Egungun Costuming in Abeokuta Author(S): Norma H

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Egungun Costuming in Abeokuta Author(s): Norma H. Wolff Source: African Arts, Vol. 15, No. 3 (May, 1982), pp. 66-70+91 Published by: UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3335914 Accessed: 17-07-2016 14:49 UTC

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This content downloaded from 141.211.4.224 on Sun, 17 Jul 2016 14:49:47 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Egungun Costuming in Abeokuta

NORMA H. WOLFF n contemporary Yoruba society in with the Yoruba indigenous religion. physical manifestations of "Yoruba southwestern Nigeria, the judicious Sacrifices of cloth are often prescribed power," continue to appear in the teem- use of clothing is recognized as a means by the Ifa divination priests to petition ing streets of modern Lagos, in the large of building individual, family, and social or placate witches and deities (e.g., Bas- indigenous centers of Ibadan, Oshogbo, group prestige. Every important social com 1969), and special fabrics are worn Oyo, Ilorin, Ife, Owo, and Abeokuta, as event demands that participants wear as emblems of membership in religious well as in the villages and small rural proper clothing made from the proper cults, such as the Ogboni. Cloth also hamlets throughout Yorubaland.3 fabrics. At a gathering such as a funeral plays an important role in religious ob- In any particular locality, Egungun weekend, which includes a church bur- servances surrounding death. In a tradi- masqueraders come in many forms or ial service, wake-keeping, and other so- tional funeral, the corpse is covered generic types, which are emically cial events, members of a wealthy with layers of asho'fi by his children labeled.4 Generic type differences are Yoruba family are expected to appear in prior to burial (Lucas 1948:225-26; Par- displayed in the formal attributes of the a series of traditionally styled garments. rinder 1953:43).2 Fabric plays a role carved crest mask (if present), the cut of These clothes, fashioned from expen- again in ceremonies a few days after the the costume, the kind, color, and condi- sive brocades, laces and velvets, or burial when a member of the Egungun tion of the cloth used, iconographic de- tails in additive elements such as em- asho'fi, the locally made narrow-loom ancestral cult appears impersonating cloth, are a visible expression of self- the deceased man and wearing "cloths broidery and applique and in the acces- and family affluence and pride.1 similar to those in which the deceased sories attached to or carried by the mas- Recognition of the importance of was known to have been buried" querader and his attendants. These vis- cloth and clothing is also mirrored in (Johnson 1921:29). ual clues of costuming allow the knowl- surviving ritual practices associated Egungun masqueraders do not appear edgeable spectator to place a particular only in the contexts of funerals. Dressed Egungun into a hierarchical category of in enveloping costumes of cloth, mem- generic types, predict its behavior, bers of the Egungun society represent speculate on its past accomplishments, the corporate spirit of the Yoruba dead and even say something about the and appear in a number of ritual and socio-economic status and personality public contexts throughout the year. of its owner. They appear individually at times of Egungun costuming can be quite spec- family and community rejoicing or crisis tacular. The crest and platter masks as- and as a group at annual festivals held sociated with Egungun masquerading are ti- in honor of community ancestors. De- displayed in art museums throughout spite modernizing influences and religi- the world. However, for the Egungun cult r t ous change, Egungun masqueraders, as members, the masqueraders, and their Yoruba audiences, it is the flowing cloth shrouding the performer's body that receives more attention. Ere, the carved wooden masks, are commissioned when an Egungun costume is first assembled and are seldom replaced unless dam- aged. The cloth of the costume is more flexible. It may be changed, altered, or added to each year. As such, it is the major medium for individual aesthetic and iconographic expression in costuming. The fabrics also play an important ritual role, taking on a supernatural aura with use in costumes. The cloth is a way 1. EGUNGUN ODE 'LAABO MASQUERADER. ITOKO TOWNSHIP, ABEOKUTA, 1973. of tying the Egungun spirit, also known as ara orun (citizen of heaven), to the cul-

2. EGUNGUN ODE CREST MASK WITH DISTINCTIVE tural world of the living by enclosing it in ODE HEADDRESS. NIGERIAN MUSEUM. a man-made cage of fabric. The Egungun

