This is a featured article. Click here for more information.information. Funerary art From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A large sculpture of six life-sized black-cloaked men, their faces obscured by t heir hoods, carrying a slab upon which lies the supinesupine effigy of a knight, with hands folded together in prayer. His head rests on a pillow, and his feet on a s mall reclining lion. Tomb of Philippe Pot, governor of Burgundy under Louis XI Korean tomb mound of King Sejong the Great, d. 1450 Türbe of Roxelana (d. 1558), Süleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul

Funerary art is any work of art forming, or placed in, a repository for the rema

monumentsins of the whichdead. doThe not term contain also humanencompasses remains; cenotaphscenotaph and communals ("empty memorials tombs"), to tomb-like the dead (such as war memorials), which may or may not containcontain human remains.

Funerary art may serve many cultural functions. It can play a role in burial rit es, serve as an article for use by the dead in the afterlife, and celebrate the life and accomplishments of the dead, whether as part of kinship-centred practic es of ancestor veneration or as a publicly directed dynastic display. It can als o function as a reminder of the mortality of humankind,humankind, as an expression of cult ural values and roles, and help to propitiate the spirits of the dead, maintaini ng their benevolence and preventing their unwelcome intrusion into the affairs o f the living.

The deposit of objects with an apparent aesthetic intention may go back to the N eanderthals over 50,000 years ago,[1] and is found in almost all subsequent cult uresHindu culture, which has little, is a notable exception. Many of the best-kno wn artistic creations of past culturesfrom the Egyptian pyramids and the Tutankha mun treasure to the Terracotta Army surrounding the tomb of the Qin Emperor, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, the Sutton Hoo ship burial and the Taj Mahalare tomb s or objects found in and around them. In most instances,instances, specialized funeral ar t was produced for the powerful and wealthy, although the burials of ordinary pe ople might include simple monuments and grave goods, usually from their possessi ons.

An important factor in the development of traditions of funerary art is the divi sion between what was intended to be visible to visitorsvisitors or the public after com pletion of the funeral ceremonies.[2] The Tutankhamun treasure, for example, tho ugh exceptionally lavish, was never intended to be seen again after it was depos ited, while the exterior of the pyramids was a permanentpermanent and highly effective de monstration of the power of their creators. A similar division can be seen in gr and East Asian tombs. In other cultures, nearly all the art connected with the b urial, except for limited grave goods, was intended for later viewing by the pub lic or at least those admitted by the custodians. InIn these cultures, traditions such as the sculpted sarcophagus and tomb monument of the Greek and Roman empire s, and later the Christian world, have flourished. The mausoleum intended for vi siting was the grandest type of tomb in the classicalclassical world, and later common in Islamic culture.

Contents

1 Common terms 2 History 2.1 Pre-history 2.2 Ancient Egypt and Nubia 2.3 Ancient Greece 2.4 Etruscans 2.5 Ancient Rome

2.6 China 2.7 Korea 2.8 Japan 2.9 The Americas 3 Traditional societies 4 Funerary art and religion 4.1 Hinduism 4.2 Buddhism 4.3 Christianity 4.4 Islam 5 Modern period 6 See also 7 Notes

98 FurtherReferences reading 10 External links

Common terms

Tomb is a general term for any repository for human remains, while grave goods a re other objects which have been placed within the tomb.[3] Such objects may inc lude the personal possessions of the deceased, objects specially created for the burial, or miniature versions of things believed to be needed in an afterlife. Knowledge of many non-literate cultures is drawn largely from these sources.

A tumulus, mound, kurgan, or long barrow covered important burials in many cultu res, and the body may be placed in a sarcophagus, usuallyusually of stone, or a coffin,coffin, usually of wood. A mausoleum is a building erected mainly as a tomb, taking its name from the Mausoleum of Mausolus at Halicarnassus.Halicarnassus. Stele is a term for erect stones that are often what are now called gravestogravestones.nes. Ship burials are mostly found in coastal Europe, while chariot burials are found widely across Eurasia. Catacombs, of which the most famous examples are those in Rome and Alexandria, a re underground cemeteries connected by tunnelled passages. A large group of buri als with traces remaining above ground can be called a necropolis; if there are no such visible structures, it is a grave field. A cenotaph is a memorial withou t a burial.[4]

The word "funerary" strictly means "of or pertaining to a funeral or burial",[5] but there is a long tradition in English of applyiapplyingng it not only toto the practic es and artefacts directly associated with funeral rites, but also to a wider ran ge of more permanent memorials to the dead. Particularly influential in this reg ard was John Weever's Ancient Funerall Monuments (1631), the first full-length b ook to be dedicated to the subject of tomb memorialsmemorials and epitaphs. More recently , some scholars have challenged the usage: Phillip Lindley, for example, makes a point of referring to "tomb monuments", saying "I have avoided using the term ' funeral monuments' because funeral effigies were, in the Middle Ages, temporary products, made as substitutes for the encoffined corpse for use during the funer al ceremonies".[6] Others, however, have found this distinction "rather pedantic ".[7]

Related genres of commemorative art for the dead take many forms, such as the mo ai figures of Easter Island, apparently a type of sculpted ancestor portrait, th ough hardly individualized.[8] These are common in cultures as diverse as Ancien t Rome and China, in both of which they are kept in the houses of the descendant s, rather than being buried.[9] Many cultures have psychopomp figures, such as t he Greek Hermes and Etruscan Charun, who help conduct the spirits of the dead in to the afterlife. History Pre-history Main article: Megalith

The Poulnabrone dolmen in Ireland covered at least 22 bodies of the Neolithic pe riod

Most of humanity's oldest known archaeological constructionsconstructions are tombs.[10] Most ly megalithic, the earliest instances date to within a few centuries of each oth er, yet show a wide diversity of form and purpose. Tombs in the Iberian peninsul a have been dated through thermoluminescence to c. 4510 BCE, and some burials at the Carnac stones in Brittany also date back to thethe fifth millennium BCE.[11] T he commemorative value of such burial sites are indicated by the fact that, at s ome stage, they became elevated, and that the constructs, almost from the earlie st, sought to be monumental. This effect was often achieved by encapsulating a s ingle corpse in a basic pit, surrounded by an elaborateelaborate ditch and drain. Over-gr ound commemoration is thought to be tied to the conceptconcept of collective memory, an

dpment these available early tombs only were to communitieslikely intended that ashad a advancform ofed ancestor-worship,to the stage of settled a develo li vestock and formed social roles and relationships and specialized sectors of act ivity.[12]

In Neolithic and Bronze Age societies, a great variety of tombs are found, with tumulus mounds, megaliths, and pottery as recurrent elements. In Eurasia, a dolm en is the exposed stone framework for a chamber tombtomb originally covered by earth to make a mound which no longer exists. Stones may be carved with geometrgeometricic pat terns (petroglyphs), for example cup and ring marks. Group tombs were made, the social context of which is hard to decipher. Urn burials,burials, where bones are buried in a pottery container, either in a more elaborate tomb, or by themselves, are widespread, by no means restricted to the Urnfield culture which is named after them, or even to Eurasia. Menhirs, or "standing stones", seem often to mark grav es or serve as memorials,[13] while the later runestones and image stones often are cenotaphs, or memorials apart from the grave itself; these continue into the Christian period. The Senegambian stone circles are a later African form of tom b markers.[14] Ancient Egypt and Nubia Main article: Art of ancient Egypt An oversized, shallow mask depicting a large face. The face is roughly oval-shap ed, but the top of the mask is a horizontal line jujustst above the eyebrows, leavin g the entire mask roughly triangular. The entire face is flattened, but the bulb ous nose protrudes away from the face. The eyes are large and almond shaped, and both the eyes and braided eyebrows are disproportionallydisproportionally large in comparison wi th the mouth, which has full lips. The front of the face is clean-shaven, but be low the chin, there is a long, narrow, pointed, braidedbraided false beard that was cha racteristic of ancient Egyptian royalty. Egyptian ceramic coffin mask

