Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-09434-5 — Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity Edited by Nicola Di Cosmo , Michael Maas Index More Information

index

Abu Mash‘ar, 242–7 Heraclius and, 33, 56 Kitab al-milal wa-I-duwal, 246 pearls and, 258 “Account of Weights and Prices Submitted to Roman/Byzantine loss of territory to, 421 the Kara-Khoja Palace Treasury,” 88 Yemen-Axum conﬂict and, 105 Achaemenids, 57, 59, 60 archaeology. See also elite self-representation Ackermann, Phyllis, 238 among Türks; speciﬁc sites Adrianople, battle of (378), 20–1, 277 Hunnic/Xiongnu cauldrons, 181–5 Ādur Gušnasp (Takht-e Solaymān, Iran), 66 Hunnic/Xiongnu identity and, 177, Aetius (Roman general), 277 179–81, 187 Afrasiyab murals, Samarkand, 263 migrations, evidence for, 180–1 Agathias, 30, 279, 328 northern migration topos and, 158 Ahriman, 236, 241 Sogdians, new archaeological evidence for, Akhshunwar (Hephthalite leader), 295, 296 89–91 Alans, 81 Ardashir I (Sasanian ruler), 59, 60, 61, 241, Alexander the Great, 11, 27, 63, 123–4, 126, 256, 287, 300 132, 278 Aristotle, On Interpretation, 209 Alexander’s Gate, legend of, 33–4 Armenia Alkhan Huns, 290 Ašxarhac‘oyc‘ (Description of the world), Along the Silk Road (modern drama), 89 132 Alopen (Christian missionary in Tang miniature of Adoration of the Magi, China), 217 Etschmiadsin Gospel, 263 Altheim, Franz, 190 pearls, value of, 261, 262, 263 “Ambassadors’ Painting,” 247–50 Arrian of Nicomedia, 123, 278 Ambrose of Milan, 20, 32 Arsacids, 56, 57, 66 Ammianus Marcellinus, 20, 28, 130–2, 259, Ashina (Türk ruling dynasty), 307–10, 277, 278, 288 312, 315 An Lushan rebellion (755–763), 110, 120, 223, Aśoka (Mauryan emperor), 230 388, 397, 398, 413, 415 astrology and astrological lore, 12, 235–52 An Shigao, 222 Abu Mash‘ar, zodiacal system of, 242–7 Anagui (Rouran khagan), 50 Chaldaeo-Persian system of seven Analects (Lunyu), 225 planets, 250 Anatolius (Roman envoy), 361, 362 Indian system of nine planets, 250–1 Anga and Anga Tomb, 87, 90, 92, 93, 94 Muqanna‘, control of luminaries in Apophthegmata Patrum (Sayings of the propaganda apparatus of, 251–2 Desert Fathers), 214 rainmaking, 250 Arabs. See also Islam in Sasanian Iran, 235–42 astrology and, 235 Sogdians, 247–50 as Gog and Magog, 32, 33 Türks and Türk empires, 250, 251

487

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-09434-5 — Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity Edited by Nicola Di Cosmo , Michael Maas Index More Information

488 * Index

astrology and astrological lore (cont.) Bardesanes of Edessa, Book of the Laws of Uyghurs, 250 Countries, 127 Zoroastrianism and, 236–41, 242 Barfield, Thomas, 275, 323 Ašxarhac‘oyc‘ (Description of the world), Barford, Paul, 149 132 Barmakids of Balkh, 246 Attila the Hun Bartol’d, Vasilij, 317 ethnicity and, 194, 198, 203 Batty, Roger, 22 Hun state under, 325 Bayly, Chris, 101 Roman/Byzantine diplomacy and, 358–60, Beckwith, C. I., 4 363, 364 Bede, 103 Roman/Byzantine Eurasian policy and, Beichao zhuliu theory, 169–70 277, 278, 283 Bentley, Jerry, 7 Roman/Byzantine steppe relations and, 19, Benveniste, Émile, 214 22, 28 Bilge (Türk khagan), 195, 310, 314, 356, 396, 411 Sasanian Iran and, 64 al-Biruni, 250 Atwood, Christopher, 178 Bistam (Sasanian commander), 299 Augustine of Hippo, 32, 104 black death, 83 Augustus (Roman emperor), 21, 124 Bleda (Hun leader), 363 Ausonius, 156 “block” system of Roman/Byzantine Avars diplomacy, 358–9, 360 Bulgars, emergence of, 330 “blood sweat horses,” 80 ethnicity issues and, 191, 192, 193, 195, 196, Boareke (Sabir queen), 329 199–202 Bodmer, Walter, 140, 149 Justin II’s break with, 23 Bögü Qaghan (Uyghur), 398 Roman/Byzantine diplomacy and, 359, 365, Bokovenko, Nikolai, 177 366, 367 Boodberg, P. A., 83 Roman/Byzantine-steppe relations and, 23 The Book of the Feats of Ardashir son of Rouran identified with, 271, 272 Pābag, 241 states of, 317, 324 Book of Zhou, 283 Theophylact Simocatta on, 284 Bookolabras (Avar high priest), 201 Türks and, 271, 272 Borgolte, Michael, 188 Avesta, 236 Boroo stele, Central Mongolia, 339–42 Axum and Axumites, 72, 105, 106 Bourdieu, Pierre, 160 Ayvān-e Kīsra, Ctesiphon, 62, 68, 74 Bowersock, Glen, 97, 105 Azuma, U., 351 Brahmi script, Türk steles using, 342–4 Brosseder, Ursula, xiii, 12, 176, 424, 427 Bactria Brown, Peter, xiii, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 96, 286, 419, Hephthalite control of, 290, 295 420, 421 as trade center, 79 bubonic plague, 83 Bahram Chobin, 299 Buddhism, 12, 220–34, 423 Bahram V (Sasanian ruler), 290–1 artistic and aesthetic influence on Baian (Avar khagan), 195, 200, 366 China, 233 Baideng, battle of (200 BCE), 38 chairs introduced to China by, 115, 234 Baitenov, E. M., 344 Chinese language affected by, 114 Bal‘ami, 298 communication and trade routes, Ball, Warwick, 124 movement along, 77, 78 Bamiyan fresco, Afghanistan, 265 cultural influence on China, 225–34 Banū Tamīm, 258 family, understanding of, 114 barbarians. See also specific groups foreignness of, in China, 229–30 Chinese beliefs about barbarian ability to under Han dynasty, 113–14, 221–2 partake in ritual observances, 102–3 India and Central Asia, monastics and “five barbarians” period in China-steppe texts from, 223–4 relations, 44–7 knowledge of India brought to China by, Greco-Roman concept of, 153–5 232–3

