The ambiguity of religious teachings allows people to craft narratives that justify inherited local burial patterns that they hold dear. Should Christians and Muslims Cohabit after Death? Diverging Views in a Senegalese Commune Ato Kwamena Onoma

In Senegal, some people are open to burial in cemeteries used for the departed of all faiths, while others wish to be buried only in cemeteries used exclusively for people of their own religion. Research in Fadiouth, which has a mixed cemetery, and Joal, which has segregated cemeteries, indicates that most people, regardless of their faith, embrace the dominant burial practice in their community. I argue that the ambiguity of religious doctrines through which people look at interment explains the legitimacy of local burial arrangements. Because people consume these teachings through interpretive exer- cises, even exposure to the same doctrines may not always help us understand the choices they make. This article sheds light on interfaith relations and the explanatory potential of religious teachings.

Introduction

In 2014, Abdou Diouf, the former president of Senegal, came under attack by some people in his hometown of Louga. He was accused of being a bad citizen of his place of origin. Specific offenses included not visiting Louga for ten years, not acquiring land there, and not developing the area during his presidency (Leral.net 2014). Beyond these preoccupations was an other- worldly transgression, which had driven some in Louga over the edge. Abdou Diouf had publicly expressed a wish to be buried in the faraway southern Senegalese city of Ziguinchor instead of Louga. Ziguinchor is one of the few Senegalese cities with a mixed cemetery, where people of all faiths can be buried. Diouf reasoned that in Ziguinchor, unlike most places in Senegal, where each cemetery is reserved for people of one faith, he as a Muslim and

Africa Today Vol. 66, No. 1 • Copyright © The Trustees of Indiana University • DOI: 10.2979/africatoday.66.1.02 When we die, we will be buried in different cemeteries. When be buried in different cemeteries. When When we die, we will is only which in Cimetière Belair, I die, I want to be buried a Muslim cemeteryfor Catholics. My spouse can be buried in together in marriagesomewhere. The fact that we have lived also have to go to the throughout our lives does not mean we (Interview 25) next world together. I argue that the ambiguity of religious teachings allows people to craft I argue that the ambiguity of religious Some Senegalese will join Abdou Diouf in preferring will join Abdou Some Senegalese open to or being as independent variables that can be used to explain outlooks, preferences, as independent variables that can be used to explain outlooks, preferences, and behavior (Masoud, Jamal, and Nugent 2016; McClendon and Riedl 2015). I do not argue that these teachings do not influence behavior; instead, I posit that their ambiguity permits the exercise of significant agency by individuals The argument reflects critically on literature that regards religious teachings Why do some individuals prefer to be buried in cemeteries reserved cemeteries in buried be to prefer individuals some do Why for only are open to intermentthose of their own faith, while others in cemeteries I explore this question by studying where people of all faiths can be buried? of Joal-Fadiouth. I find that in the preferences of people in the Commune and Fadiouth, the preferences of the the neighboring communities of Joal coincide in significant ways with the majority of residents in each locality intermentdominant which Fadiouth, in people Most area. their in practice the faith community to which they regardless of has a mixed cemetery, belong, prefer or are open to interment in mixed cemeteries. The majority and Christian cemeteries across in Joal, which operates segregated Muslim cemeteries. Given that some religious lines, wish to be buried in segregated people commonly detest and even struggle against dominant structures and in practices contrasting these of legitimacy the societies, their in practices these neighboring communities is puzzling. narratives local burial patterns that justify inherited that they hold dear. to hold similar tend each community in faiths different people of Thus, views on the legitimacy of mixed or segregated burials, while people of the same faith across communities often hold contrasting views on the matter. his wife, a Roman Catholic, would be able to rest side by side in the hereafter by side in rest side be able to would Catholic, a Roman his wife, 2015). 2014; Xibar.net (Senego.com intermentin a cemetery but many faiths can be buried, where people of all faith are people of their own where only burial in cemeteries strongly prefer A 2016 surveyinhumed. Commune of I conducted in the of 594 people that of respon- Thies Region, revealed that 47 percent Joal-Fadiouth, in Senegal’s wanted percent 53 but cemetery, a mixed in buried being open to were dents to be interred in cemeteries reservedpeople of their own faith. The only for preference for interment cemeteries is held even in faith-based segregated Diouf, are in marriagesby some who, like people of different involving raise and have lifetime, a for together live may couples these of Some faiths. A their own way. but when they die, each prefers to go children, and so on, in one such marriagemiddle-aged woman the point: was clear on