Egyptian funerary art was inseparably connected to the religious belief that lif e continued after death  even more, it expressed a belief that "death is a mere p hase of life".[15] Aesthetic objects and images connected with this belief were partially intended to preserve material goods, wealth and status for the journey between this life and the next,[16] and to "commemorate"commemorate the life of the tomb ow ner ... depict performance of the burial rites, and in general present an enviro nment that would be conducive to the tomb owner's rebirth."[17] In this context, Egyptian mummies encased in one or more layers of decorated coffin, are famous; canopic jars preserved the internal organs. A special category of Ancient Egypt ian funerary texts clarify the purposes of the burial customs. The early mastaba type of tomb had a sealed underground burial chamberchamber but an offering-coffering-chamberhamber on the ground level for visits by the living, a patternpattern repeated in later types of tomb. A Ka statue effigy of the deceased might be walled up in a serdab connect ed to the offering chamber by vents that allowed thethe smell of incense to reach t he effigy.[18] The walls of important tomb-chambers and offering chambers were h eavily decorated with reliefs in stone or sometimes wood, or paintings, depictin g religious scenes, portraits of the deceased, and at some periods vivid images

of everyday life, depicting the afterlife. The chamber decoration usually centre d on a "false door", through which only the soul of the deceased could pass, to receive the offerings left by the living.[19]

Representational art, such as individual portraiture of the deceased, is found e xtremely early on and continues into the Roman period in the encaustic Faiyum fu nerary portraits applied to coffins. However, it is still hotly debated whether there was realistic portraiture in Ancient Egypt.[20] The purpose of the life-si zed reserve heads found in burial shafts or tombs of nobles of the Fourth dynast y is not well understood; they may have been a discreetdiscreet method of eliding an edi ct by Khufu forbidding nobles from creating statues of themselves, or may have p rotected the deceased's spirit from harm or magically eliminated any evil in it, or perhaps functioned as alternate containers for the spirit if the body should

be harmed in any way.[21] Architectural works such as the massive Great Pyramid and two smaller ones built during the Old Kingdom in the Giza Necropolis and (much later, from about 1500 BCE) the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were builtbuilt for royalty and the elite. The Theban Necropolis was later an important site for mortuary temples and masta ba tombs. The Kushite kings who conquered Egypt and ruled as pharaohs during the Twenty-fifth dynasty were greatly influenced by Egyptian funerary customs, empl oying mummification, canopic jars and ushabti funerary figurines. They also buil t the Nubian pyramids, which in both size and designdesign more closely resemble the s maller Seventeenth dynasty pyramids at Thebes than those of the Old Kingdom near Memphis.[22]

Lower-class citizens used common forms of funerary artincluding shabti figurines (to perform any labor that might be required of the dead person in the afterlife ), models of the scarab beetle and funerary textswhich they believed would protec t them in the afterlife.[23] During the Middle Kingdom, miniature wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to tombs. I n an attempt to duplicate the activities of the livingliving in the afterlife, these m odels show laborers, houses, boats and even military formations which are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.[24]afterlife.[24] Ancient Greece A carving of a noble robed man and woman apparently leading a demure, robed woma n. The man's robe is open, exposing his penis. He holdsholds the hand of the woman. Relief from a carved funerary lekythos at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens: Hermes conducts the deceased, Myrrhine, to Hades, c. 430420 BCE

The ancient Greeks did not generally leave elaborate grave goods, except for a cc oin to pay Charon, the ferryman to Hades, and pottery;pottery; however the epitaphios or funeral oration from which the word epitaph comes was regarded as of great impo rtance, and animal sacrifices were made. Those who could afford them erected sto ne monuments, which was one of the functions of kouroskouros statues in the Archaic pe riod before about 500 BCE. These were not intended as portraits, but during the Hellenistic period, realistic portraiture of the deceased was introduced and fam ily groups were often depicted in bas-relief on monuments, usually surrounded by an architectural frame.[25] The walls of tomb chambers were often painted in frfr esco, although few examples have survived in as good condition as the Tomb of th e Diver from southern Italy or the tombs at Vergina in Macedon. Almost the only surviving painted portraits in the classical Greek tradition are found in Egypt rather than Greece. The Fayum mummy portraits, from the very end of the classica l period, were portrait faces, in a Graeco-Roman style, attached to mummies.[26]

Early Greek burials were frequently marked above ground by a large piece of pott ery, and remains were also buried in urns. Pottery continued to be used extensiv ely inside tombs and graves throughout the classical period.[27] The larnax is a small coffin or ash-chest, usually of decorated terracotta. The two-handled lou trophoros was primarily associated with weddings, as it was used to carry water

for the nuptial bath. However, it was also placed in the tombs of the unmarried, "presumably to make up in some way for what they hhadad missed in life."[28] The o ne-handled lekythos had many household uses, but outside the household, its prin cipal use was the decoration of tombs.[29] Scenes of a descent to the underworld of Hades were often painted on these, with the deaddead depicted beside Hermes, Cha ron or boththough usually only with Charon.[30] Small pottery figurines are often found, though it is hard to decide if these were mademade especially for placement in tombs; in the case of the Hellenistic Tanagra figurines,figurines, this seems probablyprobably not the case.[31] But silverware is more often found around the fringes of the G reek world, as in the royal Macedonian tombs of Vergina,Vergina, or in the neighbouring cultures such as those of Thrace or the Scythians.[32]Scythians.[32]

The extension of the Greek world after the conquests of Alexander the Great brou

esultingght peoples in newwith formats different for tomb-makingart in Greek traditions styles.[33]styles.[33 into] A generationthe Hellenistic before sphere, Alexand r er, Mausolus was a Hellenized satrap or semi-independent ruler under the Persian Empire, whose enormous tomb (begun 353 BCE) was whollywholly exceptional in the Greek world  together with the Pyramids it was the only tomb to be included in the Sev en Wonders of the Ancient World. The exact form of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassu s, which gave the name to the form, is now unclear, and there are several altern ative reconstructions that seek to reconcile the archaeological evidence with de scriptions in literature.[34] It had the size and some elements of the design of the Greek temple, but was much more vertical, with a square base and a pyramida l roof. There were quantities of large sculpture, of which most of the few survi ving pieces are now in the British Museum.[35] Other local rulers adapted the hi gh-relief temple frieze for very large sarcophagi, starting a tradition which wa s to exert a great influence on Western art up to 118th-century8th-century Neo-Classicism. T he late 4th-century Alexander Sarcophagus was in fact made for another Hellenize d Eastern ruler, one of a number of important sarcophagisarcophagi found at Sidon in the m odern Lebanon. The two long sides show Alexander's great victory at the Battle o f Issus and a lion hunt; such violent scenes were commoncommon on ostentatious classicclassic al sarcophagi from this period onwards, with a particular revival in Roman art oo f the 2nd century. More peaceful mythological scenes were popular on smaller sar cophagi, especially of Bacchus.[36] Etruscans A sculpture of a woman and man reclining together onon a couch, their upper bodies to the right and their legs to the left. There is a marked contrast betweenbetween the high relief busts of their upper bodies and the veryvery flattened lower bodies and legs. They have almond-shaped eyes and long braided hair, and are smiling widel y. The man has a beard that is bobbed. The woman's hands are gesticulating in fr ont of her as if she was holding something that is no longer there, or perhapsperhaps g esturing while speaking. The man has his right arm draped around the woman's sho ulders in an intimate pose, and his right hand on herher shoulder also appears to o nce have held some item. His left hand rests palm upup in the crook of the woman's left elbow. The Etruscan "Sarcophagus of the Spouses", at the National Etruscan Museum in It aly