Index * 489

linguistic influence and translation of direct contact with Central Asians, 125 texts, 225, 226–9 imperial efforts to gather information, 124 material impact on China, 234 Maes Titianos, travel narrative of, 125–6, monasteries and monasticism in China, 127, 132 114, 230–2 Peutinger Map, 127–9 Northern Wei and, 48, 112, 233 Ptolemaic frame, limited by, 125, 126, regnal titles and, 391, 394, 395, 396 131, 132 rulership, influencing ideology of, 222, trade and diplomacy influencing, 129–30 230–1 Chach coins, 347–50 Sasanian Iran, failure to spread to, 224, 235 Chadwick, Hector Munro, 159 Sasanian ruler representation affecting, 68 Chagan-obo site, eastern Kazakhstan, 344 Silk Road, spreading along, 420 chairs introduced to China through Sui dynasty and, 116 Buddhism, 115, 234 in Tang Eurasian synthesis, 108–10, 112–15, Chalcedon, Council of (451), 422 116, 119 Chang (Northern Wei empress dowager), 375 trade and communication routes, “charismatic” goods, luxury goods as, 100. spreading via, 224–5 See also luxury goods Bugut stele, Central Mongolia, 334, 337, 339, Charlemagne, 104 342–7 Chen Yinke, 168, 170, 172 Bulgars/Bulgarians, 24, 193, 195, 317, 324, Childe, V. Gordon, 158 328–9, 330–1, 422 China, 423. See also Buddhism; China-steppe Bumïn (Türk khagan), 50, 195, 307–8, 309, 389 relations; “followership” in northeast- Bundahishn, 239 ern Eurasia; ideological entanglement Burgundians, 277 and conflict in eastern Eurasia; Bury, J. B., 159 Northern Dynasties, historiography of; Buzand, P‘awstos, 289 Northern Wei; Tang Eurasian synthesis; Byzantines. See specific entries at Roman/ specific dynasties Byzantine Christianity and Mediterranean culture in, 207, 217–18, 226 calendrical tables in Syriac and Sogdian, 215 communication and trade routes, 76–8, 82 Cameron, Dame Averil, xiii, 419 cosmological expressions of world Canepa, Matthew P., xiii, 10, 14, 54, 99, 104, empire, 58 262, 420 elite self-representation among Türks, Cang Ci (prefect of Dunhuang), 78 “Chinese” features of, 334–42 Cao Cao (warlord), 46 glass as luxury good in, 100 Capelli, Cristian, 140 glossary of Chinese terms, 431 Carolingian kingship, 410 Greek knowledge of, 27 Catalaunian Fields, battle of (451), 278 inscription of foreign ruling elites into cauldrons. See Hunnic/Xiongnu cauldrons Chinese dynastic history, 164 Cavalli Sforza, Luigi, 136 nomadic state formation, as catalyst Central Asia for, 324 communication and trade routes, 78–9 northern migration as historical trope and, Tang Eurasian synthesis of influences 152, 161–5 from (See Tang Eurasian synthesis) periodization and disruption of imperial Central Asia in late Roman mental map, 11, continuity in, 35–6 123–32 political systems, hybridization of, 14 Alexandrine tradition, bounded by, 123–4, ritual observance, beliefs about barbarian 126, 129, 132 ability to partake in, 102–3 Ammianus Marcellinus, 130–2 Roman/Byzantine empire, awareness Armenian Ašxarhac‘oyc‘ (Description of of, 421 the world), 132 Sasanian empire and, 57 Bardesanes of Edessa, Book of the Laws and China-steppe relations, 10, 35–53 Countries, 127 disruption of imperial continuity in China difficulty obtaining information, 123, 124 and, 35–6

490 * Index

China-steppe relations (cont.) Classic of the Way and Power (Daode Jing), “five barbarians” period, 44–7 113, 225 Han dynasty’s rise and confrontation with Clavigero, F. S., 151 Xiongnu, 41–2 client-patron relationships. See heqin (harmonious kinship) policy, “followership” in northeastern Eurasia 41–2, 202 climate and terrain theories, 27, 179, 185–6, incorporation of nomads as buffer states, 404–6 43–4 coins and coinage military strategies, 42–3 Chach coins, 347–50 northern and southern dynasties, Shoroon-Bumbagar, tomb at, 350–6 separation of China into, 47 commerce and exchange. See trade and northern frontier, fortification of, 37–8 communication Roman-steppe relations compared, 274 Confucianism, 114, 229, 386, 388, 391, 394 Rouran, 44, 46, 49–51 Constantine I the Great (Roman emperor), “Silk Road exchange” and, 39–41 129, 259, 260 Türks, 50–1 Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (Roman Xianbei and rise of Northern Wei, 47–9 emperor), 281, 425 Xiongnu empire, formation and structure Constantius II (Roman emperor), 129 of, 38–9 Coop, Graham, 146, 149 Chionites, 288, 289, 290 Corippus, 366 Chosroes. See specific entries at Khusro Cornelius Nepos, 123 Christian, David, 70 Cosmas Indicopleustes, 72, 83, 100, 106 Christianity, 12, 206–19, 422. See also Church cosmological expressions of Sasanian world of the East; Syriac Christianity and empire, 58–9, 60–8 literature Cribb, J., 290 Chalcedon, Council of (451), 422 crown of St. Stephen of Hungary, 192 in China, 207, 217–18, 226 Cuthbert (saint), 103 Christian Persians in China, 218 Cutrigur Huns, 195 communication and trade routes, movement along, 78 Dahn, Felix, 157, 159 jewelry, renunciation of, 264 Daizong (Tang emperor), 397 pearls in, 254, 256–8 Dandeker, Christoph, 410 Roman clients converting to, 64 Daode Jing (Classic of the Way and Power), in Roman empire, 19 113, 225 Silk Road, spreading along, 420 Daoism, 113, 229, 394, 395 Sogdians and, 207, 210–14, 215 Daoxuan (Buddhist monk), 231 steppe peoples and cultures, perspective Davies, Norman, 149 on, 30–3 Davis, Natalie, 5 Uyghur, Syriac literature in, 207 de Groot, John J. M., 288 Christianity in Sasanian Iran de Guignes, Joseph, 161, 162, 176, 196 China, Christian Persians in, 218 Dēbšalm (Indian ruler), 260 Middle Persian, Syriac Christian literature Deeg, Max, xiii, 12, 220, 243, 423 in, 207–9, 212 Deguang (Liao ruler), 409, 414, 417 practice of, 254, 256–8 Deleuze, Gilles, 190 Chronicle of Seert, 209, 257, 296 deserters and fugitives, diplomatic Chronikon Paschale (Easter Chronicle), agreements about, 364–5 284, 422 Dessau, Hermann, 157 Chuluo (Türk khagan), 393 Dharmaguptaka-vinaya, 231 Church of the East (East Syriac/Nestorian Di (people), 44, 45, 47 Christianity), 78, 206, 207, 210, 212, 213, Di Cosmo, Nicola, xiii, 10, 14, 35, 197, 424, 214, 215, 216, 226, 422, 423. See also Syriac 428, 429 Christianity and literature difference, cultural prizing of, 101, 103–5 Classic of Documents, 225 al-Dinawari, 298 Classic of Odes, 225 Dio of Prussia, 125

