Persian conquerors, meaning Indian. After the 14th century, it meant all non-Muslims. The land was then called Hindustan, Land of the Indians, when referring to Northern India of the 19th century. However, in this profile, Hindu refers to those who follow the scriptures of the Vedas•.

Greeting A namaste is performed in greeting another person. A person is greeted in a formal and respectful manner with the honorifics being used with strangers and elders. Hands are pressed together in 'front of the face accompanied by a bow of the head.

Family are greeted according to age and position in the family. Elders in the family, including siblings, are referred to in the plural honorific. The singularlinformal is used with younger ones. Parents are always referred to in the plural, honorific. A husband is referred to in the plural honortfic, by the wife, whereas the wife can be referred to in the plural honorific or the singular informal by the husband.

Departure is signaled by the expression mujhee aagyaa diijiyee, meaning please give me permission.

EDUCA1'ION

City children can start school as early as three, entering a kindergarten or a Montessori school. Village children begin school at age five in Grade 1. Nowadays, families prefer to send children to English schools if at all possible. Students remain in school until Grade 12. Afterwards, they can enter college or university.

Education is compulsory from the ages of six to 14 years of age. School system: 1. Primary, Lower Primary School (Standards I To V) (5 years), ages 6 to 11

2. Middle School (Standards VI To VIII) (3 years), ages 11 to 14

3. Secondary School (Standards IX To X) (2 years), ages 14 to 16 • Certificate awarded: Secondary School Certificate

4. Senior Secondary, Higher Secondary School (Standards XI To XII) (2 years), ages 16 to 18 • Certificate awarded: Higher Secondary School Certificate

5. Vocational Secondary (3 years), ages 16 to 18 • Certificate awarded: Higher Secondary School Certificate

Academic year: July to April Vacation from May 15 to July 15

Languages of instruction: Bengali, English, Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi, Tamil, Urdu

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 7 Caribbean Admission to university: Secondary school credential required: Higher Secondary School Certificate Entrance exams required. Grading system in secondary school: Description: 0 - 100 %: 85% +, excellent; 60-70%, good; 50-60%, satisfactory; 40-50%, average; 35-40%, pass Highest on scale: 100% Passlfaillevel: 35% Lowest on scale: 0%

NAMES

The name of the individual reflects the person's religious affiliation. Traditionally, Hindu names are derived from their god/desses' names. Hindu names generally have three elements: 1. god's or goddess's name or mythological person or sacred place 2. father's name 3. caste, social position, occupation EX: Ramlallndra Prasad Brahman Ramlal Indra Prasad Brahman (god name) (father's name) (caste)

MALE: MANIFESTATIONS/DERIVATIVES God Ishvar, Jagder, Jagdish Indra Devendra, Rajendra, Mahendra Rama Ramavatan, Ramlal, Ramprasal, Ramsinh Krishna Krishna, Gopal, Shyam Vishnu Narayam, Hari Shiva Shiv, Shankar, Shambhu Sacred Ayodhya, Kashi, Kailash SECULAR Amar, Aran, Ketan, Vijay, Ravi

FEMALE: MANIFESTATIONS/DERIVATIVES Goddess Kali, Gauri, Kamtu, Tanki, Radha, Rama, Lakshmi Secular Priti, Dipti, Shruti

Upon marriage, a woman will exchange her second name, her father's, for her husband's, and also take her spouse's last name for her 'lhird name.

Nowadays, secular names have become popular among all religions of India.

Muslim names will also follow the Hindu example for first and second names to form compound names. EX: (males) Muhammad Iqbal, Iqbal Muhammad, Rehman Ali, Abdul Rehman, Sadik Ali.... Family members can share the same middle name. For example, Sadik Ali's brother is Raza Ali.

Some names are shared among the males and females with only the suffix a or ; added to form the feminine. EX: Anwar - Anwari, Habib - Habiba, Rashid - Rashida, Khalid - Khalida

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 8 Caribbean RELIGION

There are more than 500 million Hindus in India. Hindu is a word we use as they identify themselves according to caste or community. The religion itself is more than 3,000 years old. The numerous god/desses are manifestations of the forces that surround them: creation, destruction, birth, rebirth... Hinduism has 333 million god/desses. However, a Hindu understands that these god/desses are all aspects of God. From the Bhagavad Gita comes the quote from Lord Krishna, 'Whichever god you pray to, it is I who answers the prayer". Therefore, a Hindu can be a deist, monotheist, theist or even an atheist. What is common to all is that a Hindu seeks the tmth, and practises ahimsa, harmlessness.

The sacred writings are divided into two: shruti, heard, believed to be eternal and divine, and smriti, remembered. The Vedas (1500 BCE - 600 CE) are shruti. There are four: Riga, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. • AUM (the greeting ofpeace)

Aum is the syllable recited at the beginning and end of all prayers and recitation of scriptures because it represents the Holy Trinity, the most sacred symbol of Hindu dharma, as it is the sound of the Infinite. It is the essence of the Vedas. Its sound and form embody the Infinite Brahman (ultimate reality) and the universe.