Objects connected with death, in particular sarcophagi and cinerary urns, form t he basis of much of current knowledge of the ancientancient Etruscan civilization and i ts art, which once competed with the culture of ancientancient Rome, but was eventually absorbed into it.[37] The sarcophagi and the lids of the urns often incorporate a reclining image of the deceased. The reclining figuresfigures in some Etruscan funer ary art are shown using the mano cornuta to protect the grave.[38]

The motif of the funerary art of the 7th and 6th centuriescenturies BCE was typically a ff easting scene, sometimes with dancers and musicians, or athletic competitions. H ousehold bowls, cups, and pitchers are sometimes found in the graves, along with food such as eggs, pomegranates, honey, grapes and olives for use in the afterl ife.[39][40] From the 5th century, the mood changed to more somber and gruesome

scenes of parting, where the deceased are shown leaving their loved ones,[41] of ten surrounded by underworld demons, and psychopomps, such as Charun or the wing ed female Vanth. The underworld figures are sometimes depicted as gesturing impa tiently for a human to be taken away.[42] The handshandshakehake was another common motif , as the dead took leave of the living.[42] This oftenoften took place in front ofof oror near a closed double doorway, presumably the portal to the underworld. Evidence in some art, however, suggests that the "handshake took place at the other end of the journey, and represents the dead being greeted in the Underworld".[42] Ancient Rome

See also : Roman funerary art Warrior with cuirass and helmet leaning on his spear in front of a funerary stel e; the snake symbolizes the soul of the dead. Marble,Marble, Roman artwork from the 1st

es. century BC imitating the Greek classical style of the 5th century BC. From Rhod

The burial customs of the ancient Romans were influenced by both of the first si gnificant cultures whose territories they conquered as their state expanded, nam ely the Greeks of Magna Graecia and the Etruscans.[43]Etruscans.[43] The original Roman custom was cremation, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, ash-chest or u rn, often in a columbarium; pre-Roman burials around Rome often used hut-urnslitt le pottery houses.[44] From about the 2nd century CE, inhumation (burial of unbu rnt remains) in sarcophagi, often elaborately carved, became more fashionable fo r those who could afford it.[45] Greek-style medallion portrait sculptures on a stela, or small mausoleum for the rich, housing either an urn or sarcophagus, we re often placed in a location such as a roadside, wherewhere it would be very visible to the living and perpetuate the memory of the dead.dead. Often a couple are shown, signifying a longing for reunion in the afterlife rather than a double burial (s ee married couple funerary reliefs).[46] In later periods, life-size sculptures of the deceased reclining as though at a meal or social gathering are found, a common Etruscan style. Family tombs for th e grandest late Roman families, like the Tomb of thethe Scipios, were large mausole ums with facilities for visits by the living, including kitchens and bedrooms. T he Castel Sant'Angelo, built for Hadrian, was later converted into a fortress. C ompared to the Etruscans, though, there was less emphasis on provision of a life style for the deceased, although paintings of useful objects or pleasant activit ies, like hunting, are seen.[47] Ancestor portraits, usually in the form of wax masks, were kept in the home, apparently often in little cupboards,[48] although grand patrician families kept theirs on display in the atrium. They were worn i n the funeral processions of members of the family by persons wearing appropriat e costume for the figure represented, as described by Pliny the Elder and Polybi us. Pliny also describes the custom of having a bust-portraitbust-portrait of an ancestor pai nted on a round bronze shield (clipeus), and having it hung in a temple or other public place. No examples of either type have survived.[49]survived.[49]

By the late Republic there was considerable competition among wealthy Romans for the best locations for tombs, which lined all the approach roads to the city up to the walls, and a variety of exotic and unusual designs sought to catchcatch the a ttention of the passer-by and so perpetuate the memory of the deceased and incre ase the prestige of their family. Examples include the Tomb of Eurysaces the Bak er, a freedman, the Pyramid of Cestius, and the MausoleumMausoleum of Caecilia Metella, a ll built within a few decades of the start of the CommonCommon Era.[50]

In Italy, sarcophagi were mostly intended to be set against the wall of the tomb , and only decorated on three sides, in contrast to the free-standing styles of Greece and the Eastern Empire. The relief scenes of Hellenistic art became even more densely crowded in later Roman sarcophagi, as for example in the 2nd-centur y Portonaccio sarcophagus, and various styles and forms emerged, such as the col umnar type with an "architectural background of columns and niches for its figur

es".[51] A well-known Early Christian example is the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassu s, used for an important new convert who died in 359.359. Many sarcophagi from leadi ng centres were exported around the Empire.[52] The Romans had already developed the expression of religious and philosophical ideas in narrative scenes from Gr eek mythology, treated allegorically;[53] they later transferred this habit to C hristian ideas, using biblical scenes.[54] China "Military Guardian", Chinese funerary statue. Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washi ngton.

Funerary art varied greatly across Chinese history. Tombs of early rulers rival the ancient Egyptians for complexity and value of grave goods, and have been sim ilarly pillaged over the centuries by tomb robbers. For a long time, literary re

numberferences of to examples jade burial were suits excavated were regardedin the 20th by schocentury,centlarsury, asand fanciful it is now myths, believed but taa hat they were relatively common among early rulers. Knowledge of pre-dynastic Ch inese culture has been expanded by spectacular discoveries at Sanxingdui and oth er sites. Very large tumuli could be erected, and later, mausoleums. Several spe cial large shapes of Shang dynasty bronze ritual vessels were probably made for burial only; large numbers were buried in elite tombs, while other sets remained above ground for the family to use in making offeringsofferings in ancestor veneration r ituals. The Tomb of Fu Hao (c. BCE 1200) is one of the few undisturbed royal tom bs of the period to have been excavatedmost funerary art has appeared on the art market without archaeological context.[55]

The discovery in 1974 of the Terracotta army located the tomb of the First Qin E mperor (died 210 BCE), but the main tumulus, of whichwhich literary descriptions surv ive, has not been excavated. Remains surviving above ground from several imperia l tombs of the Han dynasty show traditions maintainedmaintained until the end of imperial rule. The tomb itself is an "underground palace" beneath a sealed tumulus surrou nded by a wall, with several buildings set at some distance away down avenues fo r the observation of rites of veneration, and the accommodation of both permanen t staff and those visiting to perform rites, as wellwell as gateways, towers and oth er buildings.

Chinese imperial tombs are typically approached by a "spirit road", sometimes se veral kilometres long, lined by statues of guardian figures, based on both human s and animals. A tablet extolling the virtues of thethe deceased, mounted on a ston e representation of Bixi in the form of a tortoise, is often the centerpiece of the ensemble. In Han tombs the guardian figures are mainly of "lions" and "chime ras"; in later periods they are much more varied.[56] A looted tomb with fine pa intings is the Empress Dowager Wenming tomb of the 5th century CE, and the many tombs of the 7th-century Tang dynasty Qianling Mausoleum group are an early exam ple of a generally well-preserved ensemble.[57]

The complex of Goguryeo Tombs, from a kingdom of thethe 5th to 7th centuries which included modern Korea, are especially rich in paintings. Only one of the Imperia l Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties has been excexcavated,avated, in 1956, with suchsuch di sastrous results for the conservation of the thousands of objects found, that su bsequently the policy is to leave them undisturbed.[58]