Index * 491

diplomacy. See also Roman/Byzantine employing concept of, 203–5 diplomacy with Iran and steppe peoples “five barbarians” period in China-steppe Central Asia in late Roman mental map relations, 44–7 influenced by, 129–30 Greco-Roman ethnographic ideas, 27, 124 pearls, as diplomatic gifts, 260 hierarchies within steppe polities, ethnic in Roman-steppe relations, 24–6 naming as means of distinguishing, between Rome and Huns, 278 194–5 between Rome and Sasanian Iran, 25 Hunnic/Xiongnu identity as question of, between Rome and Türks, 281–6 187, 196–9 of Rouran, 312 nomadic and steppe peoples, imaginative safety of ambassadors, 361 power of, 189–90 of Türk empires, 24, 281–6, 312–13 nomenclature issues, 192–5 DNA. See genetic history and migrations Northern Dynasties, ethnic interaction Dong Hu, 38 characteristic of, 167 Drompp, Michael R., xiii, 13, 302, 429 Northern Wei as ethnic minority conquest Dürer, Albrecht, 97 regime, 369–70, 384–5 outside recognition of ethnic groups, 192 East Syriac Christianity. See Church of the as principle of organization of social East world, 192 Easter Chronicle (Chronikon Paschale), Roman-steppe relations and, 27–8 284, 422 self-representation of ethnic groups, 192 Edecon (Hunnic warrior under Attila), 194 steppe empires and, 195–6 Eisenberg, Andrew, xiii, 14, 369, 428, 429 Türk empire and, 314 Eisenstadt, Shmuel, 410 Etschmiadsin Gospel, 263 Eliša ‘ bar Quzbāye, 208 Eurasian Economic Union, 419 Eḷishē (Armenian historian), 291, 292 Eurasian Late Antiquity, 1–2, 419. See also elite self-representation among Türks, 13, specific political entities and peoples 333–56 archaeology of (See archaeology) Brahmi script, use of, 342–4 astrology and astrological lore in, 12, “Byzantine” features of, 342–4 235–52 (See also astrology and “Chinese” features of Central Mongolian astrological lore) memorials, 334–42 concept of, 6, 15, 419, 424–7, 430 eastern Iranian borderlands and eastern diplomacy in (See diplomacy) Türkestan, features from, 342–7 empires, diplomacy, and frontiers, 13–14 foreign features in dialogue at tomb of ethnicity in, 12, 189–90 (See also ethnicity) Shoroon-Bumbagar, 350–6 geographical frame, 2–5 Elliott, Mark C., 373, 384 global history and, 425–7 empires and states, formation of, 428–9. historical overview of, 10–11 See also specific empires and states ideas, spread of, 427–9 Epigenes (Roman envoy), 363 ideological entanglement and conflict in, equal field system, 112, 120 14, 386–99 (See also ideological Eratosthenes, 126 entanglement and conflict in eastern Erzhu Rong, 379, 382 Eurasia) Eternal Peace of 532, 280 leaders and followers in, 14, 400–18 (See ethnicity, 12, 189–90, 429. See also genetic also “followership” in northeastern history and migrations; Hunnic/ Eurasia) Xiongnu identity; specific “ethnic” Mongol conquest period compared, 2 groups movements, contacts, and exchanges, 11–13 Avar identity, 193, 195, 196, 199–202, 204 in relation to Chinese, and Central Asian Chinese use of, 164 history, 8–9 climate and terrain theories, 27 in relation to European and Near Eastern cultural distance between Huns/Avars and history, 7–8 Romans/Byzantines, 202–3 religions in (See specific religions) defining, 44, 190–2 significance of, 1–15

492 * Index

Eurasian Late Antiquity (cont.) Gelani, 289 “Silk Road studies,” concept of, 3–4 (See genetic history and migrations, 11, 135–50 also Silk Road) aDNA (ancient DNA), 137, 138, 148 states and empires, formation of, 428–9 European genealogical ancestry over past (See also specific states and empires) 3,000 years, 146 timeframe, 5–6 existing studies of early medieval Eusebius of Caesarea, 129 migrations, 139–47 Eutychius of Alexandria, 298 haploytype and haplogroup frequencies, Expositio totius mundi et gentium, 130 139, 143, 145, 146 Ezekiel (Christian doctor), 257 integration of genetic and historical research, 149–50 face-slashing, as steppe practice on death of microsatellites, 137, 139, 144 leader, 283 modern DNA, 137, 148 Faxian (Buddhist monk), 77, 225, 233 mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA), 138, Ferdowsi Tusi, Abu’l-Qāsim, 298, 299 143–4, 148 “five barbarians” period in China-steppe NGS (next generation sequencing), 138 relations, 44–7 POPRES data set, 146, 147 Fletcher, Joseph, 111, 112, 315 promising but challenging nature of Follett, Mary Parker, 404 genetic information, 136, 147–50 “followership” in northeastern Eurasia, 14, science of DNA and genetic research, 400–18 136–9 co-constitution of political formations SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms), and, 415–18 136, 139 ecology of area and, 404–6 Y-DNA (Y-chromosome DNA), 138, leadership, human need for, 404–10 139–43, 145, 146, 148 marital alliances and, 406 “Geographical Treatise on Shazhou and reading power in relationships rather than Yizhou,” 87 centralized authority, 401–4 George of Pisidia, 284 reciprocity, conditionality, and choice in Gepids, 195, 201 patron-client relationships, 410–15 Gibbon, Edward, 156, 161 subordinate khagans, Türk use of, 308, gift-giving 311, 392 pearls, 260 trade and communication influenced in Roman diplomacy, 25, 64, 366–7 by, 406 in Sasanian diplomacy, 64, 366–7 Fotucheng (Buddhist monk), 108, 111, 114, 121 tribute disguised as, 80 Fowden, Garth, 97 by Türks, 313 Frankopan, Peter, 3, 420 Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, 189 Franks, 277 giraffes sent to Constantinople (496 and 573), Fredegar Chronicle, 194 96–8, 100 Freedman, Paul, 101 glass, as Chinese luxury good, 100 Freeman, E. A., 159 global history, 425–7 fugitives and deserters, diplomatic Gog and Magog, 30–3 agreements about, 364–5 Golden, Peter, xiii, 13, 317, 429 furs, as steppe trade good, 80 “Golden Wheel” epithet of Empress Wu, 395 Galerius (Roman emperor), 56 Gorgān Wall, 66, 296 Gandhāra, art of, 233 Goths, 20, 32, 276, 277 Gaochang provisioning texts, 312 Graham, Mark, 105 Gaozong (Tang emperor), 393 Great Bundahisn, 241 Gaozong Wenchengdi (Northern Wei Great Wall of China, 37, 167, 405 emperor), 375 Greco-Roman concept of the barbarian, Gatier, Pierre-Louis, 96 153–5 Gaza, giraffes in, 96 Greco-Roman reports on pearled objects and Geary, Patrick, xiii, 11, 135, 424, 430 clothing of Sasanians, 259

Index * 493

Greek heritage of Roman-steppe relations, History of Civilizations of Central Asia 26–30 (UNESCO), 9 Grenet, Frantz, xiii, 12, 235, 428 History of the Caucasian Albanians, 283 Grousset, René, 191 Hitler, Adolf, 160 Guattari, Félix, 190 Hormizd II (Sasanian ruler), 259, 263, 288 Gumilev, Lev, 190 Hormizd III (Sasanian ruler), 293 Hormizd IV (Sasanian ruler), 263, 298, 299 Halsall, Guy, 276 horses and horsemen Han dynasty “blood sweat horses,” 80 Buddhism under, 113–14, 221–2 Chinese silk traded for Türk horses, 397 fall of, 44 Northern Wei, heavy cavalry used by, Han-Tang continuity, 169 48, 374 rise of and confrontation with Xiongnu, 41–4 as trade goods, 13, 80 “Silk Road exchange” and, 40 Howard-Johnston, James, 284, 299 Xiongnu and, 41–4, 163, 321 Hu (later Ling; Northern Wei empress Han Wudi (Chinese emperor), 40, 49 dowager), 378, 382, 383 Hanren, 167 Hu Sanxing, 167 Hansen, Valerie, xiii, 11, 99, 108 Huan (Han dynasty emperor), 113 Hariti pendant, 265 Huang Chao, 414 Härke, Heinrich, 140 Hudrā, 214 Haussig, Hans Wilhelm, 196 Huiyuan (Buddhist monk), 223 Hayashi, Toshio, 178, 179 Humayun (Moghul emperor), 241 He Dezhang, 173 Hungarians/Magyars, 145–6, 192 Heather, Peter, 275, 277 Hunnic/Xiongnu cauldrons, 181 “Heavenly Khagan” title taken by Taizong, as archaeological data, 181–5 386–7, 389 cultural transfer, as evidence of, 198 Helgason, Angar, 143, 144 historical interpretation of, 177, 179 Helvetii, 29 northern migration as historical trope Hephthalites and, 163 Bactria, control of, 290, 295 Hunnic/Xiongnu identity, 12, 176–9 ethnic naming of, 193 archaeological evidence for, 177, 179–81, 187 Roman empire and, 28 climate change theory and, 179, 185–6 Roman/Byzantine steppe relations and, 28 as cultural identity, 198 Rouran and westward movement of, 80 as ethnic question, 187, 196–9 Sasanians and, 56, 65, 203, 253, 271, 279, 290, historiography of, 176–9, 191 292–3, 295–9 linguistic evidence, 177, 178 tribute exacted by, 65 northern migration as historiographical Türks and, 271 topos and, 161, 163 heqin (harmonious kinship) policy, 41–2, 202 as political identity, 197 Heraclius (Roman emperor), 33, 56, 261, Tang Eurasian synthesis and, 111 272–3, 283, 284, 285, 331, 421 Huns, 423. See also Hephthalites; Kidarites; Herodotus, 131, 154, 194, 278 Roman/Byzantine diplomacy with Iran Herzfeld, Ernst, 242 and steppe peoples Hewsen, R. H., 132 Alkhan Huns, 290 Hickman, J., 3 balance between ethnic identities ad their Himyarites, 72 political and social signiﬁcance, 204 Hindus and Hinduism, 248 cultural distance between Roman/ historiography. See also Northern Dynasties, Byzantine empire and, 202–3 historiography of; northern migration Cutrigur Huns, 195 as historical trope entering steppes, 20, 22, 276 of Hunnic/Xiongnu identity, 176–9, 191 ethnic naming of, 192, 193–4 nomadic and steppe peoples, imaginative in Europe, 22, 196 power of, 189–90 Germans in WWI and WWII of Silk Road, 97–9, 190 characterized as, 159