africa today 66(1) 30 Should Christians and Muslims Cohabit after Death? africa today 66(1) 31 Ato Kwamena Onoma - Joal-Fadiouth is famous in Senegal for being the birthplaceJoal-Fadiouth is famous in Senegal for of Léopold The choice of Joal and Fadiouth for this study was influenced by many The rest of this article is divided into five parts. Immediately below, I The rest of this article is divided into five parts. Immediately below, A body of literature demonstrates the insights into intergroup rela- demonstrates the insights into intergroup A body of literature This article months of ethnographic research in the draws on eleven interviewed­Commune of Joal-Fadiouth in 2016. I sixty-seven purposefully selected participantsinformalheld and themore in many with conversations the Senegalese capital. Interviewees included thirty-commune and in Dakar, six men and thirty-one these were religious and political women. Among involved in cemeteryleaders, local notables and sages, people work, and ordinary churches, mosques, and other sites townfolks. I visited cemeteries, I draw on an original surveyFurther, of traditional religious significance. of in 2016. 594 people that I conducted in the commune Mainland Joal, with a the first president of the country. Sedar Senghor, the largest town in the commune. population of around 40,000, is by far to Joal by a 760-meter footbridge, The island village of Fadiouth, connected locality in the commune, Ngazobil, has around 5,000 residents. The third was excluded from this study because it has fewer than 500 residents, all of them being Roman Catholic Church officials or relatives of these church personnel. factors. The commune has a significant Christian population (more than 90 percent of the population of Senegal is Muslim), with Fadiouth being over 85 percent Roman Catholic and Joal having many Catholics, though they constitute a much smaller share of the population than in Fadiouth. The segment that lays out my main argument. An empirical section that explores my main argument. An empirical section segment that lays out fourthA follows. Joal-Fadiouth in dynamics competing a assesses section considers the broader The conclusion explanation, focusing on extremism. implications of this article and policy. for scholarship SelectionMethods and Case tance of cemeteries sometimes puts them at the center of such conflicts (The sometimes puts them at the center of tance of cemeteries 2016). Ma’an News Agency 2008; Myjoyonline.com Globe and Mail 2017; by a theoretical and case selection. This is followed briefly discuss methods end up arriving up end outlooks, proper constitutes what on conclusions at different their own teachings on their faith. These and behavior within preferences, patterns explaining broad be useful for thus, not always behavior. in may, of funerarytions that the exploration (Dississa 2009; practices can provide 1997). This article Ngimbi in using an joins this literature Jua 2005; Vangu on intermentexploration of attitudes to shed light on individuals’ practices These relations faiths. of different of people interactions toward attitudes and the impor- in some societies around the world, are the source of tension in their reception. Because people consume these teachings through interpre through these teachings consume people Because reception. in their help us may not always to the same teachings even exposure tive exercises, can to similar teachings make. People subjected the choices they understand - eachings, and Burial Practices eachings, T Like other institutions, religious teachings provide broad frames for The religious teachings in which burials are immersed can be under- The religious teachings in which burials The presence of significant communities of Christians and Muslims and Muslims communities of Christians of significant The presence controls, facili- constitute that commonalities Joal share and Fadiouth stood as “the rules (North of the game in a society” 1990, 3), or “the humanly devised constraints that structure political, economic[,] and social interac- (Northtion” certainfacilitate and legitimize They 97). 1991, of causes certainreward others. They impeding and action while delegitimizing forms influence the capacity of actors, of behavior while punishing others. They others. They shape actors’ interests strengthening some, while weakening norms.and institutions as see many that things of these account is on It social outcomes (Lust and economic, political, and significantly shaping Rakner 2018; North 1990). understanding what reality is and how it works. They espouse norms of appropriateness by proffering rules, regulations, and counsel, touching on many aspects of conduct and interactions. They sometimes dispose of sanc- tions and reward systems, leading to the view that religious teachings influ- ence their adherents’ outlooks, preferences, and behavior in definite ways Grzymala-Busse2015; (Glazier religious use of The 2006). et al. Guth 2012; Luneau 1980, 100). Finally, cemeteries and other burial places sometimes act and other burial places cemeteries Luneau 1980, 100). Finally, as spaces for the performance of religious rituals (Onoma 2018). Institutions, Religious Institutions, of, in termsBurials are often immersed, and spoken of religious teachings importantfor multiple reasons. First, like other events in life—birth, mar- beliefs play a major role in giving riage, and so on—religious practices and 21). Second, the nature of religious meaning to death (Malinowski 2004, performedrites to happens what influence to believed are funerals during relations that the dead come to have the dead in the afterlife, as well as the Jindra 2011, 122–23; Thomas and with the living (Gravrand 1990, 253–60; ties. Both Joal and Fadiouth are known in Senegal for their rather moderate Fadiouth are known in Senegal for their ties. Both Joal and indigenes of those who claim to be religions. Further, approaches to world who have similarare members of the Serere ethnic group, both communities the two communi- rites. Also, the physical proximity of cultures and burial making diverg- of religious doctrines between them, ties facilitates the flow ing views on interments even more surprising. Islam in the form faiths in the two communi of Sufism, are the predominant presence of significant populations of Muslims and Christians in the area area the in Christians and Muslims of populations significant of presence of the explanatorymakes a test affiliation possible. power of religious the spa- but commune, the in exist faiths for both places burial that means differs: Diotyo cemetery of cemeteries tial organization is used in Fadiouth for has separate cemeteries faiths, while Joal of people of all for the burial Muslims and Christians. Christianity in the formtating causal analysis. of Roman Catholicism, and