This holy syllable is made of three units. It represents the basic sound of the universe, containing all sounds. It is pronounced as AA - 00 - M. If said properly, it covers our whole range of speech. It is the supreme mantra. Its components represent the relationship to Brahman and the world, all truths and errors.

In Sanskrit, the AUM sound is called Anahata Nada, the Unstruck Sound. It acknOWledges that audible sounds have at least two elements. Things visible and invisible vibrate together to produce audible sound.

The first three elements of AUM are vocal sounds, and the last is the silence that comes after the sound - the silence at the start and finish of the sound.

o AA (Brahman/creationlwakinglheaven) - resonates in the centre of the mouth =waking consciousness, subject/object separate identities level: mechanics, science, logical research, the lower three chakras, matter is stable sound: infinite expanding energy of universe, unity consciousness, Divine Love

o U (Vishnu, preservation, dream, earth) - vibration moves to back of mouth =dream consciousness, subject/object intertwined level: dreams, divinities, imagination, matter is subtle and fluid, changing sound: energy of manifesting; materializing of waking reality

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (I - E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 9 Caribbean o M (Shiva, destruction, dissolution, deep sleep, nether world) - vibration moves to front of mouth = deep, dreamless sleep, no subject/object, all are one and one is nothing level: cosmic night, time between cycles of creation, part of Mother Earth, goal of Yoga, joining to the source sound: absorbs, integrates energy into self o Unstruck sound (transcendental) - end of AUM, silence = pure and open consciousness level: infinite sound: thanks, allows process to resonate Ear piercing is the visible form of AUM. A baby, male or female, sits on the maternal uncle's knee while his or her ear is pierced by a goldsmith. The piercing of the ear completes the shape of the AUM. Girls maintain their ear holes, while the boys' holes will grow over.

• Birth As Hindus hold the belief of reincarnation, birth, as well as death, takes on special signi-ricance. Each birth brings one closer to enlightenment and the end of rebirth. This is also why most sects of Hindus believe one is born a Hindu and cannot become one. Hindus regard Buddha as another incarnation of the god Vishnu.

The form that one is born into is karma, the result of good deeds. Puja, worship, cremation of the dead and status within a caste demonstrate and enhance one's karma. A life is marked by 16 special stages, and, at each stage, samskara, a ritual, is performed to enhance one's karma. Pre birth to age two is comprised of nine birth stages. In preparation for a good rebirth, parents may consult a priest for the best day for conception. This is the first stage. The second stage is during pregnancy where the mother reads aloud from the Hindu scriptures so that the unborn child is surrounded by good words. In the third stage, she eats food that is neither too salty nor spicy to protect the fetus's form. The date and time of birth are carefully recorded so that the child's future can be cast. At birth, the baby is washed, and a golden pen or rod dipped in honey traces the symbol of aum, the ultimate sound of the universe, on the child's tongue. Hindus recite the holy syllable aum before prayer, and so the ritual prepares the child for a life of truth and worship. This marks the fourth stage. The fifth stage is the naming ceremony. Once the child's horoscope has been cast, the priest will tell the parents which syllables to use to begin the child's name. A special food, called prasadam (made from nuts, sweets and fruit), is shared among those gathered. The next three stages mark the child's first outing into sunlight, first meal of solid food and ear piercing. The ninth, and final birth stage (few months to two years), is when the child's hair is completely shaved off. This symbolizes the removal of the prior bad karma left over 'from previous lives, and the hope that the child will lead a good life. • Coming of Age (stages 10 to 13 - for upper three castes) At puberty, the initiate is taken in by a guru who hangs the thread of the twice born over the left shoulder of the child. The child is then given spiritual training in the study of the Vedas. The child remains a vowed celibate, and on graduation, is bathed in a ritual not unlike being baptized. Returning to society, the youth can now marry and begin a household.

In earlier times, before the "Laws of Manu", both sexes followed this initiation. However, the rite of marriage is considered the girl's coming of age. Thus, the arrival of her first menstrual period is

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 10 Caribbean referred to as blossoming, and is celebrated by the female family members. The girl is dressed in new clothing with fresh flowers woven into her hair, much like on her future wedding day or her first pregnancy. She is seated in a special chair of honour, and fed special foods. Depending on the area of India, and whether it is rural or urban, the dimensions of the celebration can be as low­ key as a family gathering or as lavish as a mini-wedding. • Castes There are thousands of castes and sub castes in India. The word originally came from the Portuguese word for casta, breed, race or kind. The caste system is part of the reincarnation cycle. Each Hindu is born into a specific caste, and thus, social postlion. Even though the caste system has loosened nowadays, most are still influenced by it in their choice of marriage partners and profession. Traditionalists and the upper caste are usually vegetarians. The concept of castes was first stated in "Manu's Book of Laws" in about 200 BCE. The four castes were created by Brahman 'from the four parts of his body: o mouth Brahmanas priests: role to study Vedas, spiritual leaders of people, not to deal with material goods; highest caste o arms Kshatriyas warriors, rulers: role to organize and govern as well as protect o thighs Vaishyas fanners, artisans, townsfolk o feet Sudras labourers, servants In other words, o Brahmanas work for God o Kshatriyas work for others o Vaishyas work for themselves o Sudras work for the above three castes The top three castes are also called twice-born as they are initiated at the age of 12 by a guru into the Vedic teachings, and invested with a sacred thread, symbolizing their second birth under a spiritual leader. Later, the four castes became subdivided into more than 2,000. Caste was determined by such things as area of birth, family lineage, marriage partner, eating habits, pollutants... The most unfortunate group were the Untouchables, who were denied entry to the temples and were forced to live in isolation. Mahatma Gandhi championed their cause, and Indira Gandhi called them haryan, children of God, and now all Hindus, in theory at least, enjoy the rights of the law and freedom of movement. TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE CUSTOMS Hindu marriages vary from region to region. Generally speaking, for all Hindus, the model couple are Rama and Sita, personifying ultimate love and faithfulness. Due to the Hindu belief in reincarnation and the importance of horoscopes, families are still apt to arrange the marriages of their children as it is seen as a marriage of families, not just couples, and so it is important for family harmony that they be well suited. Nowadays, children have the right to refuse the match. Today, legally, girls cannot be religiously wed until they are 14, or civilly until 18, and boys, 18 and 21.