494 * Index

Huns (cont.) al-Iṣfahānī, Book of Songs, 263 Roman experience with, 275–9 Ishbara (Türk khagan), 390 on Sasanian Iran’s northeastern frontier Isho’dnah of Basra, 423 (See Sasanian Iran’s northeastern Ishtemi (Türk khagan), 297, 309, 327 frontier) Isidore of Charax, Parthian Stations, 124 tribute exacted from Rome and Sasanian Isidore of Seville, 32 Iran by, 64 Islam, 423 Hunter, Erica, 215 Alexander’s Gate, legend of, 33 Husraw I (Sasanian ruler), 58, 59, 62, 63, 67–8 in Late Antique context, 424 Husraw II (Sasanian ruler), 56, 58 Muhammad’s letters to “other kingdoms,” 106 Ibn al-Athir, Ali ‘Izz al-Din, 297 pearls in, 254 Ibn al-Balkhi, Farsname, 298 Silk Road, spreading along, 420 Ibn Isfandiyar, 296 Talas, battle of (751), 24, 120, 423 Ibn Kaldun, 151 Yemen-Axum conflict as crucible of, 105 ideological entanglement and conflict in Išo‘yabh III (East Syriac katholikos), 215 eastern Eurasia, 14, 386–99 Itinerarium Alexandri, 129 borderland warlords (580sto620s), 392–3 Iulius Valerius, 129 Buddhism, regnal titles resonating with, Iwami Kiyohiro, 118 391, 394, 395, 396 comparison of regnal titles revealing, 388 Jamasp I (Sasanian ruler), 296 Confucianism, regnal titles resonating Japanese adaptation of Tang governance, 121 with, 388, 391, 394 Jaspers, Karl, 151 decline in competition after 712 (Tang Jettmar, Karl, 190 dynasty), 396–9 Jews and Judaism. See also Khazars First Türk and Sui empires, 389–91 Gog and Magog in, 31 heavenly deity bestowing power, shared Himyarites, 72 Türk/Chinese belief in, 388–9 as merchant intermediaries, 81 “Heavenly Khagan” title taken by Taizong pearls, 254 (Tang emperor), 386–7, 389 Jiang Boqin, 89 major reasons for, 399 Jiaye Moteng, 221 Second Türk empire, early Tang empire, Jie, 44, 45 and Empress Wu, 393–6 Jin dynasty, 78, 167 simultaneous kingship, borrowing titles Jin Tangshu, 248 for purposes of, 387, 388, 393, 397–9 John of Ephesus, 367 Türkic religious ideas, regnal titles John of Epiphania, 284 resonating with, 386, 388, 391, 394, Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald, xiii, 12, 206, 421, 395, 398 422 Uyghurs, 397–8 Johnson, Terry, 410 Idėr stele, Central Mongolia, 337–9 Jordanes, Getica, 30, 151 Il Itmish Bilgä Qaghan (Uyghur), 397 Josephus, 31 Inner Asia Joshua the Stylite, 294, 295 ideological entanglement and conflict Juansher (Armenian noble), 261 between China and, 387 (See also Judaism. See Jews and Judaism ideological entanglement and conflict in Julian (Roman emperor), 259 eastern Eurasia) Julius Caesar, 29, 124 Northern Dynasties, Inner-Asianness of, Justin I (Roman emperor), 64 166–8, 171–5 Justin II (Roman emperor), 271, 272, 279, 365 overlap between Chinese and Inner Asian Justinian I the Great (Roman emperor), 23, history, 174 105, 272, 279, 280 Sixteen Kingdoms, Inner-Asianness of, 166 Justinian, Plague of, 83 Iran. See also specific entries at Sasanian Iran Achaemenids, 57, 59, 60 Ka‘ba-ye Zardosht trilingual inscription, 287 Arsacids, 56, 57, 66 Kang Mengxiang, 222

Index * 495

Kang Senghui, 222 Libanius, Epistulae, 61 Karakhanids, 423 Liber generationis, 129 Kawād I (Sasanian ruler), 63, 65, 260, 262, 295, Lieberman, Victor, 2 296, 297 Life of Baršabba, 213, 215 Kayanids, 57, 66, 67 Life of John of Dailam, 208 Kebineng (Xianbei ruler), 47 Life of Serapion, 209 Khazanov, Anatoly, 323 Lim, Richard, xiii, 10, 70, 420, 424 Khazars, 24, 82, 102, 273, 275, 279, 317, 324, linguistics. See also Syriac Christianity and 330, 422 literature Khirghiz, 398 Buddhism and Buddhist texts, translation Khosrow, Son of Kawãd and a Page, 241 of, 225, 226–9 Khotan, as key trade center, 78 glossary of Chinese terms, 431 Khüis-tolgoi inscriptions, Central Mongolia, Hunnic/Xiongnu identity and, 177, 178 343 Middle Persian Christian literature, 207–9 Khusro I Anushirvan (Sasanian ruler), 74, 81, Sogdian Christian literature, 207, 210–14, 215 106, 242–7, 257, 258, 260, 262, 280, 297–9 of steppe peoples, 165 Khusro II Parviz (Sasanian ruler), 241, 258, Uyghur language, Syriac literature in, 207 261, 273, 299–300, 359, 366 Liu, Xinru, 99 Kidarites, 65, 288, 290, 292–5 Liu Yuan (Northern Han/Former Zhao al-Kindi, 243 emperor), 45 Kizil frescoes, 266 Livshits. V. A., 342 Klaproth, Julius Heinrich, 176 Lukonin, Vladimir, 242 klimata, 27 Luo Xin, xiii, 11, 166, 424 Korean adaptation of Tang governance, luxury goods, 10, 96–8. See also pearls and 120–1 royal authority in Iran and Eurasia; silk Kossinna, Gustav, 158 and silk trade Kucha, as key trade center, 79 as charismatic goods, 100 Kül Tegin, 356 collected versus consumed, 101 Kulikowski, Michael, xiii, 11, 151, 424, 430 diﬀerence, as matter of prizing, 101, 103–5 Kumārajīva (Buddhist sage), 77, 223 giraﬀes sent to Constantinople (496 and Kunchas (Kidarite leader), 294 573), 96–8, 100 Kushans, 56, 113, 123, 203, 287–8, 289–90, glass, 100 291–2, 299 imaginative weight of, 96–7, 100–2 intervisibility, warfare and diplomacy la Vaissière, Étienne de, 99, 111, 176, 178, 179, creating, 105–7 196–7, 199, 200, 284 Maltese terriers (”dogs of Rome”), 101 Lakhmids, 258 non-places in which rulers and aristocrats Late Antique Eurasia. See Eurasian Late might make cultural contact, creating, Antiquity 102–4 Lazar P‘arpec‘i, 264, 291, 293 Silk Road, historiography of, 97–9 (See also Lazius, Wolfgang, De aliquot gentium Silk Road) migrationibus, 155 spices, 101 Le Coq, Alfred von, 6, 98 leaders and followers. See “followership” in Maas, Michael, xiii, 10, 14, 19, 422 northeastern Eurasia Macartney, Carlile, 299 Leo I (pope), 294 Madjar population in Kazakhstan, 145 Leo IV the Khazar (Roman emperor), 24 Maenchen-Helfer, Otto, 176, 196 Letter of Tansar, 241 Maes Titianos, 125–6, 127, 132 Li Siyuan, 414 Magyars/Hungarians, 145–6, 192 Li Yanshou, The History of the Northern Mair, V. H., 3 Dynasties and The History of the Maltese terriers (”dogs of Rome”), 101 Southern Dynasties, 166 Ma‘nā of Shiraz, 208 Liang Shidu, 392–3 Maniakh (Sogdian trader), 81, 272 Liang Wu (Chinese emperor), 230 Manichaeism, 423