This content downloaded from 141.211.4.224 on Sun, 17 Jul 2016 14:49:47 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms costume, in its many forms, as Babatunde Lawal concludes, "conceals the unknowable and yet reveals man's infinite potential for spiritual transfor- mation" (1977:59). A number of excellent articles and monographs have dealt with the com- plex symbolism of Egungun ritual and costuming and the regional variations that occur.5 Less attention has been paid to the way in which Egungun costuming is used, in a similar fashion to secular dress, as a means of enhancing individual and group prestige in contemporary Yoruba society. Drawing upon data collected in the context of an Egungun festival I observed in Itoko township in 3. EGUNGUN ODE 'LAABO CREST MASK. the Egba Yoruba city of Abeokuta in WELLCOME COLLECTION, MUSEUM OF CULTURAL 1973,6 I will show how costuming signals HISTORY, UCLA. 4. EGUNGUN ODE IJANJUKU CREST MASK. the identity of two popular emic types of ITOKO TOWNSHIP, ABEOKUTA, 1973. masqueraders and simultaneously al- feats, but certain types may also be very lows the owner of a costume to make violent and have to be restrained. What- the ritual importance of textiles to this idiosyncratic statements of self- and fam- ever the activity masqueraders are en- cult. ily aggrandizement. gaged in, once they enter the public Before a costume can be constructed, Abeokuta was founded by politically arena they are a center of attention and an Itoko man who has been advised by a diversified Yoruba groups who came to- are continually surrounded by an admir- diviner to take up an Egungun or who gether for mutual protection in an area of ing and sometimes fearful audience. freely chooses to become an owner must rocky hills in southwestern Nigeria dur- In Itoko township, located near select the kind of masquerader he wishes ing the Yoruba wars of the early 19th cen- Olumo Rock, the week of the Egungun to manifest.' He can choose, often with tury (Biobaku 1957). First, a confedera- festival is the only time in the year when the help of the diviner, from a wide range tion of small hamlets settled by survivors large numbers of Egungun appear pub- of generic types. These include such of five Yoruba kingdoms displaced dur- licly During the rest of the year, the cos- named types as Egungun babamaawo, erin, ing this period put down roots in the vi- tumes are kept in special rooms in the ode, arede, and kekere. The choice of a par- cinity of Olumo Rock. Later population compounds of those lineages to which ticular generic type is made on the basis growth transformed the clustered set- Egungun cult membership is restricted. A of such factors as the age of the owner, tlements into a walled city divided into costume may be corporately owned by the availability of inherited costumes, townships according to the origins of the an extended family, but most types are the obligation to take a deceased rela- refugee settlers. Abeokuta became an individually owned although relatives tive's Egungun, cult affiliations, and in- important military, trade, and religious often share in the cost of assembling the dividual wealth. center in the later 19th century. Christian- garment and mask. An additional important tactor that in- ity was introduced early in its history, The making of the costume is a secret, fluences the owner's choice of generic and Islam was an additional alternative and costly, process involving the sepa- type is the behavioral role he wishes to by the end of the 19th century rate efforts of a woodcarver (if a mask is project in public performances as a mas- Despite a continuing decline in the needed) and a tailor who specializes in querader. Two diametrically opposed worship of the indigenous deities in the making of Egungun costuming. Only personality types are exhibited by Itoko Abeokuta because of a century of Christ- when all parts of the ensemble are masqueraders. On the basis of behavior ian and Islamic influences, the annual brought together and joined in a ritual patterns shown, masqueraders are Egungun festivals remain important so- act does the spirit of the Egungun enter labeled either Egungun jeje (jeje = gentle cial and ritual events. Week-long festi- the costume. The costume itself, when or quiet) or Egungun ijanjuku (janjuku vals are held sequentially each spring in not being worn, acts as a shrine for the enion = restless person). Egungun jeje are the different townships of the city. Fam- Egungun spirit, which may be called supposed to be calm and gentle. They ily members return home to their lineage upon by the owner throughout the year are primarily concerned with singing compounds, and sacrifices and rituals to as needs arise. For example, if a woman and dancing in public, and are expected honor the ancestors are carried out in of the owner's lineage has been advised to exhibit admired behaviors, good taste, most compounds, Throughout the festi- to appeal to the Egungun for a child, ritu- and at all times present an aesthetically val week, Egungun masqueraders, repre- als will be carried out in front of the cos- pleasing image. The Egungun ijanjuku senting the ancestor spirit, parade tume to call and petition the spirit. The masquerader, on the other hand, delib- through the streets singly or in groups to owner may then put on the costume and erately breaks the rules of proper be- interact with the living. They can be appear outside the shrine room so that havior, taste, and aesthetic form. The petitioned to grant the good things of the woman, who is not allowed to see the Egungun ijanjuku spirits cause the mas- life, particularly the birth of children. Al- costume dormant, may make direct peti- queraders to act like wild men (ipata). ternatively, they may seek out and tion. To give food or kill a chicken for the They are always "pushing," fighting punish wrongdoers. The masqueraders Egungun in such a case is referred to as with other masqueraders, attacking often dance and sing or perform magical "sacrificing the cloth," thus indicating members of the audience, and generally

