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De Sogdiërs: Een Vergeten Volk Langs De Zijderoute Onderzoek Naar De Oorzaken Van De Teloorgang Van Het Sogdische Handelsnetwerk Tijdens De Tang 唐-Dynastie (618-907)

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De Sogdiërs: Een Vergeten Volk Langs De Zijderoute Onderzoek Naar De Oorzaken Van De Teloorgang Van Het Sogdische Handelsnetwerk Tijdens De Tang 唐-Dynastie (618-907) Academiejaar 2012-2013 De Sogdiërs: een vergeten volk langs de zijderoute Onderzoek naar de oorzaken van de teloorgang van het Sogdische handelsnetwerk tijdens de Tang 唐-dynastie (618-907) Jozefien Maerten Verhandeling voorgelegd aan de Faculteit der Letteren en Wijsbegeerte, tot het verkrijgen van de graad van Master in de Oosterse talen en culturen Promotor: Prof. Ann Heirman INHOUDSOPGAVE Dankwoord .............................................................................................................................4 Inleiding .................................................................................................................................5 I. Het belang van de Sogdiërs langs de zijderoute ...................................................................7 1. Het Sogdische handelsnetwerk ........................................................................................7 1.1. Het begin van het Sogdische handelsnetwerk ............................................................7 1.1.1. De ‘Ancient Letters’ ......................................................................................... 10 1.1.2. Sogdië als commercieel doorgeefluik ............................................................... 12 1.2. Het Sogdisch handelsnetwerk op zijn hoogtepunt.................................................... 14 2. Van Sogdisch handelsnetwerk tot Sogdische gemeenschappen ...................................... 18 3. Verspreiding Sanyijiao 三夷教 ...................................................................................... 21 3.1. Zoroastrisme (Suoluoyasidejiao 琐罗亚斯德教) ..................................................... 22 3.2. Manicheïsme (Monijiao 摩尼教) ............................................................................ 24 II. Teloorgang van het Sogdische handelsnetwerk ................................................................. 26 1. De Arabische overheersing ............................................................................................ 26 1.1. Handel onder het Arabische Rijk ............................................................................ 29 1.2. Van Sogdiërs tot Chorasmiërs ................................................................................. 31 2. De An Lushan opstand (755-763) .................................................................................. 32 2.1. De Sogdische Chakars ............................................................................................ 34 2.2. De ‘Turkicised Sogdians’ van de ‘zes hu gebieden’ 六胡州 .................................... 35 2.2.1. Ontstaan van een Sogdisch-Turks milieu .......................................................... 35 2.2.2. Deelname aan de opstand ................................................................................. 37 2.3. Het lot van de Sogdiërs tijdens en na de rebellie ..................................................... 38 2.4. Het lot van de Sogdiërs in de liu hu zhou ................................................................ 40 2 3. Sogdische invloed onder Oeigoerse Rijk ....................................................................... 42 3.1. Een laatste heropleving van Sogdische handel ........................................................ 43 3.2. Het manicheïsme als staatsreligie ............................................................................ 44 3.3. Sogdiërs als vertalers tussen het Oeigoerse Rijk en de Tang .................................... 46 4. Restanten van Sogdische gemeenschappen .................................................................... 47 5. De ‘last refuge’ ............................................................................................................. 48 Conclusie ............................................................................................................................. 49 Bibliografie .......................................................................................................................... 50 Bijlagen ................................................................................................................................ 57 3 DANKWOORD Deze masterthesis is het sluitstuk van vier jaar studie Oosterse Talen en Culturen waarbij mijn belangstelling en waardering voor vreemde culturen nog werd vergroot. De keuze van de Sogdiërs als thema van deze scriptie werd bepaald door mijn voorkeur voor de geschiedenis van het Oude China en specifiek de thema’s ‘zijderoute’ en ‘Tang-dynastie’. In de allereerste plaats wil ik mijn promotor Prof. Ann Heirman bedanken voor haar begeleiding en het beantwoorden van vragen, alsook voor haar steun en bemoediging bij de verwezenlijking van deze scriptie. Een speciaal woord van dank voor Dr. Mathieu Torck en Mr. Li Man voor hun goede raadgevingen. Ook hartelijk dank aan iedereen die deze scriptie heeft nagelezen en verbeterd. 