The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum in Hong Kong displaysdisplays a far humbler middle-clas s Han dynasty tomb, and the mid-2nd-century Wu Family tombs of Jiaxiang County, Shandong are the most important group of commoner tombs for funerary stones.[59] The walls of both the offering and burial chambers of tombs of commoners from t he Han period may be decorated with stone slabs carvedcarved or engraved in very low r elief with crowded and varied scenes, which are now the main indication of the s tyle of the lost palace frescoes of the period. A cheapercheaper option was to use larg e clay tiles which were carved or impressed before firing.[60] After the introdu ction of Buddhism, carved "funerary couches" featured similar scenes, now mostly

religious.[61] During the Han Dynasty, miniature ceramic models of buildings we re often made to accompany the deceased in the graves;graves; to them is owed much of ww hat is known of ancient Chinese architecture. Later, during the Six Dynasties, s culptural miniatures depicting buildings, monuments, people and animals adorned the tops of the hunping funerary vessels.[62] The outsides of tombs often featur ed monumental brick or stone-carved pillar-gates (que ?); an example from 121 CE appears to be the earliest surviving Chinese architectural structure standing a bove ground.[63] Tombs of the Tang Dynasty (618907) are often rich in glazed pott ery figurines of horses, servants and other subjects, whose forceful and free st yle is greatly admired today. The tomb art reached its peak in the Song and Jin periods; most spectacular tombs were built by rich commoners.[64]

Early burial customs show a strong belief in an afterlifeafterlife and a spirit path to i

eaffirmt that needed such important facilitating. cultural Funerals values and as memorials filial pi etywere and also "the an opportunityhonor and respec to r t due to seniors, the duties incumbent on juniors"[65] The common Chinese funera ry symbol of a woman in the door may represent a "b"basicasic male fantasy of an elysi an afterlife with no restrictions: in all the doorways of the houses stand avail able women looking for newcomers to welcome into their chambers"[66] Han Dynasty inscriptions often describe the filial mourning for their subjects,[67] for exa mple text from a funeral stele for the daughter of a scholar-official of the dyn asty, which described the "hurt and grief" of her two sons:[68] ???? She did not enjoy old age ???? With long years ???? She is gone and will not return, ???? She has sunken deep into the great darkness. ???? Alas, sorrowful indeed! ???? Tables and mats are set but unused, ???? The curtains and canopies have been put out in vain. ???? Her things are still there, ???? We do not see her person. ???? Her ghost drifts about. ???? How could we pacify her spirit? Korea Hunting scene from the North wall of the main chamberchamber of the Muyongchong Tomb (T omb of the Dancers), (5th century CE), Ji'an.

Murals painted on the walls of the Goguryeo Tombs are examples of Korean paintin g from its Three Kingdoms era. Although thousands of these tombs have been found , only about 100 have murals.[69] These tombs are often named for the dominating theme of the murals  these include the Tomb of the Dancers, the Tomb of the Hunt ers, the Tomb of the Four Spirits, and the Tomb of the Wrestlers.[70] Heavenly b odies are a common motif, as are depictions of eventsevents from the lives of the roya lty and nobles whose bodies had been entombed. The former include the sun, repre sented as a three-legged bird inside a wheel,[71] and the various constellations , including especially the Four directional constellations: the Azure Dragon of the East, the Vermilion Bird of the South, the WhiteWhite Tiger of the West, and the Black Tortoise of the North.[72]

The Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea, builtbuilt between 1408 and 1966, ref lect a combination of Chinese and Japanese traditions, with a tomb mound, often surrounded by a screen wall of stone blocks, and sometimessometimes with stone animal fig ures above ground, not unlike the Japanese haniwa figures (see below). There is usually one or more T-shaped shrine buildings some distance in front of the tomb , which is set in extensive grounds, usually with a hill behind them, and facing a view towards water and distant hills. They are stillstill a focus for ancestor wor ship rituals. From the 15th century, they became more simple, while retaining a large landscape setting.[73] Japan 6th-century Japanese haniwa clay figure; these were buried with the dead in the

Kofun period (3rd to 6th centuries CE)

The Kofun period of Japanese history, from the 3rd to 6th centuries CE, is named after kofun, the often enormous keyhole-shaped Imperial mound-tombs, often on a moated island. None of these have ever been allowedallowed to be excavated, so their p ossibly spectacular contents remain unknown.[74] Late examples which have been i nvestigated, such as the Kitora Tomb, had been robbed of most of their contents, but the Takamatsuzuka Tomb retains mural paintings. Lower down the social scale in the same period, terracotta haniwa figures, as much as a metre high, were de posited on top of aristocratic tombs as grave markers, with others left inside, apparently representing possessions such as horses and houses for use in the aft erlife.[75] Both kofun mounds and haniwa figures appear to have been discontinue d as Buddhism became the dominant Japanese religion.[76]

Since then, Japanese tombs have been typically marked by elegant but simple rect angular vertical gravestones with inscriptions. Funerals are one of the areas in Japanese life where Buddhist customs are followed even by those who followed ot her traditions, such as Shinto. The bodaiji is a specialspecial and very common type of temple whose main purpose is as a venue for rites of ancestor worship, though i t is often not the actual burial site. This was originallyoriginally a custom of the feuda l lords, but was adopted by other classes from aboutabout the 16th century. Each fami ly would use a particular bodaiji over generations, and it might contain a secon d "grave" if the actual burial were elsewhere. Many later emperors, from the 13t h to 19th centuries, are buried simply at the ImperialImperial bodaiji, the Tsuki no wa no misasagi mausoleum in the Sennyu-ji temple at Kyoto.[77] The Americas A ring of twelve dancing figures, arms interlocked around each other's shoulders . They surround one musician in the centre of the ring,ring, and a second musician st ands behind them. A "shaft tomb" tableau from Nayarit, Mexico, 300 BC to AD 600[78]

Unlike many Western cultures, that of Mesoamerica is generally lacking in sarcop hagi, with a few notable exceptions such as that of Pacal the Great or the now-l ost sarcophagus from the Olmec site of La Venta. Instead,Instead, most Mesoamerican fune rary art takes the form of grave goods and, in Oaxaca,Oaxaca, funerary urns holding the ashes of the deceased. Two well-known examples of Mesoamerican grave goods are those from Jaina Island, a Maya site off the coast of Campeche, and those associ ated with the Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition. The tombs of Mayan rulers can only normally be identified by inferences drawn from the lavishness of the grav e goods and, with the possible exception of vessels made from stone rather than pottery, these appear to contain no objects specially made for the burial.[79] Funerary Mask, c. 300 BC, painted ceramic

The Jaina Island graves are noted for their abundance of clay figurines. Human r emains within the roughly 1,000 excavated graves on the island (out of 20,000 to tal)[80] were found to be accompanied by glassware, slateware, or pottery, as we ll as one or more ceramic figurines, usually resting on the occupant's chest or held in their hands. The function of these figurines is not known: due to gender and age mismatches, they are unlikely to be portraitsportraits of the grave occupants, a lthough the later figurines are known to be representations of goddesses.[81]

The so-called shaft tomb tradition of western Mexico is known almost exclusively from grave goods, which include hollow ceramic figures, obsidian and shell jewe lry, pottery, and other items (see this Flickr photo for a reconstruction). Of p articular note are the various ceramic tableaux including village scenes, for ex ample, players engaged in a Mesoamerican ballgame. Although these tableaux may m erely depict village life, it has been proposed that they instead (or also) depi ct the underworld.[82] Ceramic dogs are also widely known from looted tombs, and are thought by some to represent psychopomps (soul guides),[83] although iitt sho uld also be noted that dogs were often the major sourcesource of protein in ancient Me

soamerica.[84] A fearsome mythical creature that may be either a bat or a jaguar. The head and face appear like that of a bat with a shortened snout,snout, ridged eyebrows and very large round ears. Its mouth is open, showing pointed teeth and a protruding tong ue. It wears a necklace made of two braided ropes, with an amulet in the front s haped the head of a double axe (or a bow tie). However,However, its body is not bat-like . It squats on four legs each with four clawed toes,toes, with a perfectly round bell y.y. A funerary urn in the shape of a "bat god" or a jaguar, from Oaxaca, dated to AD 300650.[85]

The Zapotec civilization of Oaxaca is particularly known for its clay funerary u rns, such as the "bat god" shown at right. Numerous types of urns have been iden

otified.[86] be portraits. While Art some historian show deities George and Kubler other is super particularlynatural beings, enthusiastic others about seem t he craftsmanship of this tradition:

No other American potters ever explored so completely the plastic conditions of wet clay or retained its forms so completely afafterter firing ... [they][they] used it s wet and ductile nature for fundamental geometric modelling and cut the materia l, when half-dry, into smooth planes with sharp edges of an unmatched brilliance and suggestiveness of form.[87]

The Maya Naj Tunich cave tombs and other sites containcontain paintings, carved stelae, and grave goods in pottery, jade and metal, includingincluding death masks. In dry areas , many ancient textiles have been found in graves from South America's Paracas c ulture, which wrapped its mummies tightly in several layers of elaborately patte rned cloth. Elite Moche graves, containing especially fine pottery, were incorpo rated into large adobe structures also used for human sacrifices, such as the Hu aca de la Luna. Andean cultures such as the Sican oftenoften practiced mummification and left grave goods in precious metals with jewels, including tumi ritual knive s and gold funerary masks, as well as pottery.