496 * Index

Manichaeism (cont.) in China-steppe relations, 42–3 in China, 226 Northern Wei, heavy cavalry used by, communication and trade routes, 48, 374 movement along, 78, 104 in Roman-steppe relations, 26 difference, as manifestation of search for, Sasanian fortifications, 66 104–5 Türks and Türk empires, 304 planets as demons in, 236 Millar, Fergus, 422 Silk Road, spreading along, 420 Ming (Han Mingdi; emperor), 221 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Roman Mirkhond, 298 emperor), 72, 125 Mithra, 236 Margiana, as trade center, 79 Mizan Project, 424 Marinus of Tyre, 126, 131 Modun (Xiongnu leader), 38, 41, 197, 307, 325 marital alliances Mommsen, Theodore, 157 of Chinese and steppe peoples, 78, 117, 203, Monumenta Germaniae Historica, 156 394, 395, 398 Moore, Laoise T., 141 “followership” in northeastern Eurasia Mughan (Türk khagan), 283, 297, 307 and, 406 Muhammad the Prophet, 106 heqin (harmonious kinship) policy Mujmal al-Tawarikh wa-’l-Qisas, 298 between Han and Xiongnu, 41–2, 202 al-Mukhabbal as-Sa‘adī, 258 Huns and Avars, no imperial policy of Muqanna‘, 251–2 marriage alliances with, 203 Murong Xianbei, 48 Khotan ruler and Chinese “princess,” 78 of Sasanians and steppe peoples, 203, 295, Al-Nābigha, 258 296, 298, 299 Nanai-Vandak (Sogdian merchant), 109, of Sogdians and other tribal peoples, 93 110, 121 of Türks, 50–1, 117, 203, 313, 394, 395 Nanchaohua theory, 169 of Uyghurs, 398 Narseh (Sasanian ruler), 56 Markwart, Josef, 288 Navaan, D., 343 Marquart, Wilhelm, 189, 290 Nawa-pōstē (Book of the Nine), 250 Marshak, Boris, 242 Naymark, A., 349 Martyrdom of St. George, 215 Nechaeva, Ekaterina, xiii, 14, 357, 420 al-Mas‘udi, 290, 298 Negus of Abyssinia, 106 Maurice (Roman emperor), 200, 281, Nestorian Christianity. See Church of the 283, 367 East Maximinus (Roman envoy), 360–2, 363, 364 Nestorian Monument, Chang’an, 217–18 Mazzarino, Santo, 127 Nicene Creed, in Sogdian, 213 McEvoy, Brian, 141 Nihayat al-Irab, 298 Mediterranean culture, Christianity as means Nikephoros (patriarch), 193, 284 of transmitting, 12, 206, 207, 217–18 Niri (Türk khagan), 345 Menander Protector (Menander the Nomus (Roman envoy), 361 Guardian), 199, 200, 281–3, 285, 359, Noonan, Thomas, 275, 279 365, 366 Northern Dynasties, historiography of, 11, Mengzi, 225 166–75 Metrodorus (philosopher), 260 Beichao zhuliu theory, 169–70 migrations, 429. See also genetic history and definition of Northern Dynasties, 166 migrations; northern migration as ethnic interaction characteristic of, 167 historical trope Han-Tang continuity and Nanchaohua archaeological record and, 180–1 theory, 169 inadequacy of surviving evidence Inner-Asianness, stressing, 166–8, 171–5 about, 135 new Qing history and, 175 Roman understanding of, 29–30 overlap between Chinese and Inner Asian steppe empires affecting, 80 history, 174 Miho Museum sarcophagus, 94 Sinocentrism in, 167, 168–9, 170 military strategies women, roles of, 171–2, 173

Index * 497

zigui musi, 173 al-Nu‘man ibn al -Mundhir, 258 northern migration as historical trope, 11, numismatics 151–65 Chach coins, 347–50 archaeology as discipline, emergence of, Shoroon-Bumbagar, tomb at, 350–6 158 eastern Eurasian history and, 152, 161–5 Ogurs, 199–202, 326, 328 Greco-Roman idea of the barbarian and, Oğuz, 321 153–5 Ohrmazd. See specific entries at Hormizd seemingly global reach of, 152 On the Explanation of Chess and southern decadence, discourse about, 155 Backgammon, 260 Völkerwanderung as foundation narrative, Orestes (Roman secretary to Attila), 194 152, 155–62, 165 Orkhon inscriptions, Mongolia, 195, 333, during WWI and WWII, 158–61 396, 411 Northern Qi dynasty, 389 Orosius, 129 Northern Wei, 14, 369–85, 424 Otani Document, 350 Buddhist ideology of, 48, 112, 233 central court of, 372–4, 383 Panaino, Antonio, 236 collapse of, 115, 371 Pappus of Alexandria, 132 communication and trade routes, 78, 82 Parker, Geoffrey, 286 early regime (398-490), 374–5 Parthians, 123–5, 280 equal field system introduced by, 112 patrimonial empires, 371–4, 407 Erzhu Rong and his puppet emperors, patron-client relationships. See 379, 382 “followership” in northeastern Eurasia establishment of, 385 Paul (apostle), 97 as ethnic minority conquest regime, Paul the Deacon, History of the Lombards, 194 369–70, 384–5 Paul the Persian, 209 factional politics of, 374 pearls and royal authority in Iran and “five barbarians” and, 44, 46 Eurasia, 12, 253–67 fragmentation of court (525-557), 380–3 art, pearls in, 265–6 heavy cavalry used by, 48, 374 bejeweled clothing and objects, 259–62 inscription of foreign ruling elites into female jewelry, pearls as, 264–6 Chinese dynastic history, 164 harvesting pearls, 255–6 as patrimonial empire, 371–4, 383 iconography of pearls, 262–6 placebo empresses, 375 Peroz, giant pearl of, 253–4 power elites, 369–70 trade and commerce in pearls, 256–9 Rouran and, 49 Pelliot, Paul, 92 under Shizong (500-515), 377–8 Pendjikent, Temple 2, 354 Sixteen Kingdoms and, 166 “Periplus of the Red Sea,” 71 Sogdians and, 86 Pērōz (Sasanian ruler), 65–6, 253, 262, 279, under Suzong (515-528), 378–80, 381–3 291, 293–6 Tabgach origins, 112, 387 Persia. See Iran; specific entries at Sasanian Tuoba Xianbei as elite lineage in, 369, 370, Iran 375, 377, 378, 381, 382 Peutinger Map, 127–9 Türks and, 50 Photios (patriarch), 281, 288 unification of northern China under, 47–9 Pinault, Georges-Jean, 243 Xianbei as elite group in, 369–70, 371, 375, Pingree, David, 236, 243 376, 377, 381 plague, 83 under Xiaowendi’s direct rule (490-499), Plintha (Roman envoy), 363 375–7 Pliny the Elder, 29, 131 Yuan Cha and (520-525), 378–82 Pohl, Walter, xiv, 12, 189, 424, 429 zigui musi (mandatory suicide of mother Pomponius Mela, 131 of heir), 173, 374, 377 Potts, Daniel T., xiv, 13, 287, 428 Northern Zhou dynasty, 389 Priscus of Panium Novembre, John, 146 ethnicity in, 194