67 This content downloaded from 141.211.4.224 on Sun, 17 Jul 2016 14:49:47 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms disturbing the peace during the festival. ode can be manifested with a gentle per- the same mask, a monkey's head, com- The Egungun ijanjuku masqueraders of sonality, Egungun ode 'laabo, or with the mon to all ode platter masks, and more Itoko, it should be noted, are particularly wild disposition of Egungun ode ijanjuku. figures are portrayed. On the right, a noted for their extreme rowdiness The basic costume worn by both types masked figure depicting an Egungun (Olajubu & Ojo 1977:265). is made up of a distinctive carved babalaago, a prestigious type of family- These two personality types cut across wooden crest mask that rides on top of owned Egungun, indicates that the other emic categories of Itoko Egungun the masquerader's head with cloth owner has this masquerader in his com- masqueraders. Some generic types are panels attached to screen the figure, pound. only gentle, others are only wild; a few which is clothed in an all-encompassing It is interesting to note that despite the types can be manifested as either jeje or fitted body-suit. The primary generic rich iconographic complexity of this ijanjuku, whichever the owner chooses. identifier of the ode costume is the mask mask and the quality of the carving, my The Egungun jeje and Egungun ijanjuku in the shape of a stylized male head with informant's spontaneous remarks of are considered to have equal spiritual a distinctive hairdressing in which long admiration were directed to the embroi- strength to bless or curse the living, and hair is pulled in a tuft to the left side of dered cloth panels of the costume, which either of the role extremes well played by the head to mimic the larger than ordi- he perceived as "very fine and costly." a masquerader in public contexts will nary caps worn by hunters. Hunters are Highly decorated panels such as those bring prestige to the wearer-owner-the said to stuff protective medicines into the worn in layers by this Egungun are said to ijanjuku through the fear it can provoke, peaks of such caps and twist them to the be obtained, in part, as gifts from grate- the jeje through the admiration it can left when worn. This may explain the ful women who have been given chil- evoke. knob that occurs at the end of the hair dren by a particular Egungun. In one In public performances, the differ- tuft on ode carvings. case, I observed a cloth strip tied to the ences between the Egungun jeje and ijan- There are two basic forms taken by the knob of an Egungun ode headdress and juku are signaled not only in the behavior ode crest mask (ere Egungun ode). The first was told that it had been presented to the of the masquerader but also in costum- is a single head with a conical base to fit masquerader during the festival by a ing and in the formal attributes of the the top of the masquerader's head (Fig. woman who had given birth after peti- headpiece, the cloth and accessories car- 2). In a second, more elaborated form tioning that Egungun the previous year. ried by the masquerader, and in the be- called alate (carrier of a tray), the carved The large alate masks worn by some havior and dress of his attendants. The head is the centerpiece mounted on a Egungun ode 'laabo such as that just de- visual symbols that distinguish the gen- round platter to be carried on the mas- scribed would not be worn by mas- tle from the wild masquerader are clearly querader's head.9 The first form can be queraders of the ijanjuku type. The size seen in the costuming of the Egungun worn by both gentle and violent ode and weight of the platter mask and the ode, the hunter's masquerader. 8 Egungun masqueraders; the platter mask is worn need to keep it balanced on top of the by only the gentle, slow-moving type. head are not compatible with the rush- An ode 'laabo masquerader who came ing, sudden movements that charac- out in this alate type of mask in the 1973 terize the Egungun ode ijanjuku mas- Itoko Egungun festival is shown in Figure querader's performance. These mas- 1. Two male figures depicted on the front queraders tend to wear a relatively small of the mask wear the oversized caps of version of the single-headed mask form, hunters to indicate that the owner is a member of a lineage of traditional hun-

.. i ! ters, while animal figures symbolize the Z-1p+ hunters' power over them. A female figure holds kola nuts to sacrifice to this Egungun, stressing its ability to grant children to supplicants. On the back of 40