7th century GE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 11 Caribbean Once a couple have been matched, a dinner party consisting of six men 'from each family is assembled. The wedding date is chosen by an astrologist after examining the couple's horoscopes. In preparation for the wedding, the bride is bathed and her hands and feet are painted with henna designs. She is dressed in a red sari with gold thread and adorned with gold jewelry. Her hair is interlaced with flowers.

The bridal pair offer prayers to Ganesh, the Elephant God, God of Fortune, Remover of all Obstacles and Hindrances, on their wedding day.

The groom is welcomed into the bridal place by the bride's parents, and he is seated under a colourful canopy. The bride's father offers him symbols of fertility, happiness, a good and safe life and food. The family trees of both sides are then read out.

The right hands of the bride and groom are then tied, and as holy water is sprinkled over them, the father hands his daughter over to the groom. The sacred arti flame is lit. Rice, a symbol of fertility, is offered to the flame by the couple. The bride touches a stone, symbolizing that the prayers being offered are as firm as the stone, her final break with her family, and her importance as a member in the new family. Together, the couple take seven steps around the sacred flame. Once this is completed, they are married. The seven steps represent food, strength, wealth, fortune, children, happy seasons, friendships and proper sacrifices.

Although divorce and remarriage of widows is permitted, few take advantage of this right. Widows still lead a solitary and unhappy life void of position and respect. A widow's only hope is her son, who is obligated to care for her.

Bridal dowries have been outlawed, and even though the Vedas themselves speak of money being given to the bride by her in-laws, and not by the bride, the custom remains. Recently, there have been riots in India over the burning of wives by their unhappy spouses and their families who have felt the dowry received was inadequate or unfulfilled. WOMEN

According to the Vedas, a woman is the bliss giver of the family. Manu, in his book of Laws, decreed that women should be treated as goddesses. In fact, a woman is 1,000 times more worthy of respect than a father.

Purdah, the seclusion of women, is a Muslim, not Hindu custom, in northern India. Throughout India's history, her women have been active in the political arena, and have been successful rulers. It is not surprising that woman politicians such as Mrs. Gandhi have been immensely popular. Women were also famous teachers through which the sacred writings were transmitted. CALENDAR The blessed Sun spoke: ... " I will give thee the science upon which time is founded, the grand system ofthe planets. " (Surya Siddhanta, Ch. 1, V. 5)

The ,Hindu solar calendar consists of 12 months, each month beginning with the entry (sakranti) of the sun into one of the zodiac signs, and are named after that sign.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 12 Caribbean Each month is 1/12 of the year long, with the day beginning at sunrise. Each month begins at sunrise after the calculated 'lime of the new month, but if that time is after sunrise, then the next day is the dawn of the new month. A month can have any number of days from 29 to 32, and the beginning of any month is calculated according to the position of the sun. There are several ways of calculating the Hindu solar calendar, so its date may vary by up to one day in various parts of India, depending on local customs' use of the old or new Hindu ca.lendar or astronomical tables. The date is sometimes the first of the day or the eve. CELEBRATIONS Hindi speakers can be Muslim, Christian or Hindu. As some of the holidays have been described in other profiles, only the Hindu and national holidays will be highlighted here: • Republic Day, January 26th In 1950, India became a republic • HoU, Duwadashl, the 12th day of the waxing moon of the month of Phalgun - last full moon day of Hindu year - February or March around the 13th to the 15th, according to Earth's position to sun This festival celebrates the coming of spring. It is a celebration of the triumph of good over evil and light over darkness as the earth gives birth to a new cycle of growth. It is a time to remember the brightness and splendour of life, a time to spread joy, colour and love into the lives of cherished ones. It has become a secular festival celebrated by all faiths in almost the entire country. Mothers make new clothes for their married daughters. Coloured powder (gulal) is bought and prepared, long syringes (pichkaris) are made ready, and water balloons are bought and ·filled. Preparations are made to cook food unique to this festival. People burn wood sugar cane and coconut outside their houses. The sweet made for this occasion is Puranpoli. Three days before the full moon, Rang Pashi brings Holi to all homes. Families gather in the evenings with people visiting each other to perform the formal sprinkling of colour. The eldest male begins the celebrations with the thall (plate) arranged with coloured powders, and coloured water is placed in a Iota, a small brass container. The eldest male sprinkles coloured water and powders on each member of the assembled family. Then, the younger ones reciprocate. Blessings are shared by the whole family. The celebration includes the eating of special Holi food. The next day is Puno. Holika is burnt in keeping with the legend of Prahlad and his devotion to Lord Vishnu. In the evening, huge bonfires are lit on street corners at intersections. A community affair, people gather near the fire to sing and dance. Sheaves of green gram and wheat are roasted in the bonfire and eaten. Holi itself takes place the day after, on Parva. Children, friends and neighbours gather on the streets, and a colour ''fighf' ensues. Many females like to wear white saris or salwar kameez, while the males often wear white pajamas and kurtas which act as excellent palettes for colours thrown on them.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 13 Caribbean Coloured powders called abeer or gulal are thrown into the air, and smeared on faces and bodies. The pichkaris are filled with coloured water and spurted onto the people. Water balloons are thrown at friends and neighbours. People are "dunked" into mud baths. Visitors carry abeer or gulal to pay their respects to elders by sprinkling some on their feet. The younger ones are drenched with buckets of coloured water and targeted with water balloons. Dholaks, Indian drums, and songs of Holi are heard everywhere.