498 * Index

Priscus of Panium (cont.) communication and trade routes, 73–4 Hunnic/Xiognu identity and, 187, 189 cultural distance between Huns/Avars on nomadic states and statelessness, 326 and, 202–3 on Roman/Byzantine diplomacy, 359, 361, elite self-representation among Türks, 362, 363, 364, 366, 367 “Byzantine” features of, 342–4 Roman/Byzantine Eurasian policy and, on pearled objects and clothing of 278, 283 Sasanians, 259 on Roman/Byzantine steppe relations, 28, 29 Sasanian Iran and, 19, 55, 56, 58, 63–4, 67 on Sasanian Iran’s northeastern frontier, Roman/Byzantine “Eurasian policy” and 291, 293 Türk empires, 13, 271–86 Procopius of Caesarea, 28, 65, 193, 253, 254, diplomatic relations, 281–6 260, 262, 279, 296 historical overview, 271–86 pseudo-Avars, 199–202 Huns, lessons of previous Roman Pseudo-Callisthenes, 33, 129 experience with, 275–9 Pseudo-Maurice, Strategikon, 26, 359 Sasanian Iran, alliance against, 272–3 Pseudo-Methodius, 33 Sasanian Iran, Roman relationship with, Ptolemy, 125, 126, 131, 132, 243 279–81 significance of, 273–5 Qap[a]ghan (Türk khagan), 313, 314, 393, 395 Roman/Byzantine-steppe relations, 10, 19–34 Qarakhanids, 327 Adrianople, interpretations of battle of, Qarluqs, 327 20–1 Qian Mu, 374 Alexander’s Gate, legend of, 33–4 Qiang, 44, 45 “Byzantinification” of steppes, 19 Qimin Qaghan, 390 China-steppe relations compared, 274 Qin state, 37, 38, 41, 47 Christian perspectives on, 30–3 Qing dynasty, 175 development of, 21–4 Qu Wentai (ruler of Turfan), 79 diplomacy, 24–6 Qubrat (Bulgar leader), 331 ethnicity and ethnography, 27–8 Greek heritage of, 26–30 Radloff, Wilhelm, 189, 317 migration, Roman understanding of, 29–30 rainmaking, 250 military strategy, 26 Ralph, Peter, 146, 149 Sasanians and, 19 regnal titles. See ideological entanglement Romance of Alexander, 132 and conflict in eastern Eurasia Rong Xinjiang, xiv, 10, 84, 427 religions. See specific religions Roniger, Luis, 410 Remigius (bishop), 192 Rouran Richthofen, Ferdinand von, 70, 98 Avars identified with, 271, 272 Roman/Byzantine diplomacy with Iran and China-steppe relations and, 44, 46, 49–51 steppe peoples, 14, 357–68 diplomacy of, 312 in bipolar world of two great powers, ethnicity issues and, 195, 199, 200 358–60 Hephthalites, westward movement of, 80 “block” system, 358–9, 360 Northern dynasties, historiography of, 173 concluding negotiations and signing Northern Wei and, 49 treaties, 362–4 Roman/Byzantine Eurasian policy and, 271 deserters and defectors, agreements about, as state, 305, 326 364–5 trade and communication routes and, 80 gift-giving, 366–7 Türks and, 271, 327 rank of ambassadors, 360–2 Xiongnu compared, 49 Roman/Byzantine empire, 421, 422. See also Rousseau, Philip, 425 Central Asia in late Roman mental map Royal Fortune of Sasanian rulers, 57, 58, 60, barbarian, Greco-Roman concept of, 153–5 61, 66 bounded territorial unit, conception as, 106 Sabirs, 326, 329–30 Christianity in, 19 Šābuhr I (also Shapur; Sasanian ruler), 59, 63, 67

Index * 499

Šābuhr I inscriptions, 59 Türks, 56 sacred kingship, Sasanian reinvention of, urbanism, 67–8 57–60 Sasanian Iran’s northeastern frontier, 13, Sahrestaniha i Eransahr, 292 287–301 Samarkand Chionites, 288, 289, 290 Afrasiyab murals, 263 cooptation of Huns and others, 288–9 as site of Syriac translations into Sogdian, 215 defeat of Shapur II, 289–90 as trade center, 81 early references to Kushans and Huns, Sanguozhi, 171 287–8 Särbi, 387, 389, 396 Hephthalites, 290, 292–3, 295–9 Sarmatians, 21, 32, 191, 276 invasions of Sasanian territory and Sartkojauly, K., 339 tributary relations, 290–2 Sasanian Iran, 10. See also pearls and royal Khorasan, loss of, 296–7 authority in Iran and Eurasia; Roman/ Kidarites, 288, 290, 292–5 Byzantine diplomacy with Iran and Kushans, 287–8, 289–90, 291–2, 299 steppe peoples marital alliances, 295, 296, 298, 299 astrology in, 235–42 reconquests in alliance with Türks, Buddhism’s failure to spread to, 224, 235 297–300 Christian literature in Middle Persian, tribute payments, 290–2, 295, 296–7 207–9, 212 Satala, battle of (298), 56 Christian Persians in China, 218 Sayings of the Desert Fathers Christianity in, 254, 256–8 (Apophthegmata Patrum), 214 communication and trade routes, 74–6 Schindel, Nikolaus, 290 diplomatic relations with Rome, 25 Schmidt, Ludwig, 157, 159 elite self-representation among Türks, Scott, James, 403 features from eastern Iranian Scythians, 21, 31, 32, 130, 191, 192, 194, 199, borderlands and eastern Türkestan in, 278, 328 342–7 Sebeos (Armenian historian), 291 Hephthalites and, 56, 65, 203, 253, 271, 279, Seeck, Otto, 157 290, 292–3, 295–9 self-representation, of elite Türks. See elite marital relations with Kushan and self-representation among Türks Hephthalites, 203 self-representation, of ethnic groups, 192 rise and fall of, 55–7 Senator (Roman envoy), 361, 362 Roman/Byzantine relationship with, 279–81 Septimius Severus (Roman emperor), 125 Roman/Byzantine-Türkish alliance Sergius (patriarch), 283, 284 against, 272–3 Shapur I (also Šābuhr; Sasanian ruler), 256, Silk Road and, 89 263, 287, 300 Türks and, 56, 271, 297–300 Shapur II (Sasanian ruler), 288, 289, 301 Sasanian Iran and Late Antique Eurasia, 10 Shapur III (Sasanian ruler), 290 Ādur Gušnasp (Takht-e Solaymān, Iran), Shegui (Türk khagan), 272, 300 construction of, 66 Shelun (Rouran/Asian Avar leader), 325 China and, 57 shengren, as epithet, 391, 394 cosmological expressions of world empire, she-wolf myth of Türk origins, 305–8 58–9, 60–8 Shi Le, 108, 111, 112, 114, 121 Hephthalite Huns, 56 Shi Riandan, 78 interconnectedness of, 55–7 Shibi (Türk khagan), 393 military fortiﬁcations, 66 Shih Le (Zhao ruler), 45 monumental and ritual landscapes, 60 Shijun Tomb, 87 Rome, relationship with, 19, 55, 56, 58, Shizong (Northern Wei emperor), 377–8, 385 63–4, 67 Shoroon-Bumbagar, tomb at, 350–6 Royal Fortune of Sasanian rulers, 57, 58, 60, silent barter, 131 61, 66 silk and silk trade sacred kingship, Sasanian reinvention of, Chinese silk traded for Türk horses, 397 57–60 Khotan, sericulture at, 78