5. EGUNGUN ERIN MASQUERADER. ITOKO TOWNSHIP, ABEOKUTA, 1973.

7. EGUNGUN ERIN MASQUERADER. 6. EGUNGUN ERIN CREST MASK. NIGERIAN MUSEUM. ITOKO TOWNSHIP, ABEOKUTA, 1973.

This content downloaded from 141.211.4.224 on Sun, 17 Jul 2016 14:49:47 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms which can be slipped to the back when the performer becomes agitated and lunges about. In the simpler single-headed form of the ode mask worn by both masqueraders, the differences in the personalities are expressed in the facial features. The head of the Egungun ode 'laabo is con- ceived as beautiful, while that of the ijanjuku form is made deliberately ugly. In a typical Itoko ere Egungun ode of the gentle 'laabo type (Fig. 3), there is a symmetry of form, a smoothness of facial features, and attention is paid to the elaboration of detail. The headdress will have two or more tiers of hair "like a woman," with the texture of the hair indicated in closely spaced, incised parallel lines. Symbols of supernatural power such as stone celts (edun ara) and medicine containers (ado)

may be carved onto or attached to the 8. EGUNGUN IJANJUKU SHOWING FACIAL NETTING. mask to emphasize the owner's power. ITOKO TOWNSHIR ABEOKUTA, 1973. When carving the ere of an ijanjuku type, on the other hand, the carver deliber- image. The men on this important public ately violates the canons of good form occasion wear work-worn and often (Fig. 4). The eyes bulge outward, the soiled clothing. The women dress even

cheeks may be puffed out, and the hair is more inappropriately, appearing in cloth 9. EGUNGUN ERIN MASQUERADER. carved in one tier with little indication of wrappers without blouses-a kind of ITOKO TOWNSHIR ABEOKUTA, 1973. texture. In some versions, the hair is dress normally reserved for working in tufted to the back in the style of Eshu, the the privacy of their compounds. A spe- cussion during the festival. These mas- trickster of the Yoruba deities. cial cloth tied around their waists further queraders are called erin ("elephant") be- The differences between Egungun ode identifies them with the ode ijanjuku. An cause of their size, their power to grant 'laabo and ijanjuku masqueraders are re- even more shocking violation of proper the wishes of supplicants or punish flected in the cloth costumes. The ijan- Yoruba dress sometimes occurs when wrongdoing, and the amount of money juku masquerader wears a less elaborate the wives and sisters of the owner of the needed to maintain them. They are costume with perhaps no more than Egungun appear in trousers and shirts owned by individuals, and in the con- three to four large cloth panels. The dis- worn by men. Such reversals of proper temporary context have gained the tinction between ode 'laabo and ijanjuku is gender displays are associated with the nickname "the rich man's Egungun." also mirrored in the dress of their atten- worship of Eshu (Westcott 1962). Egungun erin are called "the rich man's dants. Important Egungun masquerad- It is these idiosyncratic aspects of Egungun" with good cause. In 1973 it was ers do not travel alone during the Itoko Egungun ode costuming and performance estimated that at least 400 to 600 naira festival parades. Male and female rela- that draw comments from the audience would need to be spent before an erin tives of the owner, his friends and that lines the streets to watch the Egun- was ready to appear in the festival. New clients, and women who have success- gun parade. The Yoruba spectators are costuming cloth and accessories would fully petitioned that particular Egungun well aware of the identity of the owners be purchased and money spent on ritu- for children will accompany the mas- of important Egungun, and the degree to als and the entertainment of the dancers, querader as it moves about the town. which an owner successfully manipu- drummers, and attendants prior to the One or more groups of drummers are lates the personality and aesthetic cos- event. If the owner was not able to raise hired to escort the group and announce tuming to project a distinctive social the necessary money from private and its coming. The masquerader with his at- presence in his Egungun masquerader is lineage sources, it was assumed that the tendants make up a carefully orches- a matter for discussion and evaluation masquerader would not appear in that trated ensemble in which the dress of the among knowledgeable spectators. year's festival. Most men who chose to persons who accompany the Egungun For Egungun owners who seek pres- own Egungun erin could well afford the visually mirrors and reinforces the public tige by stimulating admiration for the cost and thought it justified by the re- personality of the mask. Male attendants beautiful, a second generic type of Egun- sponse that the masquerader evoked of Egungun ode masqueraders tend to gun masquerader is particularly from spectators and by the continuing dress in the "uniforms" of hunters with appropriate. This is the Egungun erin, prestige attached to owning this most the oversized caps and the prominent which appears only in the jeje form and beautiful of Egungun. display of powerful magical objects. utilizes cloth as the major medium for The erin masquerader is a distinctive Those who accompany Egungun ode iconographic and aesthetic expression. Abeokuta generic type. It is distin- 'laabo are expected to wear clean, "nice" Egungun erin are the fashion plates of the guished by the ere, or wooden crest clothing. Those who accompany Egun- masqueraders. They are the most richly mask, in the shape of a head with a gun ode ijanjuku, on the other hand, may dressed of all the Egungun and are the human face and huge upstanding ears deliberately dress to provide a shocking focus of considerable attention and dis- that allow it to tower high above the

