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Brokering Democracy in Africa Brokering Democracy in Africa 9780230602830ts01.indd i 12/17/2007 7:35:33 PM This page intentionally left blank Brokering Democracy in Africa The Rise of Clientelist Democracy in Senegal Linda J. Beck 9780230602830ts01.indd iii 12/17/2007 7:35:33 PM BROKERING DEMOCRACY IN AFRICA Copyright © Linda J. Beck, 2008. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews. First published in 2008 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN™ 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 and Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England RG21 6XS Companies and representatives throughout the world. PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN-13: 978–0–230–60283–0 ISBN-10: 0–230–60283–5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Beck, Linda J. (Linda Jane) Brokering democracy in Africa : the rise of clientelist democracy in Senegal / Linda J. Beck. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0–230–60283–5 1. Senegal—Politics and government—1960– 2. Democratization—Senegal. 3. Democracy—Senegal. 4. Patronage, Political—Senegal. 5. Patron and client—Senegal. I. Title. JQ3396.A58B43 2008 320.9663—dc22 2007032626 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Design by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India. First edition: March 2008 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America. 9780230602830ts01.indd iv 12/17/2007 7:35:34 PM To Mark Pires and our wonderful daughters, Nicole and Sophia Nob naa leen bu baaxu baax. 9780230602830ts01.indd v 12/17/2007 7:35:34 PM This page intentionally left blank Contents List of Figures, Maps, and Tables ix Acknowledgments xi Introduction 1 1 Clientelist Democracy in Comparative Perspective 23 2 The Rise of Senegal’s Clientelist Democracy 49 3 Influential Brokers: The Murid Marabouts of Central Senegal 69 4 Dependent Brokers: Tukulor Nobles in Northern Senegal 117 5 Limited Brokers: Casamançais “Sons of the Soil” in Southern Senegal 153 6 Autonomous Brokers: The Mbëru Gox among the Sénégalais d’Amérique 197 7 The Fragility of a Clientelist Democracy 221 Appendix 1 Demographics of Senegal: Ethnicity and Religion (By Region and Department in %) 231 Appendix 2 Senegalese Presidential Election Results in the Four Case Studies, 1978–2000 233 Appendix 3 Regional Electoral Support for PS Presidential Candidates, 1978–2000 (in %) 235 Notes 237 Bibliography 245 Index 263 9780230602830ts01.indd vii 12/17/2007 7:35:34 PM This page intentionally left blank Figures, Maps, and Tables Figures I.1 Typology of Local Brokers 17 3.1 PS Support in the Department of Mbacke: Presidential Elections 1978–2000 70 4.1 Support for PS Presidential Candidates in Matam and Louga, 1978–2000 118 5.1 Support for PS Presidential Candidates in Matam and Ziguinchor, 1978–2000 154 6.1 Support for PS Presidential Candidates in Dakar and the United States 198 Maps 1 Administrative Map of Senegal, 1984–2002 xiv 2 Administrative Map of the Diourbel Region 68 3 Administrative Map of the Saint-Louis Region, 1984–2002 116 4 Administrative Map of Kolda and Ziguinchor Regions 152 Tables 1.1 Schedler’s Typology of Regimes 32 1.2 Political Authority and Regime Type 41 1.3 Revised Typology of Political Regimes 43 4.1 Social Stratification in Tukulor Society 121 5.1 Wolof Speakers in Regions with a Wolof Minority 160 5.2 “Egalitarian” Ethnic Groups in the Ziguinchor Region 162 6.1 Responses on the Political Role of Marabouts, First Exit Poll (2000) 207 6.2 Responses on the Political Role of Marabouts, Second Exit Poll (2000) 207 7.1 Results from the 2007 Presidential Election 226 9780230602830ts01.indd ix 12/17/2007 7:35:34 PM This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgments While the African adage is that it takes a village to raise a child, completion of this book required the support of numerous individu- als scattered across our global village in Africa, North America, and Europe. During various research trips to Senegal over the last decade and a half, I benefited from the terranga (hospitality) of countless informants, many of whom have become life-long friends. Although I was often only the latest in a never-ending series of toubabs (foreign- ers) coming to reveal some “truth” they in all likelihood already knew, these people gave generously of their time, patiently sharing with me their insights and often their food and homes. My research led me to meet with some of the wealthiest politicians and marabouts in Senegal, and some of the country’s poorest farmers, herders, and urban unemployed; invariably, the reception was warm and hospita- ble. I owe a debt of gratitude