500 * Index

silk and silk trade (cont.) Songshu, 173 political significance of, 100 Sorb population, Germany, 146 Roman circumvention of Persian silk Spengler, Oswald, 151 monopoly, 281 spices, as luxury goods, 101 Silk Road Standen, Naomi, xiv, 14, 117, 275, 400, 429, 430 Buddhism spreading along, 224 Stark, Sören, 13, 333 China-steppe relations and “Silk Road states and empires, formation of, 428–9. See exchange,” 39–41 also specific states and empires concept of “Silk Road studies,” 3–4, 419–21 states and statelessness in steppe cultures, 13, historiography of, 97–9, 190, 419 317–32, 428 origins of concept of, 70 circumstances leading to statehood, 324–5 Sasanian Iran and, 89 clan/tribal leadership, patterns of Sogdians and, 89, 94 formation, change, and breakup of clan, steppe routes, overlapping with, 73, 82 317–19 Türks’ political control over, 52, 330 fractioning, tendency toward, 321 Sima Qian, Shiji (Memoirs of the Great heterogeneous and polyglot nature of Historian), 38, 40, 424 tribal unions, 319–20, 321 Sims-Williams, Nicholas, 89 imperial status, transfer of or succession simultaneous kingship, 387, 388, 393, 397–9 to, 327–8 Sinjibu (Türk khagan), 298 nature of nomadic statehood, 322–7 Sinor, Denis, 196, 320 origins of stateless nomads, 325–7, 331 Sixteen Kingdoms political cohesion, bases for, 320 ideological entanglement and conflict in, 387 in western steppe and Europe, 328–32 Inner-Asianness of, 166 Stein, Sir Aurel, 88, 98, 109, 189 Northern Wei and, 166 Stein, Ernest, 157 Sizabul (Türk khagan), 81, 102, 272 St. Stephen of Hungary, crown of, 192 Skaff, Jonathan Karam, xiv, 14, 99, 102, 116, steppe peoples. See also China-steppe rela- 275, 285, 312, 333, 386, 403, 407, 408, tions; “followership” in northeastern 411, 430 Eurasia; Roman/Byzantine diplomacy Slavs, 195 with Iran and steppe peoples; Roman/ Smbat Bagratuni, 262, 300 Byzantine-steppe relations; states and Snake Mountain, battle of (451), 277 statelessness in steppe cultures; specific Sneath, David, 311, 404 groups Sogdian Ancient Letters, 3, 81, 86, 88, 126 Alexander’s Gate, legend of, 33–4 Sogdian lectionary, 211 Christian perspectives on, 30–3 Sogdians, 10, 84–5, 427 communication and trade routes, 79–81 archaeological evidence, 89–91 Gog and Magog, identified with, 30–3 astrology and astrological lore, 247–50 linguistics of, 165 Chinese culture influencing, 86, 93, 95 Strategikon of Pseudo-Maurice, 26, 359 Christianity and, 207, 210–14, 215 Strzygowski, Josef, 6 combined political and commercial role subordinate khagans, Türk use of, 308, 311, 392 of, 99 Sui dynasty, 52, 109, 115–17, 166, 389–91 commercial activities of, 88–9 Sui History, 326, 391 daily life and religious culture, 92–5 Sui Wendi (founder of Sui dynasty), 115, as middlemen and intermediaries, 81–2 116–17, 390, 394 origins, ethnicity, geography, and Sui Yangdi, 117 distribution, 84–5 Sukhra (Persian commander), 296 other tribal peoples residing with, 92–3 Suzong (Northern Wei emperor), 378–80, sartapao or chieftains, settlements, and 381–3, 385 trade caravans, 85–8, 92 Suzong (Tang emperor), 397 on Silk Road, 89, 94 Symmachus, 156 Tang Eurasian synthesis and, 109, 110–11 Syriac Christianity and literature, 12, 206, Türks and, 52, 271, 312, 342 214–16, 422, 423. See also Church of the Zoroastrianism of, 85, 86, 93, 94 East

Index * 501

in China, 217–18 Tatpar (Türk khagan), 334 Christian Persians in China, 218 Taugast, as trade center, 83 Mediterranean culture, transmission of, 12, al-Tha‘alabi, Ahmad ibn Muhammad, 297 206, 207, 217–18 Theodosius II (Roman emperor), 360, 361 in Middle Persian, 207–9, 212 Theophanes of Byzantium, 281, 288 Middle Persian translations, 207–9 Theophanes the Confessor, 285 non-étatist language, Syriac viewed as, 218 Theophylact Simocatta, 83, 193, 195, 199–201, in Sogdian, 207, 210–14, 215 283, 366 Turfan archive, Syriac material from, Thomas of Marga, 423 214–16 Tian (Confucian god of heaven), 388, 398 Uyghur, translation into, 207 Tian Chengsi, 413 Syriac Chronicle, 300 Tian Yuqing, 169, 173 Syriac Peshitta, 208 Tiberius II (Roman emperor; successor to Justin II), 272 al-Tabarī, Muhammad ibn Jarir, 258, 290, 291, Tibet 293, 297, 299 adaptation of Tang governance, 121 Tabgach, 112, 387, 396 “followership” in northeastern Eurasia Table of Nations, 31 and, 401, 408, 413, 415, 416 Tacitus, Germania, 29, 155 Tisza River, battle at (599), 195 Taizong (Tang emperor), 118–19, 386–7, 389, Togan, Zeki Validi, 189 393, 416 Tomka, Peter, 177 Talas, battle of (751), 24, 120, 423 Tong (Türk khagan), 102, 272, 273, 330 Tang Code, 119, 121 Tongdian, 179 Tang dynasty. See also ideological Toŋ Yabğu. See Tong entanglement and conflict in eastern Tourxantos (Turxanthus; Türk khagan), 80, Eurasia 272, 282, 365 Christianity and, 207, 217–18 Toynbee, Arnold, 151 “followership” in northeastern Eurasia trade and communication, 10, 70–83, 421. See and, 401, 408, 413, 414, 415, 416 also luxury goods; silk and silk trade; founding of, 117–18 Silk Road; Sogdian merchants and Han-Tang continuity, 169 Sogdian culture Northern Wei and, 112 bubonic plague moving along, 83 Talas, battle of (751), 24, 120, 423 Buddhism spreading along routes of, Türk empires and, 312, 330, 408, 416 224–5 Tang Eurasian synthesis, 11, 108 Central Asia and, 78–9 Buddhism, role of, 108, 112–15, 116, 119 Central Asia in late Roman mental map elements of, 115 influenced by, 129–30 equal field system, 112, 120 China and, 76–8, 82 foreign influences coalescing in, 108 ecology of northeastern Eurasia formation of, 115–22 and, 406 Korean, Japanese, Tibetan, and middlemen and intermediaries, 81–2 Vietnamese adaptation of governance northerly overland routes, 71 system, 120–1 pearl trade, 256–9 Sogdians and, 109, 110–11 Rome and, 73–4 Sui dynasty and, 115–17 Sasanian Iran and, 70, 73 tanistry, 111–12, 117 sea routes across Indian Ocean, 71–3 Türks and, 52, 115, 117–19 silent barter, 131 Xiongnu and, 110, 111–12 southerly overland routes, 71 Tang Gaozu, 118 steppe peoples, 79–81 Tängri and “Tängrism,” 310–11, 319, 388, 398 steppe routes, 70, 73, 79, 82 tanistry, 111–12, 117 Türk empires and, 313 Tanshihuai (Xianbei ruler), 47 Traina, Giusto, xiv, 11, 123, 421 Tardu (Türk khagan), 272, 330 Trajan (Roman emperor), 125, 129 Tartar peoples, 161 Tremblay, Xavier, 104, 290