69 This content downloaded from 141.211.4.224 on Sun, 17 Jul 2016 14:49:47 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms heads of the crowd (Fig. 6). 10 The mask is communicate with or become possessed Oke Odogbo, one of Itoko's rocky hills. finely carved and intricately incised, but by the gods, the king, the priest, and the The coming of each erin masquerader, it is not the focus of attention. It is the herbalist-diviner" (1971:8/1). Design carefully spaced for dramatic effect, was cloth that is worn and the accessories elements on the beaded panels include heralded by the sound of drumming, carried that excite comment and allow the interlace, a motif associated with and those persons who were to accom- critical assessments of the beauty of a leadership arts and kingship in the pany it as it passed through the town particular Egungun erin masquerader. Yoruba area for over four centuries rushed to join it and its owner. When The basic costume is a loosely fitted (Thompson 1971:8/2). Such beadwork is Egungun erin masqueraders appear in body-suit reaching to the ankles with initially expensive-80 to 100 naira a public, the owners usually do not wear appliqued or beaded panels hanging panel in 1973-so panels are normally the costume but accompany the mas- from the bottom edge of the mask. Elab- reused from year to year, while additive querader in order to fully enjoy the audi- oration of the costume is what makes the elements of cloth may be changed. ence reaction. For the Egungun parade, the owner and attendants wear their erin masquerader spectacular. The latest Sometimes an owner who desires a new fashion in printed or embroidered image for his masquerader will sell his finest clothing, often asho'fi, to visually brocades and velvets is used to construct panels to another Egungun owner and mirror and reinforce the public impor- the body-suit and a cape or train in the commission new ones of bead embroid- tance of the masquerader (Fig. 10). At- back (Fig. 5). An additional panel embel- ery or cloth applique. tendants may also carry additional deco- lished with metallic fringe and embroid- The netting surrounded by the highly rations (ero) associated with the particu- ery adds extra interest to the back of the decorated front panels is also a focus of lar erin. A young boy in the 1973 festival costume. The front receives the most decorative effort. While a hand-knitted carried a carving indicating that the decorative care. Special attention is netting (gbala) is used by most mas- owner was a devotee of Erinle, a river de- given to the panels that flank the netting queraders to obscure the face while pro- ity. The theatricality of the Egungun erin through which the masquerader looks. viding sight (Fig. 8), Egungun erin mas- masquerader's appearance is further These broad strips and an additional queraders seem to prefer some kind of heightened when a man or boy moves in decorative panel below the netting are shiny, reflecting, metallic mesh of im- front of the crowd surrounding the elaborately appliqued (Fig. 7) or beaded ported make (Figs. 7, 9). Egungun, carrying a banner on which the (Fig. 9). The crest mask is another focus of dec- name of the Egungun and its owner are Bead-embroidered panels are consid- orative attention and is "dressed" with proclaimed. ered to be particularly effective because colorfully dyed ostrich plumes, attached As the Egungun erin masqueraders they signify the ritual importance of the cloth cutouts, and garlands of beads that passed through the streets of Itoko dur- Egungun masquerader. According to tend to obscure the lines of the carving ing the festival of 1973, they were discus- Thompson: "Wherever embroidery in (Fig. 7). A wand with ostrich feathers at- sed by spectators; their beauty was com- this medium appears we may be assured tached is fitted into the front of the mask pared and innovations noted. My infor- we are looking at no mere thing, but the to add to its impressive height. Ostrich mant, who considered himself an expert embodiment of hidden, important pres- feathers are also attached to the tips of on Egungun aesthetics, commented on sence ... the prerogative of ownership the petal-like cloth necklaces fitted each, comparing the quality of the deco- is restricted, in the main, to those who around the bottom edge of the mask, and rative panels, the ostrich plumes and necklaces of coins may be added to decorations of the mask, the design of underline the richness of the decoration. the facial netting, and the excellence of Accessories carried in the hand of the the import cloth used to cloak the back of Egungun erin provide the owner with the costume. After comparing all the another opportunity to project beauty. Egungun erin masqueraders who According to one informant: "To go out appeared that day, he declared that the without something in the hand is not so one shown in Figure 5, along with nice. There must be something nice for another erin, was "the finest in all Itoko." the people to look at." "Something nice" "It is," he said, "a lot of money!" for the Egungun erin is a fan (abebe) edged I have described two major generic with ostrich feathers and a rattle made types of Itoko Egungun to demonstrate from a long-necked calabash (shere) (Fig. the multivocal symbolism of Egungun 9). The fan may be beaded or of costuming. Through the use of costume appliqued leather. The rattle may also be and performance behaviors, the mas- beaded or covered with intricately querader projects culturally shared val- paneled and appliqued cloth shaped to ues of religion and group identity. Simul- fit the calabash. These accessories con- taneously, the realization of each Egun- trast with the stout staff, whips, and cut- gun allows the injection of idiosyncratic lasses (Fig. 8) carried by Egungun ijanjuku elements so that the owner can symbol- types, and they reinforce the gentle ically make public displays of self- image of the Egungun erin. esteem. Egungun costumes, the cloth of During the 1973 Egungun festival in the ancestors, do not merely honor the Itoko, the parade of the Egungun erin on dead; for every owner they are also the the first day was looked forward to by cloth of the living. Egungun costuming is the community. Large numbers of used, just as clothing is used in the secu- people gathered on the major streets to lar realm, as a means of building indi- 10. ATTENDANT DANCER DRESSED IN ASHO'FI, PER- FORMING AS PART OF AN EGUNGUN ERIN ENSEMBLE. await the masqueraders' arrival as they vidual and family prestige. O ITOKO TOWNSHIP, ABEOKUTA, 1973. descended from the sacred bush atop Notes, page 91