There is no religious ceremony associated with this festival of colours. Some abeer or gulal, though, is smeared on the faces of the gods, especially Krishna and Radha, at the commencement of the festivities. Some customs observed during this festival are to invite sons-in-law and their families for a meal, and to give the sons-in-law a new bank note of any denomination from five rupees to 500 rupees, along with a drink. Married daughters are given travel money by their mothers-in-law, or the eldest woman in the family. A new bride, with the help of the children in the family, is supposed to playa prank on the older couples of the family, usually her parents-in-law, and somehow to lock them in a room. The bride sings a ransom song, demanding a present for releasing them. The gift is usually a sari, a piece of jewelry... o Colour Spring arrives with the promise of warm days and new life. It is the season of rejuvenation and rebirth. To mark the change from winter, Holi denotes energy and the vitality of the human race.

Gulal are dry colours, sold days before the festival. Markets have large quantities of gulal, arranged in pyramids and also sold loose. Gulal is pink, magenta, red, yellow and green in colour.

Abeer is made of small crystals or mica. This is usually mixed with gulal to give it a prismatic sheen. These colours can be used dry or mixed with water. A new bride takes silver or gold powders, and mixes them with a little coconut oil and stores it in a bottle. She applies the mixture in tiny quantities to the foreheads of those she is close to. o Clothes When mothers become grandmothers, they usually present new clothes to their married daughters and their young children. According to tradition, once the daughters become grandmothers, the tradition is passed on to them.