502 * Index

tribute Rouran and, 271, 327 China collecting, 38 Sasanians and, 56, 271, 297–300 from China to Türks, 52, 80, 389 she-wolf myth of Türk origins, 305–8 from China to Xiongnu, 39, 41, 42, 77 Silk Road, political control over, 52, 330 heqin (harmonious kinship) policy Sogdians and, 52, 271, 312, 342 between Han and Xiongnu, 41–2, 202 subordinate khagans, use of, 308, 311, 392 from Rome to Sasanians, 63 subordination and cooptation of other between Rome/Byzantium and Huns/ communities, 311–12, 315 Avars, 22, 202 Tang dynasty and, 312, 330, 408, 416 between Sasanians and nomadic peoples, Tang Eurasian synthesis and, 52, 115, 117–19 64, 279, 290–2, 295, 296–7 taxation by, 313 Tuoba Gui (Northern Wei ruler), 47 threats to imperial survival, 314–16 Tuoba Xianbei trade and communication, 80, 313 China-steppe relations and, 46, 48 trans-Eurasian migrations and, 80 Northern dynasties, historiography of, 166, Tujue confederation, 13 173–4 Turxanthus (Tourxantos; Türk khagan), 80, as Northern Wei elite lineage, 369, 370, 375, 272, 282, 365 377, 378, 381, 382 Twitchett, Denis, 120 Turfan archive, 206, 207, 209, 210, 212, Tzath (king of Lazika), 64 214–16, 243 Turfan archives, 217 Uyghurs Turkic religious ideas astrology and astrological lore, 250 regnal titles resonating with, 386, 388, 391, as empire, 327 394, 395, 398 “followership” in northeastern Eurasia Tengri and “Tengrism,” 310–11, 319, 388, 398 and, 413, 414, 415, 417 Türks and Türk empires, 13, 302–16. See also Islam adopted by, 423 elite self-representation among Türks; Manichaeism of, 104–5 ideological entanglement and conﬂict in regnal titles used by, 397–8 eastern Eurasia; Roman/Byzantine Syriac Christian literature in Uyghur, 207 “Eurasian policy” and Türk empires Ashina (Türk ruling dynasty), corporate/ Valens (Roman emperor), 20 collective sovereignty of, 307–10, 312, 315 Valentinus (Roman envoy), 80, 282, 283 astrology and astrological lore, 250, 251 Vandals, 277, 280 Avars and, 23, 200, 204 Varāhamihira, Bṛhat-Jātaka, 246 China and, 50–1 Varchonites, 200–1 cosmological expressions of world Varkhuman (Sogdian king of Samarkand), empire, 58 68, 247 diplomacy of, 24, 281–6, 312–13 Veeramah, Krishna, 146 establishment of, 195 Vico, Giambattista, 151, 155 ethnic identity, role of, 313–14 Vietnamese adaptation of Tang family feuds and changes of rule in, 318–19 governance, 121 “followership” in northeastern Eurasia Vigilas (Scythian interpreter), 194 and, 401, 408, 411, 413, 414, 416 Viroy (Katholikos), 102 Hungarians ethnically named as Türks, 192 Visigoths, 20 infrastructures of, 302–4 Völkerwanderung as foundation narrative, marital alliances, 50–1, 117, 203, 313 152, 155–62, 165 military strategies, 304 von Le Coq, Alfred, 6, 98 as nomad states, 317, 330 von Richthofen, Ferdinand, 70, 98 political legitimacy and imperial ideology, 305 Walaksh (Walaxš; Sasanian ruler), 65, 296 religious support for (“Tengrism”), Waldenschmidt, Ernst, 6 310–11, 319 Walker, Joel, xiv, 12, 14, 253, 421 Roman/Byzantine diplomacy and, 359, 365, Wang Dao, 168 366, 367 Wang Qing (Northern Zhou envoy), 283

Index * 503

Weale, Michael, 139, 141 Tang Eurasian synthesis and, 110, 111–12 Weber, Max, 371, 403, 407, 410, 411 Türks compared, 51–3 Weh-Andīōg-Husraw, 67–8 Xianbei attacking, 47 Wenming (Northern Wei empress Xosrow. See specific entries at Khusro dowager), 375 Xuanwu Gate Incident, 118 Whittow, Mark, xiv, 13, 271, 421, 428 Xuanzang (Buddhist pilgrim), 77, 79, 102, Wickham, Chris, 99 233 Wiesehöfer, Josef, 260 Xuanzong (Tang emperor), 396, 397, 413, Winner, Bruce, 140 415 women. See also marital relations Xwāday-nāmag (The book of lords), 57 mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA), 138, 143–4, 148 Yan Buke, 170 in Northern Dynasties culture, 171–2, 173 Yan state, 37 Northern Wei Chinese-style empresses Yan Zhitui, 171, 172 under Shizong, 377 Yazdgird I (Sasanian ruler), 257 in Northern Wei culture, 374 Yazdgird II (Sasanian ruler), 63, 65, 66, 264, Northern Wei placebo empresses, 375 291–3 Northern Wei zigui musi (mandatory Yazdgird III (Sasanian ruler), 56 suicide of mother of heir), 173, 374, 377 Yemen, Himyarite Jewish kings of, 105 pearls in female dress, 264 Yijing (Buddhist traveler), 233 Wright, David Curtis, 176 Youliu (chanyu), 47 Wu Zhao or Wu Zetian (Empress Wu), 222, Yu state, 90 230, 393–6 Yuan Cha, 378–82 Wuhuan, 44 Yuan Faseng, 379 Wuzong (Tang emperor), 398 Yuan Ji, 381 Yuan Tianmu, 379 Xianbei. See also Tuoba Xianbei Yuan Xianhe, 379 China-steppe relations and, 44, 46, 47–9 Yuezhi (Rouzhi), 40 as nomadic state, 325 Yuhong and Yuhong Tomb, 87, 90, 92, Northern dynasties, historiography of, 93, 94 166, 172 northern migration as historical topos Zasetskaia, Irina, 177 and, 163, 164 Zemarchus (Roman envoy), 81, 102, 272, 282 as Northern Wei elite, 369–70, 371, 375, 376, Zeno (Roman emperor), 295, 328 377, 381 Zhai Suomohe, 92 Xianzu (Northern Wei emperor), 375 Zhan Ji, 220 Xiao Hongnahai statue, Xinjiang, 344 Zhang Heng, Xijing fu (Rhapsodies from the Xiaowendi (Northern Wei emperor), 370, 371, Western Capital), 220 374, 375–7, 379, 380, 381, 385 Zhang Qian, 40 Xiaozhuangdi (Northern Wei puppet Zhang Zhongyu, 380 emperor), 383 Zhao Dejun, 409 Xiongnu. See also Hunnic/Xiongnu Zhao state, 37, 45 cauldrons; Hunnic/Xiongnu identity Zhi Chan (Lokakṣema), 222 communication and trade routes, 77 Zhou dynasty, 393 empire, formation and structure of, 38–9, Zhu Fahu (Dharmarakṣa), 222 197, 305, 323, 325 Zhu Wen (founder of Later Liang), 407, 417 fall of empire, 44 Zhu Xi, 172 in “five barbarians” period, 44–7 Zhuangzi, 225 Han dynasty and, 41–4, 163, 321 Ziebel (Türk commander), 273 incorporation by China as buffer states, Zizhi Tongjian, 382 43–4 Zoroastrianism increased hostilities with, 37 Ādur Gušnasp (Takht-e Solaymān, Iran), Rouran compared, 49 66 “Silk Road exchange” and, 40 astrology and, 236–41, 242

504 * Index

Zoroastrianism (cont.) pearls in, 254 Buddhism’s failure to spread to Iran sacred kingship and, 58 and, 224 Sasanian clients converting to, 64 burial rejected by, 93, 264 Silk Road, spreading along, 420 in China, 226 of Sogdians, 85, 86, 93, 94