4 INLEIDING Sweet to ride forth at evening from the wells, When shadows pass gigantic on the sand, And softly through the silence beat the bells Along the Golden Road to Samarkand.1 J. E. Flecker (1884-1915) Het concept ‘zijderoute’ (sichou zhi lu 丝绸之路) omvat commerciële, religieuze en artistieke uitwisselingen tussen verscheidene volkeren, van het verre Oosten tot het Westen. Het begin van de zijderoute in China kunnen we situeren bij de diplomatieke missies van Zhang Qian 張騫 (195-114 v.o.t) tijdens de Han-dynastie (206 v.o.t.-220). Geleidelijk werden verschillende routes in gebruik genomen, waarbij de handel telkens floreerde in periodes van éénmaking en vrede, met name in de Han 漢 (206 v.o.t.-220), Sui 隋 (581/589-617) en Tang 唐 -dynastie (618-907). Rond het jaar 640 nam de Tang-dynastie de controle over de verschillende oasesteden langs de zijderoute in Centraal-Azië. Dit luidde een periode in van ongekende bloei in de handel en grote culturele uitwisselingen. De Sogdiërs zijn vandaag de dag een onbekend volk, maar vervulden in de geschiedenis van de zijderoute een belangrijke rol. Ze bewoonden het gebied gelegen tussen de Amu Darya en Syr Darya in het huidige Oezbekistan en Tadjikistan. Chinese bronnen verhalen dat ze geboren handelaars waren: “At birth honey was put in their mouths and gum on their hands […] they learned the trade from the age of five […] on reaching the age of twelve they were sent to do business in a neighbouring state.” 2 Hoewel dit wellicht overdreven is, geeft het toch een goed beeld hoe andere volkeren over de Sogdiërs dachten. Geleidelijk aan wisten de Sogdiërs zich te vestigen in alle oasesteden langs de zijderoute tot in het noorden van China. Gedurende de Vroege Tang (618-763) waren zij de grootste groep van ‘Westerse vreemdelingen’. Naast hun belangrijke rol in de handel hadden ze ook op religieus vlak een grote invloed: van vertalers van boeddhistische teksten tot verspreiders van de sanyijiao 三夷教; het zoroastrisme, het manicheïsme en het nestorianisme. Archeologische vondsten in de voorbije 20ste eeuw gaven het startschot voor onderzoek naar dit vergeten volk. Vandaag de dag zijn ze een ‘hot topic’ bij Chinese onderzoekers. De Sogdiërs gaan zo de geschiedenis in als de belangrijkste handelaars langs de zijderoute. Hoewel Indiërs, Perzen, Syriërs en anderen een aandeel hadden, worden de 1 J. C. Squire (uitg.), The collected poems of James Elroy Flecker, New York: A. A. Knopf, 1921, p. 149. 2 N. Sims-Williams, “The Sogdian merchants in China and India”, in V. Hansen (uitg.), The silk road: Key papers, Part 1: The pre-islamic period, Leiden: Brill, 2012, p. 241. 5 Sogdiërs beschouwd als diegenen die het grootste aandeel hadden in het welslagen van de zijderoute. Vanaf het jaar 742 kwam er een einde aan deze florissante periode. In Centraal- Azië brak er een periode van oproer uit met verscheidene opstanden. Dertien jaar later brak in China de An Lushan 安祿山 opstand uit (755-763), wat leidde tot een verdere ontwrichting van de Sogdische handelsmacht. Het eerste deel van deze scriptie handelt over het belang van de Sogdiërs langs de zijderoute. Welke bijdragen leverden zij? Hoe groot was hun invloed? Het tweede deel geeft een antwoord op de centrale vraag van deze scriptie, met name welke gebeurtenissen precies aan de basis lagen van het verval van het Sogdische handelsnetwerk. Hoe kon een eeuwen lang welvarend netwerk verdwijnen? Welk lot hebben de Sogdiërs ondergaan? Deze scriptie focust hoofdzakelijk op de Tang-dynastie (618-907): het begin van de Tang toen de Sogdische handelsmacht zijn hoogtepunt bereikte, de gebeurtenissen die een omwenteling kenden gedurende deze periode, minder nadrukkelijk na de Tang, tot de uiteindelijke ‘verdwijning’ van de Sogdiërs in hoogstwaarschijnlijk de 10de eeuw. Om een volledig begrip te krijgen van de gebeurtenissen die zich op de achtergrond afspeelden, is het raadzaam de tijdlijn (cf. Bijlagen masterthesis) bij het lezen van deze scriptie binnen handbereik te houden. 6 I. HET BELANG VAN DE SOGDIËRS LANGS DE ZIJDEROUTE 1. HET SOGDISCHE HANDELSNETWERK De Sogdiërs zijn vandaag een ongekend volk, maar ze vervulden een belangrijke rol in de geschiedenis van de zijderoute. Ruim vier eeuwen lang waren ze er de belangrijkste handelaars. Zoals de Xin Tang shu 新唐書 vermeldt begaven de Sogdiërs “ zich overal heen waar ze voordeel konden vinden” (“利所在無不至”).3 Na de vroegste handelscontacten met China tijdens de Han-dynastie ontwikkelde het handelsnetwerk zich tot een hoogtepunt onder de kosmopolitische Tang-dynastie. 1.1. HET BEGIN VAN HET SOGDISCHE HANDELSNETWERK Eén van de vroegste contacten tussen China en Centraal-Azië wordt vermeld
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