The Mimbres of the Mogollon culture buried their dead with bowls on top of their heads and ceremonially "killed" each bowl with a small hole in the centre so th at the deceased's spirit could rise to another world. Mimbres funerary bowls sho w scenes of hunting, gambling, planting crops, fishing, sexual acts and births.[ 88]

Some of the North American mounds, such as Grave CreekCreek Mound (c. 250150 BCE) in W est Virginia, functioned as burial sites, while others had different purposes.[8 9]9] Traditional societies A stone-carved Toraja cliff burial site. Tau tau (effigies of the deceased) look out over the land.

There is an enormous diversity of funeral art from traditional societies across the world, much of it in perishable materials, and some is mentioned elsewhereelsewhere i n the article. In traditional African societies, masks often have a specific ass ociation with death, and some types may be worn mainlymainly or exclusively for funera l ceremonies.[90] The funeral ceremonies of the IndigenousIndigenous Australians typically feature body painting; the Yolngu and Tiwi people create carved pukumani burial poles from ironwood trunks,[91] while elaborately carved burial trees have been used in south-eastern Australia.[92] The Toraja people of central Sulawesi are famous for their burial practices, which include the setting-up of effigies of t he dead on cliffs. The 19th- and 20th-century royal Kasubi Tombs in Uganda, dest royed by fire in 2010, were a circular compound of thatched buildings similar to those inhabited by the earlier Kabakas when alive, but with special characteris tics.[93] Custom coffins displayed at the Kane Kwei Carpentry Workshop in Teshie

In several cultures, goods for use in the afterlife are still interred or cremat ed, for example Hell bank notes in East Asian communities.[94]communities.[94] In Ghana, mostly among the Ga people, elaborate figurative coffins in the shape of cars, boats or animals are made of wood. These were introduced in the 1950s by Seth Kane Kwei. [95] Funerary art and religion Hinduism

Cremation is traditional among Hindus, who also believe in reincarnation, and th ere is far less of a tradition of funerary monumentsmonuments in Hinduism than in other m ajor religions.[96] However, there are regional, andand relatively recent, traditio ns among royalty, and the samadhi mandir is a memorialmemorial temple for a saint. Both

rommay thebe influenced 16th century by Islamiconwards, practices. are among theThe bestmausole known.knumsown. of Other the kingsrulers of were Orchha, commem f orated by memorial temples of the normal type for the time and place, which like similar buildings from other cultures fall outside the scope of this article, t hough Angkor Wat in Cambodia, the most spectacular of all, must be mentioned. Buddhism

Buddhist tombs themselves are typically simple and modest, although they may be set within temples, sometimes large complexes, built for the purpose in the then -prevailing style. According to tradition, the remains of the Buddha's body afte r cremation were entirely divided up into relics (cetiya), which played an impor tant part in early Buddhism. The stupa developed as a monument enclosing deposit s of relics of the Buddha from plain hemispherical mounds in the 3rd century BCE to elaborate structures such as those at Sanchi in India and Borobudur in Java. Regional variants such as the pagoda of China and Japan and the candi of Indone sia evolved from the Indian form. However, none of these can strictly be called tombs.[97] Some important Tibetan lamas are buried in relatively small chortens (Tibetan stupas), sometimes of precious metal, inside or outside monasteries, so metimes after mummification. There are examples at Kursha Monastery in Zanskar a nd Tashiding Monastery in Sikkim, as well as the PotalaPotala Palace in Lhasa and many other monasteries.[98] However, most chortens do not function as tombs. Christianity Plaster cast of the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus

The Catacombs of Rome contain most of the surviving Christian art of the Early C hristian period, mainly in the form of frescos and sculpted sarcophagi. They sho w a Christian iconography emerging, initially from Roman popular decorative art, but later borrowing from official imperial and pagan motifs. Initially, Christi ans avoided iconic images of religious figures, and sarcophagi were decorated wi th ornaments, Christian symbols like the Chi Rho monogram and, later, narrative religious scenes.[99] The Early Christians' habit, after the end of their persec ution, of building churches (most famously St Peter's, Rome) over the burial pla ces of martyrs who had originally been buried discreetly or in a mass grave perh aps led to the most distinctive feature of Christian funerary art, the church mo nument, or tomb inside a church.[100] The beliefs of many cultures, including Ju daism and Hinduism as well as classical paganism, consider the dead ritually imp ure and avoid mixing temples and cemeteries (though see above for Moche, and bel ow for Islamic culture).[101] Medieval and Renaissance wall tombs in Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, including an equestrian statue at the left

Christians believed in a bodily resurrection of the dead at the Second Coming of Christ, and the Catholic Church only relaxed its opposition to cremation in 196 3.[102] Although mass ossuaries have also been used, burial has always been the preferred Christian tradition, at least until recent times. Burial was, for as l ong as there was room, usually in a graveyard adjacentadjacent to the church, with a gra vestone or horizontal slab, or for the wealthy or important clergy, inside it. WW

all tombs in churches strictly include the body itself, often in a sarcophagus, while often the body is buried in a crypt or under the church floor, with a monu ment on the wall. Persons of importance, especially monarchs, might be buried in a free-standing sarcophagus, perhaps surrounded by an elaborate enclosure using metalwork and sculpture; grandest of all were the shrines of saints, which beca me the destinations of pilgrimages. The monument to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emp eror in the Hofkirche, Innsbruck took decades to complete,[103] while the tomb o f Saint Dominic in Bologna took several centuries to reach its final form.[104]

If only because its strong prejudice against free-standing and life-size sculptu re, Eastern Orthodoxy could not have developed the tomb monument in the same way as the Western Church, and the burials of rich or important individuals continu ed the classical tradition of sarcophagi carved in relief, with the richness of

symbolsthe carving were tending left. Constantine to diminish I over and mostthe centuries, later Byzantine until justEmperors simple up religiousto 1028 we re buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople,Constantinople, which was destro yed after the fall of Constantinople of 1453. Some massive but mostly plain porp hyry sarcophagi from the church are now placed outside the Istanbul Archaeology Museums.[105]