70 This content downloaded from 141.211.4.224 on Sun, 17 Jul 2016 14:49:47 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms (Kate Kent, personal communication, May 1980). Thompson, Robert Farris. 1971. Black Gods and Kings. Los ing to Ciss6: "peaux de fauves, defenses d'416phants ou Bibliography Angeles: University of California Press. d'hippopotames, cornes de bufles et d'antilopes, queues do Adams, Capt. John. 1966. Remarks on the Country Extending Thompson, Robert Farris. 1974. African Art in Motion. Los toutes les betes abattues qui 6taient reunies en un fagot from Cape Palmas to the River Conto. London: Frank Cass Angeles: University of California Press. d'autant plus lourd que le chasseur 6tait adroit." & Co. 1st ed. 1823. Vogel, Susan, ed. 1981. For Spirits and Kings. New York: Met- 6. Komo masks, for example, are described as dibi-finw- Aronson, Lisa. 1980a. "Akwete Weaving and Patronage," Af- ropolitan Museum of Art. "things of dibi," "things of darkness"-that enter the world rican Arts 13, 3 (May): 62-66. Warren, Dennis M. and J. K. Andrews. 1977. An Ethnoscien- of obscurity to fight treachery, malevolent sorcery, and all Aronson, Lisa. 1980b. "Cloth Trade in the Niger Delta: A tific Approach to Akan Arts and Aesthetics. Working Pa- manner of unpleasant activities. Study of Diffusion," Textile History 11:89-107. pers in the Traditional Arts 3. Philadelphia: Institute for 7. Kalilou Tera, personal communication, July 1977. Bosman, Willem. 1967. A New and Accurate Description of the the Study of Human Issues. Medicines, the head, and potent sorcery are also associated Coast of Guinea. London: Frank Cass & Co. 1st ed. 1705. Westcott, Joan. 1962. "The Sculpture and Myths of Eshu- in Yoruba thought. See Drewal 1977:43-45, 91. Cornevin, Robert. 1969. Histoire du Togo. Paris: Editions Elegba," Africa 32:336-53. 8. Charles Bird, personal communication, December 1976. Berget-Levrault. 9. The blacksmith and hunter Sedu Traore said this to me on more than one occasion. Crow, Hugh. 1970. Memoirs of the Late Captain Hugh Crow of McNAUGHTON, Notes, from page 58 Liverpool. London: Frank Cass & Co. 1st ed. 1830. My research in the Republic of Mali has not focused on 10. Interviews with Kalilou Tera, June 1978, and Sekuba Kea, R. A. 1969. "Akwamu-Anlo Relations, c. 1750-1813," hunters or their clothes. I have worked extensively with Camara, July 1978. Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana 10:29-63. sculptor-smiths, and so I have come in frequent contact Bibliography Bird, Charles (with Mamadou Koita & Bourama Perani, Judith. 1977. Nupe Crafts: The Dynamics of Change in with the ideas of knowledge, sorcery, and the bush that Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Weaving and Brasswork- characterize the nature of hunting and influence the activi- Soumaouro). 1974. The Songs of Seydou Camara, Vol. I, ing. Bloomington, Indiana. ties of hunters. In addition, many sculptor-smiths are also Kambili. Bloomington: African Studies Center, Indiana Sieber, Roy. 1973. African Textiles and Decorative Arts. New hunters, including the one (Sedu Traore) with whom I have University. York: Museum of Modern Art. Bird, Charles and Martha B. Kendall. 1980. "The Mande worked most closely Thus I suspect my data are reasonably Talbot, P A. 1967. Tribes of the Niger Delta. New York: Barnes dependable. I want to thank Sedu Traore, and Seydou Hero: Text and Context," in Explorations in African Sys- and Noble. 1st ed. 1932. Camara, Sekuba Camara, Kalilou Tera, Chieckna Sangare, tems of Thought, eds. Ivan Karp and Charles Bird. Talbot, P A. 1969. The Peoples of Southern Nigeria. London: E Charles Bird, John Johnson, Jim Brink, Mary Jo Arnoldi, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Cass. 1st ed. 1926. and Jerry Cashion for the frequent exchanges of ideas, Bravmann, Rene. 1974. Islam and Tribal Art in West Africa. suggestions, and encouragement they have all offered up Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Ciss6, Youssouf. 