A special sari, dandia, is presented to the married daughter. It is a white cotton sari, made of voile with borders of Indian Pink. Once the border and its colour spread are dry, the sari is further decorated with paisley designs on the entire fabric. Other Indian motifs are also used. When the colour and designs are ready, a border of gold orsilver, about six centimetres in width, is stitched on to the edges. The portion of the sari that covers the head has a kiran, or a 'fine fringe of gold or silver, attached to it. According to custom, a dandia is gifted, along with another sari, and blouses and petticoats to match. This traditional attire is a must for a new bride. Originally, Holi was a fertility festival that celebrates the destruction of the tyrant demon, King Hiranyakashipu, who demanded his subjects worship him in place of God. Prahlad, his son, refused and was condemned to a fiery death. The boy's aunt, Holika, exchanged her immunity for her nephew's life and burnt in his place, thus saving him.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 14 Caribbean • Vivekananda's Birthday, January • Thai Pusam, JanuarylFebruary Banned in India, devotees honour Lord Subramaniam with masochistic acts. Kartikeya, the son of Shiva and Parvati, is worshipped in Tamil Nadu on Thai Pusam. People place their fate in the hands of Kartikeya as they walk unburnt over a path of burning coals. • Maharishi Dayanand, Saraswati Jaysntl, FebruarylMarch • Maha Shivaratri or Shivaratrl, FebruarylMarch, dark half of moon This festival is observed to commemorate the night when Lord Shiva, God of Destruction, danced his celestial dance, the Tandav, at his wedding anniversary. Fasts and prayers mark the day. The biggest festivals are in Girnar and Kathmandu. • Chaitrs SukladVGudl Padava/Cheli Chand, March/April • Mesadi, April • Sri Rama Navami, March/April, ninth day of the bright half of Chaitra - birthday of Sri Rarna, 7th Avatar of Vishnu, who defeated undefeatable demon, Ravana On this day, icons of Rama, his wife Sita, and Lakshmana, ride on chariots through the towns. People pay tribute to Rama, and read the Ramayana. • Hanuman Jayanti, April • Nsrasima Chaturdashi, May • Rath Yatra, June/July Thousands of pilgrims congregate in Puri Orissa to witness a chariot festival. • Festival of Raksha Bandman, July • Independence Day, August 15 • Nag Panchami, August - south Indian snake festival in honour of the naga snake deities This tradition started long ago when farmers honoured snakes for protecting their farms from pests. • Birthday of Krishna, August • Raksha Bandhan, August, Full Moon Day - festival to honour sea god, Varuna Brothers and sisters exchange gifts, the sister tying a thread as a rakhi, a symbolic bond, to her brother's wrist with her brother vowing his protection over her. • Hartaalika, Bhadrapada, August/September - festival dedicated to Harita Gauri, or Parvati, as Goddess of Harvest The Parvati idol is dressed in a red sari with bridal jewelry as women worship and honour her as the mother of Ganesh.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo·Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 15 Caribbean • Ganesh Chaturthi, Vinyaka Chaturthi, AugusVSeptember The birthday of Ganesh, the Elephant Headed God and younger son of Shiva, is celebrated in , Tamil Nadu, Andara Pradesh and Kamataka for seven days. Lord Ganesh's images are paraded in a colourful procession before being immersed in a sea or lake. • Diwall, Row of Lights, OctoberlNovember, dark half to the bright half of the moon, 13th day of the month Ashwin - lasts three to five days While the Holi festival is the most raucous, with a riot of colour, Diwali is the loveliest festival celebrated in India. The festival is a time for family reunion. The five-day Festival of Lights celebrates Rama and Sita's homecoming in the Ramayana. It signifies the victory of good over evil. The saga of Diwali comes from the saga, Ramayana, of Rama, and his wife Sita. Because of evil people in their land, they were forced to retreat into the forest where they lived qUietly. One day, Ravana, the evil ten-headed demon, appeared and carried Sita off to his palace on the island of Lanka (Sri Lanka). Hanuman, the monkey god, and Rama's brother, Lakshmana, helped Rama by having his fellow monkeys build a great bridge to Lanka, and thus, Rama was able to lead the animal army in attack on Ravana's palace. Rama vanquished the evil Ravana and recovered his beloved Sita. Diwali is a celebration honouring Laksmi, the Goddess of Prosperity and Good Fortune and wife of Vishnu. The week before Diwali, homes and businesses are cleaned and decorated. Near the front doors and in hallways, the women trace intricate designs on the floor using chalk and coloured flour. The arti lamp is used as a motif. In the windows everywhere, ghee lamps or candles are lit. Women make all kinds of sweets while children enjoy themselves with fireworks. People bathe at dawn, put on new clothes, light oil lamps, and set off firecrackers. On the 13th day of Ashwin, Lakshmi is worshipped. Her images and coins are washed in yogurt and worshipped. As in Rama's return, the past is tidied up, all debts paid and books closed at the end of this fiscal year. All is forgiven, and a new start is made. Businessmen keep their shops shut as a symbol of protecting wealth. On the last day, Bhaubeej, a sister asks the Lord for the well-being of her brother, who is her protector. In return, the brother gives his sister gifts. The next day begins New Year with the serving of 56 different foods. They are piled to resemble the mountain Annakoot. The day ends with the burning of paper statues of the evil Ravana. • Datta Jayanti, December - birthday of Datta, personification of Brahman, Vishnu and Mahesh, who became one of greatest sages of Maharashtra Solar Events: • Mesha Sakranti, New Year, vernal equinox - stock up on grain, and families start wedding preparations for marriageable sons and daughters It is the beginning of the new year in the Hindu solar calendar which occurs when the sun passes into the sign of Mesha (Aries).

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 16 Caribbean During this auspicious period, great merit is acquired by performing Havan (Yajna or the Sacred Fire ceremony), Japa (repetition of a Mantra or of God's name), Shraddha, Charity...

• Vasant Panchami/Sr; Pancham;, Makara Sakrant;, Spring Festival, JanuarylFebruary, bright half of moon It is marked by the passing of the sun into the sign of Makara (Capricorn). There are festivals on the day itself and in the evening to celebrate the coming of spring. A spring festival to honour Saraswati, Goddess of Learning, is celebrated with kite flying, yellow saris, and the blessing of school books.

In general, boiled rice or lentils, and sesame seed and oil are used in the ceremonies. Food is coloured with saffron, and yellow clothes are often worn. Cattle are decorated, and their horns painted. Bonfires are often lit, and ritual bathing takes place to wash away old sins. Old clothes and bedding are burnt on the bonfires, and new utensils are often purchased and first used on this day. Kites are flown all over India, but especially in Gujarat. • Pongal (boiled over) This is the biggest festival in Tamil Nadu, and stretches over four days. The first, Sog; or Shog;, is dedicated to the rain god Bhogi or Indran, and is also sacred to Krishna. The day begins with a sesame oil bath, and in the evening, there is a bonfire made of old cloth, files, mats and rugs, symbolizing the end of winter.

The second day, Surya Pongal, is dedicated to the sun (Surya). On this day, pangal (rice cooked in milk and jaggery) is boiled by women who offer it to the sun. It is traditional to ask, "Is the rice boiled?" and receive the reply, "Yes, it is boiling", meaning the fertile season has arrived.

The third day, Mattu Pongal, is dedicated to the worship and veneration of cattle (mattu). The caWe horns are decorated with turmeric and kumkum, small bells and flowers are hung around their neck, and they are paraded in the streets. The pongal that has been offered to the local deities is given to the cattle to eat.