The Tomb of Antipope John XXIII in Florence is a grandgrand Early Renaissance wall to mb by Donatello and Michelozzo; although classical in style, it reflects the som ewhat inharmonious stacking up of different elements typical of major Gothic tom bs. It has a life-size effigy, also known as a gisagisant,nt, lying on the sarcophagus, which was common from the Romanesque period through to the Baroque and beyond.[ 106] Ruling dynasties were often buried together, usually in monasteries; the Ch artreuse de Champmol was founded for that purpose by the Valois Dukes of Burgund y in 1383. The Scaliger tombs in Verona are magnificentmagnificent free-standing Gothic can opied tombsthey are outside the church in a special enclosure, and so are unrestr icted in height.[107] Important churches like Saint Peter's in Rome, Saint Paul' s Cathedral, London, Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice (twenty-five Doges), and the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence contain large numbers of impressive monuments to the great and the good, created by the finest aarchitectsrchitects and sculptorssculptors avail able. Local parish churches are also often full of monuments, which may include large and artistically significant ones for local landowners and notables. Often a prominent family would add a special chapel for their use, including their to mbs; in Catholic countries, bequests would pay for masses to be said in perpetui ty for their souls. By the High Renaissance, led by Michelangelo's tombs, the ef figies are often sitting up, and later may stand. Often they turn towards the al tar, or are kneeling facing it in profile.[108] Close-up of a rectangular-shaped carving in stone. In the centre of the rectangl e is a circle representing a mirror, and within the circle is a grinning skull. The circle is framed by ram's horns. "The Mirror of Death": Detail from a French Renaissance monument of 1547

In the late Middle Ages, influenced by the Black DeathDeath and devotional writers, e xplicit memento mori imagery of death in the forms of skulls or skeletons, or ev en decomposing corpses overrun with worms in the transi tomb, became common in nn orthern Europe, and may be found in some funerary art,art, as well as motifs like th e Dance of Death and works like the Ars moriendi, oror "Art of Dying".[109] It too k until the Baroque period for such imagery to becomebecome popular in Italy, in works like the tomb of Pope Urban VIII by Bernini (16281647), where a bronze winged sk eleton inscribes the Pope's name on a tablet below his enthroned effigy.[110] As cities became more crowded, bones were sometimes recovered after a period, and placed in ossuaries where they might be arranged for artistic effect, as at the Capuchin Crypt in Rome or the Czech Sedlec Ossuary, which has a chandelier made of skulls and bones.

The church struggled to eliminate the pagan habits of leaving grave goods except for the clothing and usual jewellry of the powerful,powerful, especially rings. Kings mi

ght be buried with a sceptre, and bishops with a crozier,crozier, their respective symbo ls of office.[111] The 7th-century Stonyhurst Gospel, with a unique Insular orig inal leather binding, was recovered from St Cuthbert's coffin, itself a signific ant object; it was probably Cuthbert's personal copy, which he had very likely s cribed himself.[112] The armour and sword of a knight might be hung over his tom b, as those of the Black Prince still are in CanterburyCanterbury Cathedral. The Early Chr istian Church, to the frustration of historians of costume, encouraged burial in a plain white winding-sheet, as being all that wouldwould be required at the Second Coming. For centuries, most except royalty followed this custom, which at least kept clothing, which was very expensive for rich and poor alike, available for t he use of the living. The use of a rich cloth pall to cover the coffin during th e funeral grew during the Middle Ages; initially these were brightly coloured an d patterned, only later black. They were usually then given to the Church to use for vestments or other decorations.[113] From the early 13th century to the 16th, a popular form of monument north of the Alps, especially for the smaller landowner and merchant classes, was the monume ntal brass, a sheet of brass on which the image of the person or persons commemo rated was engraved, often with inscriptions and an architectural surround. They could be on the floor or wall inside a church. TheseThese provide valuable evidenceevidence a s to changes in costume, especially for women. Many bishops and even some German rulers were commemorated with brasses.[114] Castrum doloris for Queen Katarzyna Opalinska of Poland, erected in Notre Dame d e Paris in 1747

The castrum doloris was a temporary catafalque erected around the coffin for the lying in state of important people, usually in a church,church, the funerary version o f the elaborate temporary decorations for other court festivities, like royal en tries. These began in the late Middle Ages, but reachedreached their height of elaborat ion in the 18th century.[115] A particular feature in Poland was the coffin port rait, a bust-length painted portrait of the deceased, attached to the coffin, bu t removed before burial and often then hung in the church. Elsewhere, death mask s were used in similar fashion. Hatchments were a special lozenge-shaped painted coat of arms which was displayed on the house of tthehe deceased for a mourningmourning pe riod, before usually being moved to hang in the church.church. Like mourning clothes, t hese fall outside a strict definition of art.[116]

For some time after the Protestant Reformation, English church monuments formed the majority of large-scale artworks added to Protestant churches, especially in sculpture. The English upper classes ceased to commission altarpieces and other religious art for churches, but their tomb monuments continued to grow in size to fill the empty wall spaces; similar trends were seen in Lutheran countries, b ut Calvinists tended to be more disapproving of figure sculpture.[117] Many port raits were painted after death, and sometimes dead family members were included along with the living; a variety of indications might be used to suggest the dis tinction.[118]

The large Baroque tomb monument continued likely to include a portrait of the de ceased, and was more likely to include personified figures of Death, Time, Virtu es or other figures than angels. The late medieval transi tomb vocabulary of ima ges of bodily decay, such as skulls and skeletons, was sometimes re-introduced, but in a less confrontational manner.[119] Neo-Classicism, led by Antonio Canova , revived the classical stela, either with a portrait or a personification; in t his style there was little or no difference between the demands of Catholic and Protestant patrons.[120] A cobbled street stretches out from the foreground and bends to the left. The st reet is lined with above-ground tombs, and a number of trees appear in the backg round. 19th-century bourgeois family tombs at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris

By the 19th century, many Old World churchyards and church walls had completely run out of room for new monuments, and cemeteries oonn the outskirts of cities,cities, to wns or villages became the usual place for burials.[121] The rich developed the classical styles of the ancient world for small family tombs, while the rest con tinued to use gravestones or what were now usually false sarcophagi, placed over a buried coffin. The cemeteries of the large ItalianItalian cities are generally accep ted to have outdone those of other nations in terms of extravagant statuary, esp ecially the Monumental Cemetery of Staglieno in Genoa, the Cimitero Monumentale di Milano and the Certosa di Bologna.[122] In Italy at least, funerary sculpture remained of equal status to other types during the 19th and early 20th centurie s, and was made by the leading artists, often receireceivingving reviews in the press,press, an d being exhibited, perhaps in maquette form.[123] Monuments kept up with contemp orary stylistic developments during the 19th century,century, embracing Symbolism enthus

uveauiastically, and a fewbut Artthen Deco gradually examples.[124] became detached Where burialsburia from lsthe in avant-garde church crypts after or flfloorsArtoors No took place, memorial stained glass windows, mostly on normal religious subjects but with a commemorative panel, are often found. War memorials, other than on t he site of a battle, were relatively unusual until the 19th century, but became increasingly common during it, and after World War I were erected even in villag es of the main combatant nations.[125] Islam

Islamic funerary art is dominated by architecture. Grave goods are discouraged t o the point that their absence is frequently one recognitionrecognition criterion of Muslim burials.[126] Royalty and important religious figures were typically buried in plain stone sarcophagi, perhaps with a religious inscription.inscription. However, funerary architecture often offered a means of "moving beyond the strictures of formal Mu slim burial rites" and expressing social dimensions such as status, piety, love for the deceased, and Muslim identity.[127] A number of distinct architectural t raditions arose for expressing these social elements. The Islamic tradition was slow in starting; the hadith "condemn the building of tombs, and Muhammad himsel f set the example of requesting burial in an unmarkedunmarked grave in one of the chambe rs of his house" in Medina,[128] though by at least the 12th century, buildings of the vast Al-Masjid an-Nabawi complex already marked the site. The earliest id entified Muslim monumental tomb, in Samarra in Iraq, only dates from 862, and wa s commissioned by the Byzantine princess whose son was buried there.[129] At som e point, the tradition incorporated the idea of a garden setting, perhaps follow ing the Islamic concept of Paradise, an association certainly made when the trad ition was mature, although the difficulty of reconstructing gardens from archaeo logy makes the early stages of this process hard to trace. At any rate, gardens surrounding tombs became established in Islamic tradition in many parts of the w orld, and existing pleasure gardens were sometimes appropriated for this purpose . Versions of the formal Persian charbagh design were widely used in India, Pers ia and elsewhere.[130] Brick Samanid Mausoleum, c. 910, Bokhara Humayun's Tomb (1560s), Delhi, in its garden setting Turkish gravestones, capped by a turban, in Istanbul

