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Neutron Radiation Part-4.qxd 6/11/07 4:31 PM Page 242 242 Radioactivity Hall of Fame—Part IV The energy of bonding between the carbon and iodine atoms is about 2 eV, which is higher than the neutron recoil energy. Consequently, the rupture of this bond is due to the gamma recoil when the 128I undergoes gamma emission upon deexcitation after neutron capture. Some atoms of 128I could recombine with the free ethyl group and even exchange with some stable atoms of 127I, but if these processes are slow and, if these processes are further reduced by the addition of water or even alcohol to dilute the organic phase, the precipitate of radioactive inorganic iodide proceeds yielding a highly enriched radioactive 128I with minimal 127I. The Szilard–Chalmers process remains to this day a very practical application to the isolation of high specific activity radioactive sources from the medium in which the radionuclide sources were synthesized. A few examples taken from the literature are the isolation of high specific activity radioiso- topes after cyclotron production (Birattari et al., 2001; Bonardi et al., 2004; ), the preparation of high specific activity 64Cu for medical diagnosis (Hetherington et al., 1986), high specific activity radio- hafnium complexes (Abbe and Marques-Netto, 1975; Marques-Netto and Abbe, 1975), high specific activity 51Cr (Green and Maddock, 1949; Harbottle, 1954), high specific activity 56Mn (Zahn, 1967a,b), high specific activity 156Re (Jia and Ehrhardt, 1997), high specific activity 166Ho (Zeisler and Weber, 1998), high specific activity radioisotopes of tin (Spano and Kahn, 1952), and the concentration of high specific activity of the radioisotopes of Groups IV and V elements (Murin and Nefedov, 1955), etc. On September 30, 1938 Germany, Italy, France, and Britain signed the Munich Pact, whereby Premier Édouard Daladier of France and Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain of Britain, to avoid confrontation with German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, agreed to his demands that Germany occupy the Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia bordered by Germany. Italy was represented at the Munich Pact by Benito Mussolini, who colluded with Hitler and had anti-Semitic laws enforced. At the time of the Munich Pact Leo Szilard was a visiting professor in the United States. He had foresight to see the impending danger of the weakening policies of France and Britain toward Germany and moved to New York where he carried on a collaboration from Columbia University with Walter Zinn. The foresight that Szilard displayed in escaping from Berlin and the Nazis in 1933 would again prove to be vital. It would be in the United States where Leo Szilard could safely carry out his efforts to beat Germany or any other aggressive nation in the development of an atomic bomb. On September 1st of 1939, less than a year after the signing of the Munich Pact, Hitler invaded Poland; and France and England declared war on Germany marking the beginning of World War II. After the first report of neutron-induced fission by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch on February 11, 1939 following the work of Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman (1939a,b) it became clear to Leo Szilard that uranium would be the element that could sustain the nuclear chain reaction that he had patented over 5 years prior to the discovery of neutron-induced fission. In July of the same year Herbert Anderson, Enrico Fermi, and Leo Szilard determined that there are about two neutrons produced for every neutron consumed in the fission of uranium-235 (Anderson et al., 1939b). Leo Szilard finally found the isotope that could sustain a neutron-induced chain reaction that could yield immense amounts of energy and even the atomic bomb that he had patented 6 years prior to this discovery. Szilard knew that the neutron yield had to be greater than one neutron produced per neutron consumed to maintain the chain reaction, and that the production of two neutrons for each neutron consumed left no doubt in his mind that the self-sustaining chain reaction was in his grasp. In the following month (August 14) Walter Zinn at City College, New York, NY together with Leo Szilard from Columbia University, New York, NY reported a more precise number of 2.3 neutrons produced on average for each thermal neutron absorbed in uranium (Zinn and Szilard, 1939). This is very close to the current more precise average number of 2.5 neutrons produced per thermal neutron absorbed in uranium-235. They also determined the gen- eral energy spectrum of the neutrons emitted in fission. The neutrons were classified as fast neutrons with an upper energy limit of about 3.5 MeV; however, Szilard knew that the fast neutrons could easily be thermalized (slowed down) with a low