On the fourth day, Kanya Pongal, coloured pongal balls are made and offered to the birds. Jallikattu is held in several places. Bundles containing money are tied on bulls' horns, and unprotected villagers try to wrest the bundles from them. Bullock cart races and cock fights are also held. In Andhra Pradesh, every household displays its collection of dolls for three days. Community meals are held at night with freshly harvested ingredients. • Lohri Punjab, Harayana: Bonfires are lit, around which people gather to meet friends and relatives and sing folk songs. Children go from house to house singing and collecting money and sweets, . known as Lohri Prasad with sesame seeds in them, are thrown into the bonfires.

Women and children receive special attention, and a bride or a baby's first Lohri is considered especially important. • Til (Sesame seed) Sakranti Til is used in Maharashtra to make laddoos (round balls) for massage, bathing, and in the sacred fire ceremony of Havan. It is also used in oblations with water (tarpan) and given as charity. In Maharashtra, when two people greet one another, they exchange a few grains of multicoloured sugar and fried til mixed with molasses, and say til gud ghya, god god bola (henceforth, let there be only friendship and good thoughts between us).

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (I - E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 17 Caribbean • Kichadi or Kichadi Sakranti Kichadi, a dish of rice and lentils, ghee and spices, is eaten at this time. • Gangasagar Mela, Bathing in the Ganges People gather to bathe in sacred rivers all over India, especially the Ganges at its junction with the Jumna, and where it flows into the sea. The River Hoogly near Calcutta is another favoured spot. Girls who take the holy dip on this day are thought to be blessed with fine husbands, and boys with beautiful brides. • Bihu, Maghi, Pedda Panduga (big festival) A variation on the theme of fire, practiced in Assam, is the erection of pavilions, which are put up on the night before the festival, and then burnt as a sign that the festival has begun. This festival venerates Jagaddhatri, Goddess of Spring, and Kama or Kandarp, Goddess of Love. Rati, the wife of Kama, and Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, are also venerated. TIME/AGES OF TIME The day is divided into four parts: o subah = sunrise to 10 a.m. o doopahar =hottest part of day, 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. o saam =evening, 5 p.m. to sunset o raat = night