to the people of Senegal on both sides of the Atlantic. It is impossible to mention everyone who aided me in my work, but I would like to personally thank the families and individuals who hosted me during my field research: Coly Ndiaye and Anna Kane of Matam; Aziz Makward and Gansire Diop of Mbacke; Mariama Sane and Mogho Traore of Ziguinchor; and Jens Madsen who offered me and my husband respite, good cheer, and good company in Dakar. I must also single out the late Moustapha Kane who provided me with invaluable guidance and incredible hospitality, along with his wife Marième Sarr and his brother Madièye Kane. Critical to this study were my research assistants who not only assisted with collecting data while serving as cultural and linguistic interpreters, but who also pro- vided me with invaluable insights into Senegalese society and politics: Nafi Sow and Moustapha Kane of Matam; Thierno Sow of Touba; and Demba Keita and Noaha Cisse of Ziguinchor. In New York City, Dame Babou, Diomaye Faye, Fallou Guèye, and Mamadou Kane were my “unofficial” research assistants and frequent copyeditors, reading various versions of the chapter on the Sénégalais d’Amérique along with Victoria Ebin who graciously guided and encouraged my 9780230602830ts01.indd xi 12/17/2007 7:35:34 PM xii Acknowledgments research in New York. I would also like to thank Ousmane Kane, Gregory Mann, Lori Minnite, and Louis Cristillo with whom I col- laborated on Columbia University’s Muslims in New York Project, and Mohammed Mbodj who served as an unofficial encadreur (men- tor) during my years in New York. While conducting my dissertation research, the initial basis for this book, Babacar Kante of the Université de Saint-Louis was my official encadreur. True to his Senegalese cosan (roots), he gave generously of his time and offered crucial guidance and innumerable insights. Over the years, I have carried one piece of his wisdom and encouragement in particular: that the combined efforts of African scholars and foreign researchers can provide us all with a greater understanding of the continent. Although I left the University of Wisconsin-Madison many years ago, I remain indebted to Michael Schatzberg whose dry wit and keen analytical mind penetrated even the most convoluted drafts of my dissertation; Ali Tripp, who worked tirelessly reading draft after draft that I would run over to her home in order to meet my submission deadline so I could take my first job at Barnard College as a full- fledged assistant professor; and M. Crawford Young, who remains an inspiration to me as one of those rare scholars who combines the finest qualities of an exceptional researcher, mentor, and human being. A testament to Crawford Young’s superior mentoring over the years was my good fortune to find waiting for me in New York another of his former students, John Harbeson. John read every e-mail and scrap of paper I sent his way, frequently meeting with me in various cafés in Morningside Heights to discuss and encourage the drafting of this book. I also had the good fortune of receiving comments, sug- gestions, and encouragement from several of the most prominent scholars of Senegalese politics: Momar Coumba Diop, Christian Coulon, Donal Cruise O’Brien, and Gerti Hesseling. Standing in no one’s shadow is Catherine Boone, a role model, inspiration, and good friend rolled into one. Not to be overlooked are Leonard Markowitz, Leonardo Villalòn, and Vincent Foucher, representing three genera- tions of outstanding scholars of Senegalese politics who have advanced my knowledge through our various exchanges as well as their writ- ings. I am indebted to each of them along with many others who have had a hand in seeing this book come to fruition, including helpful comments and constructive criticism from Jonathon Fox, Ira Katznelson, Guillero O’Donnell, and Charles Tilley. Any remaining errors in fact or analysis are of course my own. I also wish to acknowledge Bruce Magnusson and Loretta O’Connor, without whose humor and support I highly doubt I would have ever 9780230602830ts01.indd xii 12/17/2007 7:35:34 PM Acknowledgments xiii finished graduate school, as well as the Columbia University graduate students who worked as my research assistants over the years, Jeff Krutz, Adrienne LeBas, and Ngoni Munemo, along with Cody LaMontagne who I had the good fortune to come across before she graduated from the University of Maine-Farmington. I must also single out two former colleagues at Barnard College, Richard Pious whose advice I continue to value, and Lisa Tiersten whose support and friendship often led her to go above and beyond the call of duty.
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