1964. "Notes sur les soci~ths de chasseurs during the past few years. For the funds that allowed me to WOLFF, Notes, from page 70 work in Mali I want to thank the Social Science Research Malink6," Journal de la SociHth des Africanistes 34. The research for this paper was carried out as part of a study Council and the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Dieterlen, Germaine. 1951. Essai sur la religion Bambara. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. on socioeconomic change in carving production at Adug- Graduate School. The generosity of both has been very bologe Compound in Itoko township, Abeokuta, from fall welcome. I thank, too, the government of the Republic of Drewal, Margaret Thompson. 1977. "Projections from the 1972 to spring 1974. Fieldwork was supported by a Mali; the Institut de Science Humain in the Ministere de Top in Yoruba Art," African Arts 11, 1. Fulbright-1Hays Doctoral Dissertation Grant and done with l'Education Nationale was extremely helpful both in 1972 Imperato, Pascal James. 1970. "Bokolanfini: Mud Cloth of the cooperation of the Nigerian Department of Antiquities. I and 1978. I have followed the proper orthography for the Bamana of Mali," African Arts 3, 4. wish to thank the many Abeokuta and Itoko people who Bamana words, as set forth in Lexique Bambara, by the Jackson, Michael. 1977. The Kuranko, Dimensions of Social aided me in this research, particularly the carvers of Adug- Ministere de l'Education Nationale, 1968, except in in- Reality in a West African Society. New York: St. Martin's Press. bologe Compound. stances where individual Malian authors or artists have al- 1. Peter Lloyd noted that at such social events as a funeral ready established their names in publications using other Johnson, John W 1978. "Sun-Jata: An Attempt to Define weekend, "a wealthy man or woman may appear in several orthographies. However, African Arts is unable to print ac- the Model for African Epic Poetry" Ph.D. dissertation, changes of costume, each costing up to ?100 exclusive of gold cents indicating the open e and open o symbols. Indiana University ornaments.. .." (Lloyd 1974:118). 1. Given the phenomenal importance of traditional hunters McNaughton, Patrick. R. 1979. Secret Sculptures of Komo: Art and Power in Bamana (Bambara) Initiation Associations. 2. In some areas, the corpse is wrapped in a special type of in Mande society, precious little has been published on black and white funeral cloth for burial (Parrinder 1953:43). them. The reader may enjoy consulting Travel 1928:207- Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues. 3. See the special issue of African Arts (vol.11, no. 3, 1978) for 212; Sidibe 1930:48-67; and, for the work that has become McNaughton, Patrick R. Forthcoming. The Mande a series of articles that give evidence of contemporary Egun- the classic reference on Mande hunters, Youssouf Ciss6 Sculptor-Smiths. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. gun society activities. 1964:175-226. 4. "Emic labels" refer to folk categories or classification sys- 2. I discuss this "science of trees" at length in The Mande Quinn, Charlotte. 1972. Mandingo Kingdoms of the Senegam- tems that utilize criteria meaningful to the Yoruba them- Sculptor-Smiths, forthcoming from Indiana University bia. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. selves, as opposed to "etic labels," which are imposed by Press. Sidib6, Mamby. 