The Puranas describe cycles of time, 'from creation to destruction. The cycles are divided into days and nights of the creator god, Brahman. Each day (kalpa) consists of creation and destruction. Each kalpa equals 4,320 million of our years. Each kalpa is divided into 14 sections (manavantaras) that lasts 306,720,000 years. The nights are of equal length. The time between each manavantaras is spent in the recreation of the world, and the arrival of the human race. Each manavantaras has 71 great aeons (maha yugas) that are subdivided further into four aeons (yugas). Each yuga is a basic cycle. It consists of a Golden Age that lasts 1,728,000 of our years. Dharma (dUty, righteousness) is adhered to. The Treta age that follows is shorter, 1,296,000 of our years. Dharma is not as strictly adhered to. The Dvapara age, 864,000 years, sees a serious weakening of dharma. The last age, kali yuga, the worst age, an age of degeneration, sees total disregard for dharma. The age lasts for 432,000 years. It is believed that we are in this final stage that began around 31 02 BCE. The four-stage cycle begins with morality, righteousness, long life and human satisfaction, and ends in kall yugas with no righteousness, no virtue and no justice. As the world ends, seven suns scorch the earth and dry up the oceans. Clouds will wondrously appear, torrential rains will follow, and eventually the cosmos are absorbed into Vishnu. 360 Brahman days and nights equals one Brahman year. Brahman lives for "100 years" (311,040,000 million years). After this, the cosmos are drawn into the body of Vishnu, or Shiva, and wait until the arrival of a new Brahman.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 18 Caribbean LITERATURE/CULTURE Much of Hindu literature is derived from the holy books, written in Sanskrit, such as the Vedas (a collection of hymns, prayers and liturgy), Brahmanas'and Upanishads (commentaries on Vedic rituals and philosophical tracts), Puranas (mythical-historical works), Ramayara, Mahabharat, Gita... There are also famous sagas such as the Ramayana (300 BCE), the story of Rama and Sita. Tulsi Das retold the story in 1623 CEo The second most famous saga, 220,000 lines of poetry and nearly three million words, is the Mahabharata (200 BCE), the story of the world. Its heart is the Bhagavad Gita or Sacred Song, one of the holiest books in the Hindu tradition. Mahatma Gandhi referred to the Gita as his spiritual mother. The Puranas, written in Sanskrit, chronicle the creation of the world as well as the lives of kings and gods. The best architecture/sculptures can be found in temples and sacred mausoleums. The Taj Mahal is such an example. Hindu dancing and drama are based on the classical and religious texts, and they honour Shiva, Lord of Dance. Classical instruments and rhythms are produced by the sitar and tabla. This music captivated Western musicians such as the Beatles in the '60s and '70s. Bombay (), with its vibrant 'film scene, is nicknamed . PoetsIWriters: Kaifi Azmi, Dhumil, Kabir, Tulsi, Sarahpa, Shalibhadra, Shridhar, Ramsinh, Amarakirtigani, Chanda Bardai, Amir Khosrow, Vidyapati, Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Mira Bai, Dadu Dayal, Hanuman Chalisa, Rahim, Keshavadas, Banarasidas, Rasakhan, Ibrahim Adil Shah, Bhushana, Bihari, Guru Gobind Singh, Dehi Shiva, Dyanatrai, Anandaghan, Bhudhardas, Vali Dakkhani, Khwaja Mir Dard, zafar, Mirza Ghalib Meer Taqi Meer, Bhartendu Harishchandra, Munshi Prem Chand, , , Jayashankar Prasad, Bhagat Singh, ll Dharmaveer Bharati, , Faiz Ahmad Faiz, , "Nirala , Maithilisharan Gupta, Sahir Ludhiyanavi, , Mahadevi Verma, Rahul Sankratyayana, Upendranath Ashk, Rajendra Yadav, Rahi Masoom Raza, Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', Shakeel BadaYllni, , Madhushaala, Kaka Hathrasi, Shivani, Manohar Shyam , Narendra Kohli, Javed Akhtar OTHER • Inventions Invention When Notes () Modern Numbers 500 by Aryabhata (called Arabic Numerals) () Chess 621 () Spinning Wheel 1280 'first geared machine • Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal (Crown Palace) is regarded as one of the eight wonders of the world, and some historians believe that its architectural beauty has never been surpassed. It is renowned for its aesthetic beauty. It was built by a Mughal Emperor, Shah Jahan (Prince Khurram, Shahab-ud-din, 17th century), one of the Muslim rulers of India. The Taj Mahal is considered a monument symbolizing eternal love, a commemoration of the memory of Shah Jahan's beloved wife, Mumtaz.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 19 Caribbean The mausoleum built of white marble houses her remains in the lower chamber. The grave of Shah Jahan was added to it later. The Taj demonstrates the culmination of Mughal architecture and a synthesis of various structural traditions that include Persian, the chaharbagh, the four-quartered garden, the irregular octagonal plan, the half and double domes, and grand apses and alcoves, as well as Central Asian elements and pre Mughal Indian architecture, with even European motifs in the details. Yet, the overall structure is Mughal Indian, and derived from the Akbari style first developed during Shah Jahan's grandfather, Akbar's rule. This is how many of the elements which appear to be Central Asian became part of the Taj Mahal's design. The pre-Islamic Indian elements, similar to those found on Hindu temples, include chhatrls (elements that top towers, usually with a dome), guldastas (flower-like elements), and the use of an inverted lotus to decorate the tops of the structures. Early Mughal rulers, like Akbar, chose to assimilate these elements. The Taj Mahal was constructed over a period of 22 years, completed in 1648 CE, employing 20,000 workers, at a cost of 32 million rupees. The master architect was Ustad 'Isa, the renowned Islamic architect of his time. Expert craftsmen from Delhi, Qannauj, Lahore and Multan were also employed. Many renowned Muslim craftsmen from Baghdad, Shiraz and Bukhara worked on many specialized tasks. The Taj itself stands on a raised, square platform, with its four comers truncated, forming an unequal octagon. The architectural design uses the interlocking arabesque concept, in which each element stands on its own and perfectly integrates with the main structure. It uses the principles of self­ replicating geometry and a symmetry of architectural elements. The mausoleum is a part of a vast complex comprising a main gateway, an elaborate garden, a mosque, a guest house and several other palatial buildings. The Taj is at the farthest end of this complex, with the river Jamuna behind it. The large garden contains four reflecting pools dividing it at the centre. Each of these four sections is further subdivided into four sections, and then each into yet another four sections. Like the Taj, the garden elements serve like Arabesque, standing on their own, and also constituting the whole. Islamic gardens, often called Paradise gardens, represent the earthly interpretation of heaven based on depictions in the Qurran. Some historians feel that this complex was a monument dedicated to Shah Jahan's wife as well as being an allegorical representation of the Throne of God and the gardens of Paradise. According to popular legend, Shah Jahan decided to construct another Taj Mahal in black marble on the other side of the River Yamuna and to connect the two by bridge. This structure was intended to be his own tomb, but the war with his sons disrupted his plan. The irregular position of the cenotaph of Shah Jahan, as compared to that of Mumtaz Mahal, which occupies the exact centre of the hall, is said to be proof of this. The Mehtab Burj and the wall adjoining it opposite the Taj Mahal are generally said to be the foundations and remains of the proposed plan. Yet, many scholars, in fact, disbelieve this. The traces which are identi'fied as the foundations of the second Taj are actually the enclosing wall of a garden founded by Babar. The irregUlar position of Shah Jahan's cenotaph in comparison to Mumtaz Mahal's, is similar to that at the tomb of Itmad-ud­ Daulah. Also, according to Islamic law, bodies are buried with their faces towards Mecca and legs towards the south, and the husband is placed on the right-hand side of his wife.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 20 Caribbean The interpretation that the cenotaph of Shah Jahan was not meant to be placed here appears to be erroneous. The building of the Taj Mahal arises from a great love story. In 1612, Prince Khurram, son of the great Mughal Emperor Jahangir, who then became Shah Jahan, married Arjumand Banu, daughter of Asaf Khan, who was the Prime Minister for Shah Jahan, and son of the Prime Minister for Jahangir, whose sister, Noor Jahan, married Jahangir. She was also the niece of Noor Jahan, who was, in turn, the niece of Akbar's Persian queen, Bilgis Begam. In the tradition of the Mughals, women of the royal family were given another name at their marriage, or at some other significant event in their lives, and this new name was used by the public. It was the Emperor Jahangir himself who presided over all marriage functions, and gave the bride her new name, Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz Mahal was the Prince's favourite wife, the only one to bear him children. She was Shah Jahan's loyal companion, and the Prince would not part with her even on his numerous military campaigns. In his suffering, she sustained him; in his glory, she inspired him to acts of charity and benevolence. She was both comrade and counsellor, beloved by him for her unswerving loyalty, and by his people for her wise and compassionate guidance. She died in the 19th year of their marriage, giving birth to their 14th child. The Emperor took this loss very badly, and went into mourning for two years. He then vowed that in her memory he would build a monument such as the world had never seen before. Thus, he etched her life in stone. The materials came from all over the world: red sandstone was brought from Agra, the white marble came from Makrana, crystal and jade from China, diamonds from Golconda, turquoise from Tibet, silver, gold, precious and semi-precious stones came from the royal coffers. Today, the Taj Mahal is one the most visited places in the country. Surrounded by picturesque gardens and pools, the white marble reflects the pink-tinted sunlight at dawn, the Hames of sunset and the silvery moonlight. It has captured the imagination of poets, artists, writers, photographers and sculptors since its inception. There is a counter-argument that, in fact, the Taj Mahal is Tejo Mahalaya, a Hindu temple, a corruption of the sanskrit term Tejo Mahalay. The premise is the Taj Mahal is in fact, not an Islamic mausoleum, but ratheran ancient Shiva Temple which Shah Jahan commandeered 'from the Maharaja of Jaipur. Those who claim this, point out the sacred Hindu letter aum carved on the exterior of the wall of the sanctum sanctorum. The term Taj Mahal never occurs in any Mughal court paper or chronicle, even in Aurangzeb's time. He was the son of Mumtaz Mahal. The queen's name was never Mumtaj Mahal, but rather Mumtaz-ul-Zamani, and one cannot omit the last three letters "Taz" from a woman's name to derive the remainder as the name of the building. Thus, the name of the building derived from hers should have been Taz-Mahal. Carbon 14 testing by an American Laboratory, revealed the wood from the door to be 300 years older than Shah Jahan's time, and since the doors of the Taj, broken open by Muslim invaders repeatedly from the 11th century onwards, had to be replaced from time to time, the Taj edifice must be even older, and that it belongs to 1155 CE, 500 years prior to Shah Jahan's time. For more discussion on this point of view, see www.flex.com/...... jai/articlesltaj.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (I - E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 21 Caribbean • Yoga Yoga is the physical and mental discipline through which the practitioner 'Joins" (yoga) his or her spirit to a god. The science of yoga existed long before written records. In 200 BCE, Patanjali formalized it in the sutras. The process binds the individual with the Absolute, the particular self, and the universal self. This is accomplished by mastering one's thoughts, feelings and activities. The initial result is shantl (peace). There are many schools of yoga with masters: o Raja Yoga consciousness raising, mental discipline o Hatha Yoga physical methods uses, eight stages, physical discipline, control, popular in the West o Bhaktl Yoga feelings, through prayer, way of devotion o Unana Yoga studies, knowledge o Karma Yoga applied to life's activities, way of action o Mantra Yoga sacred words repeated by mind and body affect world and objects • Science Originally, a priest was both religious leader and scientist. In 499 CE, Aryabhatta calculated the value of pi and the number of days in a solar year. He also stated that the world was round and revolved on its axis.