Another influence may have been the octagonal Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, not a mausoleum itself, but "the earliest Islamic model for centrally planned comme morative buildings", adapting the Byzantine form of the martyrium in a building standing alone, though on a stone platform rather than in a garden.[131] In the Persian sphere, a tradition of relatively small mausoleums evolved, often in the shape of short hexagonal or octagonal domed towers, usually containing a single chamber, like the Malek Tomb. These single-chambered tombs developed into large r buildings in the Timurid and Mughal Empires,[132] like the Gur-e Amir tomb of Timur at Samarkand and the famous Mughal tombs of India, which culminated in the Taj Mahal. The Mughal tombs are mostly set in a largelarge walled charbagh (chahar-b agh) or Mughal gardens, often with pavilions at the corners[132] and a gatehouse . The Taj Mahal is atypically placed at the end of the garden, backing onto the

river Yamuna; a central placing is usual.[133] They may have minarets, although they do not normally function as mosques. The Tomb of Jahangir lacks any dome,[1 34] while the Tomb of Akbar the Great has only smallsmall decorative ones. Other Isla mic Indian rulers built similar tombs, such as Gol Gumbaz.

In all this tradition, the contemporary architectural style for mosques was adap ted for a building with a smaller main room, and usuallyusually no courtyard. Decoratio n was often tilework, and could include parchin kari inlays in semi-precious sto ne, painting, and decorative carving. No animals would be represented, but geome tric patterns and written inscriptions were common. The sarcophagus might be in a small inner chamber, dimly visible through a grille of metal or stone, or migh t stand in the main room. Money would be bequeathed to pay for continuous readin gs of the Qur'an in the mausoleum, and they were nonormallyrmally open for visitors to p

anay cemetery,their respects. and intended The Mausoleum to be the of centreKhomeini, of stilla hugehuge under complex, construction continues in these a Tehr tr aditions.[135]

The tradition evolved differently in the Ottoman world, where smaller single-roo med türbe typically stand on the grounds of mosque complexes, often built by the d eceased. The sarcophagi (often purely symbolic, as the body is below the floor) may be draped in a rich pall, and surmounted by a rrealeal cloth or stone turban,turban, wh ich is also traditional at the top of ordinary TurkishTurkish gravestones (usually in s tylised form). Two of the most famous are in the SüSüleymaniyeleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul; t he Yesil Türbe ("Green Tomb") of 1421 is an unusuallyunusually large example in Bursa, and also unusual in having extensive tile work on the exterior, which is usually mas onry, whereas the interiors are often decorated with brightly colored tiles.[136 ]]

Other parts of the Islamic world reflected local techniques and traditions. The 15th-century royal Tomb of Askia in Mali used the local technique of mud-buildin g to erect a 17 metre high pyramidal tomb set in a mosque complex.[complex.[137]137] At the oo ther end of the Islamic world, Javanese royalty are mostly buried in royal grave yards such as those at Kota Gede and Imogiri.

In the Arab world, mausoleums of rulers are more likelylikely to be a side-room inside a mosque or form part of a larger complex containingcontaining perhaps a hospital, madras ah or library. Large domes, elaborately decorated inside, are common. The tomb-m osque of Sultan Qaitbay (died 1496) is a famous example,example, one of many in Cairo, t hough here the tomb chamber is unusually large compared to the whole.[138] Modern period The Judenplatz Holocaust Memorial to the 65,000 Austrian Jews killed in the Holo caust, designed by Rachel Whiteread and completed in 2000

Funerary art tends to be conservative in style, and many grave markers in variou s cultures follow rather traditional patterns, while others reflect modernism or other recent styles. Public monuments representing collective memorials to part icular groups of dead people continue to be erected, especially war memorials, a nd in the Western world have now replaced individualindividual or family memorials as the dominant types of very large memorials; Western political leaders now usually re ceive simple graves. Some large memorials are fairly traditional, while those re flecting more contemporary styles include the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, and sev eral Holocaust memorials, such as Yad Vashem in Jerusalem, the Vel d'Hiv Memoria l in Paris (1994), the Memorial to the Murdered JewsJews of Europe in Berlin (2004), and the Judenplatz Holocaust Memorial in Vienna (2000). These are in notable co ntrast to the style of most war memorials to the militarymilitary of World War II; earli er modernist memorials to the dead of World War I werewere sometimes removed after a time as inappropriate.[139] Some war memorials, especially in countries like Ge rmany, have had a turbulent political history, for example the much-rededicated Neue Wache in Berlin [140] and the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo, which is internatio nally controversial.[141]

Several critics detect a crisis in public memorial style from 1945, when the tra ditional figurative symbolic language, and evocation of nationalist values, came to seem inadequate, especially in relation to genocide, at least on the Western side of the Iron Curtain.[142] In the Communist EastEast the established style of S ocialist Realism was still considered appropriate, at least by the authorities.[ 143] The generation of abstracted and conceptual war and Holocaust memorials ere cted in the West from the 1990s onwards seems finalfinallyly to have found a resolution for these issues.[144]

Many large mausoleums have been constructed for political leaders, including Len in's Mausoleum and those for Atatürk, Jinnah, Kim Il-Sung, Che Guevara and several Presidential memorials in the United States, although the actual burials of rec

suallyent presidents their largest are very commemorative simple, with memorial. their Presiden The Matialusoleum library of Khomeini and museum is anow gran u d mosque complex, as large as any medieval example, not least because it include s a 20,000 place parking lot.[135] See also

English church monuments List of mausolea List of extant papal tombs

Notes

Depending on the interpretation of sites like the Shanidar Cave in Iraq. Bogucki , 6466 summarizes the debate. Gargett takes a hostile view but accepts (p. 29 etc .) that many or most scholars do not. See also Pettitt.Pettitt. See for example the chapter "Tombs for the Living and the Dead", Insoll 17687. Hammond, 5859 characterizes disarticulated human skeletal remains packed in body bags and incorporated into Pre-Classic Mesoamerican mass burials (along with a s et of primary remains) at Cuello, Belize as "human grave goods". See any well-regarded survey of the history of art or of architecture, such as G ardner's Art Through the Ages or the most recent editionedition of Sir Banister Fletche r's A History of Architecture. "funerary, adj.". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.).ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) (subscr iption required) Lindley, Phillip (2007). Tomb Destruction and scholarship:scholarship: medieval monuments in early modern England. Donington: Shaun Tyas. p. 3. ISBN 978-1900289-870. Cockerham, Paul (2008). "Reformation, reaction, reception: a 21st-century view o f monumental destruction". Church Monuments 23: 13741 (137). Hoa Hakananai'a British Museum, accessed 26 April 2010 Toynbee, 4748, on Ancient Rome. Stewart and Rawski's book is entirely devoted to Chinese ancestor portraits. See Chapter 1 etc. Although the purpose of megalithic structures is not always clear, and of the ve ry oldest, while Nevali Cori in Turkey contains burials, Göbekli Tepe appears not to. Mohen, 70 Mohen, 87 Kipfer, "Menhir", 348 Stone Circles of Senegambia  UNESCO World Heritage Centre, accessed 28 April 2010 Groenewegen-Frankfort, 80 Stone, 37 Kampen et al, 31 Maspero, 11127, with serdabs 1242525 Robins, 5155, 6671, 21819, and see index for other periods. Tomb styles changedchanged con siderably over the course of Egyptian history. Spanel, 23 Atiya and El Shawahy, 73