1930. "Nouvelles notes sur la chasse au scholars on the basis of formal attributes. See Warren & An- 3. Many scholars have written on Nyama. Perhaps two of Birgo (Cercel de Kita, Soudan franqaise)," "Bulletin du drews (1977) for an example of a detailed analysis of emic the most interesting sources are Germaine Dieterlen ComitW d'Etudes Historiques et Scientifiques de l'Afrique Occidentale Franqaise 13. criteria in an African art tradition. (1951:62-65) and Ciss6 (1964:192-208). Often this energy or Travele, Moussa. 1928. "Note sur les coutumes des chas- 5. Articles and monographs dealing with Egungun mas- force has been interpreted as consistently malevolent, seurs Bambara et Malinke du Cercel de Bamako querading include Bascom 1944; Morton-Williams 1954; negative or evil. I argue against this position in my forth- Thompson 1971, 1974; Olajubu & Ojo 1977; and Drewal 1978. coming Sculptor-Smiths. (Soudan franqaise)," Revue d'Ethnographie et des Tradi- 6. The 1973 Itoko Egungun festival started on April 9 and 4. Charles Bird, personal communication, March 1976. tions Populaires 9, 33. lasted seven days. 5. Ciss6 discusses a "Tour Du Monde" undertaken by 7. Egungun are taken up under a number of circumstances young hunters in times past (1964:184-86). Such trips were ROY, Notes, from page 53 but only by members of families associated with the Egungun generally of six months' duration but could be as long as The research on which this paper is based was carried out society, currently or in the past. eighteen. The hunters went out in groups of two or three, in Upper Volta in 1976-77 and was funded by the 8. To take up the Egungun ode, or "hunter's masquerader," a and sometimes they traveled alone. The goal was to acquire Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Research Abroad Program and the man need not be a member of a hunting lineage, but it is a name for oneself by proving one's ability and knowledge, International Doctoral Research Program sponsored by the necessary that he be a worshipper of Ogun, the deity of all while simultaneously expanding both ability and knowl- Social Science Research Council and the American Council who use metal tools in their work. edge. The "trophies" they returned with included, accord- of Learned Societies. 9.Egungun alate, the "Egungun that carries a tray," is an emic category that, like those based on personality, cuts across other emic types. 10. For a more detailed description of the formal attributes and symbolism of the ere Egungun erin, see N. Wolff's com- mentary on the headdress of this type in the Tishman collection (Vogel 1981:110-11). Bibliography Bascom, William. 1969. Ifa Divination. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Bascom, William. 1944. "The Sociological Role of the Yoruba Cult-Group," Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 63. Biobaku, Saburi O. 1957. The Egba and Their Neighbours: 1842-1872. Oxford: Clarendon Press. De Negri, Eve. 1962. "Yoruba Men's Costume," Nigeria 73:4-12. Drewal, Henry John, ed. 1978. African Arts 11, 3. Special issue on Yoruba Egungun, with articles by M. Houlberg, M. & H. Drewal, J. Pemberton, M. Schiltz, J. Adedeji, R. Poynor.) Johnson, Samuel.1921. The History of the Yorubas, edited by O. Johnson. Lagos: C.M.S. (Nigeria) Bookshops. Lawal, Babatunde. 1977. "The Living Dead: Art and Immor- tality among the Yoruba of Nigeria," Africa 47:50-61. Lloyd, Peter C. 1974. Power and Independence. London: Rout- ledge & Kegan Paul. Lucas, J. Olumide. 1948. The Religion of the Yorubas. Lagos: C.M.S. Bookshop. Morton-Williams, D.P.M. 1954. "The Egungun Society in South Western Yoruba Kingdoms," Proc. 3rd Ann. Conf. W. Afr. Inst. Soc. & Econ. Research, Ibadan. Olajubu, Chief Oludare and J.R.O. Ojo. 1977. "Some Aspects of Oyo Yoruba Masquerades," Africa 47:253-75. Parrinder, Geoffrey 1953. Religion in an African City. Lon- don: Oxford University Press.

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