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (1- E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 22 Caribbean SOURCES/SUGGESTED REFERENCES films: o Far Pavilions o Gandhi o Hollywood, Bollywood o Monsoon Wedding o Mississippi Masala books: o Far Pavilions M.M. Kay Coulmas, Rorian The Writing Systems of the World Blackwell Publishers Cambridge 1992 Encyclopaedia Britannica Languages of the World Vol.22 Ed.15 1998 Fairbanks, Gordon H. & Spoken and Written Hindi Misra, Bal Govind Cornell University Press IthacaILondon 1987 Katzner, Kenneth The Languages of the World Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd Guernsey, Channel Islands 1995

Oxtoby, Willard G. (ed.) World Religions - Eastern Traditions Oxford University Press Toronto 1996 WEBSITES • ciaworldbook.com • omniglot.com • eb.com • users.erols.com • emich.edu • travel.indiamart.com • ethnolgue.com • unesco.org • lonely planet.com • f1ex.com • geocities.com • holidayfestival.com • holihangama.dgreetings.com • ipl.org • krysstal.com linguistiC/Cultural "ambassador": Sadik Ali Chandiwala

7th century CE, Devanagari script, Hindi (/ - E, Indo-Iranian, Indic) India, Asia, alphabetic Pg. 23 Caribbean