Boardman, Edwards et al, 6888989 James, 122 Robins, 74 Boardman, 212, 15 Oakes and Gahlin, 236 Boardman, 26 and passim Richter, 57 Henderson, 135 Wright, 391 Boardman, 2121313 Boardman, 1495050 Boardman, 15154, and throughout the section on the period Boardman, 12627. Apart from those at the Mausoleum of HalicarnassusHalicarnassus article, ther

Boardman,e are several 126 from2727 Lethaby's 1908 work here, and oneone illustrated in Boardman. Boardman, 17273, 3394444 Holiday, 73 de Grummond 1997, 359 de Grummond 2006, 231 de Grummond 1997, 93 Johnston, 489 Davies, 632 Toynbee, Chapter I Hall, 15 Toynbee, 394040 Toynbee, Chapter IV; Hall, 53 Toynbee, 38 Toynbee, 31 (illustration) Hall, 15, 35, 78 Petersen, 95105; see also Boardman, 24041 on Eurysaces' tomb. Boardman, 339 Boardman, 33944; Hall, 788080 Hall, 546161 Hall, 778282 See for example Merriman, 297 Sickman and Soper, 5766; see also the diagram here Sickman and Soper, 155 Evasdottir, 1586060 Wu Hung, The Wu Liang Shrine: The Ideology of Early Chinese Pictorial Art (Stanf ord UPP, 1989)) Sickman and Soper, 778484 Sickman and Soper, 1202121 Dien, 2141515 Sickman and Soper, 376 (illustrated) Jeehee Hong, "Virtual Theater of the Dead: Actor Figurines and Their Stage in HoHo uma Tomb No.1," Artibus Asiae Vol. 71-1, 2011 Thorp & Vinograd, 144 Goldin, 548 Brown, 44 Brown, 77 UNESCO, Preservation of the Koguryo Kingdom Tombs, 24 Lee, 64 UNESCO, Preservation of the Koguryo Kingdom Tombs, 4 Park 333434 Unesco Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty. Paine and Soper, 2878989 Paine and Soper, 2426, 2808282 Paine and Soper, 289. See also List of National TreasuresTreasures of Japan (archaeologic al materials) Hall, John Whitney, 3818686

Smithsonian. Chase and Chase, Chapter 3, especially p. 34 Muren. Kubler, 266 See Taylor for discussion. Coe et al., 103104, or Mason, 182. In Richardson, 4849 ("The dog, among the Maya, was considered to be connected with death, and to be the messenger to prepare th e way to the hereafter.") Coe, 45 ("The only domestic animals were dogsthe principal source of meat for muc h of Preclassic Mesoamericaand turkeysunderstandably rare because that familiar bi rd consumes very large quantities of corn and is thusthus expensive to raise".) Height: 9.5 in (23 cm). "The Bat God was one of the important deities of the May a, many elements of whose religion were shared also by the Zapotec. The Bat God

iallyin particular associated is known... with to havethe underworld." been revered Mason,also by182. the In Zapotec Richardson, ... He 48 was4949 espec Kubler, 163 Kubler, 164 Giammattei and Reichert, 3. Cited in the Introduction to The Mimbres of the Mogo llon culture: A people of mystery by Andrew Gulliford Mounds & Mound Builders Accessed 25 April 2010 Masks in West African Traditional Societies, Bonnefoy, pp. 1333737 Davies, Serena (23 August 2004). "Viewfinder: Aboriginal burial poles". The Dail y Telegraph (London). Retrieved 21 April 2010. Oxenham. Kasubi tombs website Montillo, Roseanne (2009). Halloween and Commemorations of the Dead. New York: I nfobase. pp. 4142. ISBN 978-1-60413-097-3. British Museum: Modern coffin in the shape of an eagle,eagle, from Ghana. Accessed 22 March 2010 Groseclose, 23 Le Phuoc, 14042; 14756 on Sanchi; 192204, especially 196, on candi in Indonesia, an d Borodudur (196204) Dowman, 5455 for the Potala, and see index for other locations.locations. Syndicus, Chapter 1; Hall, 778282 Syndicus, 39, 729090 Toynbee, 4849. An exception in the Classical World were the LyciansLycians of Anatolia. There are also the Egyptian mortuary-temples, where the object of worship was th e deified royal person entombed, but Egyptian temples to the major gods containe d no burials. For an extreme example, see ancient Delos. It was allowed in times of plague however. See CremationCremation in the Christian World for more detailsthe Orthodox churchs still forbid cremation. Board of Trustees for The Hofkirche in Innsbruck. Welch, 26 Downey. Levey 1967, 575959 Though they are exceeded in scale by Gothic revival monuments like the Albert Me morial and the Scott Monument, neither containing a tomb. Hall, 325 Cohen throughout, see Introduction Hall, 3242626 Piponnier and Mane, 1121313 Bloxham, Jim and Rose, Krisine; St. Cuthbert Gospel of St. John, Formerly Known as the Stonyhurst Gospel Piponnier and Mane, 3435; 1121313 "Brasses, Monumental" The corpse was in fact not always present. Bagliani, 1585959 Piponnier and Mane, 113 for the origins of mourning clothes. See for example Michalski, xi. Here Michalski refers to this rejection of religi ous imagery within Calvinism as "iconophobia". See also Gäbler, 72, 7677 and Potter , 13031 regarding the religious disputations in Zürich (1523) concerning (among oth

er things) the removal of statues of saints and otherother icons. Participants includ ed Leo Jud and Huldrych Zwingli. The Saltonstall Family is a well-known example. The Arnolfini Portrait has been claimed to be such a work Hall, 3242727 Hall, 34749; Berresford, 363838 "Cemetery" Berresford, throughout, and Prefaces Berresford, 13, and 58 on exhibitions Berresford, 7778 on "Liberty" (Italian term for "Art Nouveau") and 99104 on Art De co. Mosse, Chapter 5 Insoll, 172  Ruggles,Insoll, 177 1038080 Ruggles, 103104 Ruggles, Chapter 9 Ruggles, 104 Insoll, 177 Ruggles, 112 and 122. Her Chapter 10 includes a detaileddetailed description of the Taj with special reference to its gardens. An interesting contrast with the Taj Mahal, given they were both built by Shah J ahan. The New York Times, Khomeini's Tomb Attracts Pilgrims, Philip Shenon, Published: 8 July 1990, accessed 25 April 2010. Levey 1975, 2933 on Bursa, 8384 on Istanbul; all the leading Ottoman tombs are covcov ered in the book. Tomb of Askia, UNESCO page with aerial view. See Fletcher and Cruickshank, 596. The madrassa is labeled "the ultimate achieve ment of architectural development in Cairo" and its tomb chamber described as "i mmense." Mosse, 103106 on conservatism, and generally throughout Chapter 5 on war memorial s.s. Mosse, 9798; Carrier, 201 "Japan wants talks with China, Korea on Yasukuni Shrine", Associated Press story , South China Morning Post website, 6 January 2014, accessed 4 May 2015 Carrier, 1922; Benton throughout, especially p. 194. Benton throughout, especially Chapter 1 on Soviet War Memorials (pp. 1213 on Soci alist Realism), but also noting deviations in the Warsaw Pact satellites, as on p. 194, and Chapter 7 on West Germany.

Carrier, throughout, especially Chapter 8. See also the copious literature oo n the Washington Vietnam Veterans Memorial.

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Further reading

Curl, James Stevens, A celebration of death: an introduction to some of the buildings, monuments, and settings of funerary architecture in the Western Europ ean tradition, B.T. Batsford, 1993, ISBN 0-7134-7330-7134-7336-3,6-3, ISBN 978-0-7134-7336-0 Panofsky, Erwin. Tomb Sculpture: Its Changing Aspects from Ancient Egypt toto Bernini. London: Phaidon, 1992.

External links

Islamic tombs and shrines, from the United States Naval academy Handbook for identification and repair of monuments

Categories:

Funerary artArt genresVeneration of the deadBurial monuments and structuresD eath customsDeath in art

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