atomic number element or moderator such as graphite to sustain the chain reaction. From this work it was clear to Szilard that there was little doubt that the conditions needed for the self-sustaining neutron-induced chain reaction in uranium-235 could be made and its demonstration would soon be a reality. In Szilard’s mind time was of the essence. Szilard urged his lifelong friend Albert Einstein, then Theoretical Physicist at Princeton, to send a letter to the President of the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, to inform him of the threat of Germany’s nuclear research program and the danger Part-4.qxd 6/11/07 4:31 PM Page 243 Radioactivity Hall of Fame—Part IV 243 that Germany could develop a nuclear weapon urging the president to initiate a program for the weapon development. A series of letters were sent by Einstein, the first of which was dated on August 2, 1939. A portion of the letter reads as follows: In the course of the last four months it has been made possible—through the work of Joliot of France as well as Fermi and Szilard in America—that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium, by which vast amounts of power … would be generated … that extremely powerful bombs of a new type may thus be constructed … In a subsequent letter dated March 7, 1940 Einstein wrote …Since the outbreak of the war, interest in uranium has intensified in Germany … research there is carried out in great secrecy … Dr. Szilard has shown me the manuscript, which he is sending to the Physics Review in which he describes in detail a method of setting up a chain reaction in uranium. The papers will appear in print unless they are held up, and the question arises whether something ought to be done to withhold publication. In a third letter dated April 25, 1940 Einstein urged President Roosevelt to carry out the research needed to develop the bomb at a faster and more organized manner. The secret American project to develop atomic weapons, which became known as the Manhattan Project (derived from its official name of the Manhattan Engineering District), was authorized by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on October 9, 1941. While working on this project Rudolf Peierls (1907–1995) made initial calculations on the number of neutron-chain reactions or neutron generations that would occur if a critical mass of uranium-235 could be confined in a small sphere about the size of a golf ball. See Figure IV.6 for an illustration of the first four generations of a nuclear chain reaction. Rhodes (1986) relates that Peierls based his calculations on the assumption that the time between each neutron generation would be short, only a few microseconds. In reality, the neutron chain reactions are faster. The time it takes for one neutron to travel from one nucleus and hit another nucleus is about 10 nsec. If the velocity of the approximately 2 MeV fission neutrons reach about 20 million m/sec (see Figure 4.1) Peierls estimated that only about 80 neutron generations would be achieved in the nuclear chain reaction before the explosion produced an expansion and dispersion of the U-235 thereby terminating the chain reaction. We can make a simple calculation of the energy released by 80 neutron generations of the chain reaction based simply on the reaction as propagated by two neutrons per fission with the release of 200 MeV energy per fission (Table IV.1). The energy released after each generation (n) is exponential (2n) as illustrated in Table IV.1 and Figure IV.6, and the chain reaction culminates in an estimated energy release of 1.26 ϫ 1026 MeV on the 80th neutron generation alone. The estimated energy of 1.21 ϫ 1026 MeV provided in Table IV.1 is equivalent to approximately 4.6 ϫ 1012 calories of heat calculated by converting MeV energy units to joules (J), which is a unit of power, that is, 1 J ϭ 1Wsec (watt second) and then to calories (cal), a unit of heat as follows: By definition, 1 MeV ϭ 1.60 ϫ 10Ϫ13 J (IV.22) and 1J ϭ 0.239 cal Then the energy released from the 80th neutron generation in joules and calories may are calculated as (1.21 ϫ 1026 MeV)(1.60 ϫ 10Ϫ13 J/MeV) ϭ 1.94 ϫ 1013 J (IV.23) (1.94 ϫ 1013 J)(0.239 cal/J) ϭ 4.63 ϫ 1012 cal (IV.24) Part-4.qxd 6/11/07 4:31 PM Page 244 244 Radioactivity Hall of Fame—Part IV If, by definition, 1 cal would be sufficient heat to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C, the four million-million calories of heat produced in the 80th neutron generation of the U-235 fission chain reaction would yield a staggering temperature hotter than the center of the sun (approximately 15,000,000 °C) and, if the chain reactions all occur in a period of time shorter than one-millionth of a second [(10 nsec/neutron generation)(80 generations) ϭ 800 nsec ϭ 0.8 ␮sec], the pressures from the explosion would be staggering.
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