africa today 66(1) 32 Should Christians and Muslims Cohabit after Death? africa today 66(1) 33 Ato Kwamena Onoma - eligious Teachings eligious If religious teachings, like other institutions, influence behavior in like other institutions, influence If religious teachings, arrangementsThe supposed influence of institutional raises the ques- eception of Ambiguous R of Ambiguous eception The emphasis on structure constricting effects has not gone unchal- and its with scholars exploring the ways in lenged in the new institutionalism, by imposed constraints the within maneuver to room create actors which institutions. Uneven enforcement has long been cited as an explanation of why institutions do not always structure behavior in expected ways (Mahoney and Thelen 2010, 10–11). Scholars have also focused on the ambi- Pierson, and Thelen 2015, 189). Mahoney and guity of institutions (Hacker, Thelen view ambiguity in institutions as the quality of being “subject to varyingdifficult is It xi). (2010, enforcement” of levels and interpretations for institutions to deal with all possible situations that could fall under paths (1992, 363–65; 2000, 254; 2015, 134–41). These equilibria or periods paths (1992, 363–65; 2000, 254; 2015, big, exogenous shocks, which it is said, are shattered only by of continuity, switched, unleashing new equilibria create critical junctures when paths are (Mahoney 2000, 1; Pempel 1998, 1–3). R The that some institutions display positive feedback effects. Actors may have display positive feedback that some institutions certain a at institutions multiple among choice for room significant point in time, but once a choice is made, resorting to possibilities that existed at more difficult over time (Mahoney the initial stage becomes increasingly has contributed significantly to 2000, 510; Pierson 2015, 133). Pierson continuity along chosen institutionalexploring the mechanisms that ensure economic, and political outcomes while others do not. The theoryeconomic, and political outcomes while of punctu response to this question in positingated equilibrium provided an influential participation the rights of and attitudes toward and Riedl 2015), (McClendon teach- outlook on religious Nugent 2016). This Jamal, and women (Masoud, ings forms part of the broader category of cultural arguments (Harrison and 2005). Huntington 2000; Inglehart and Welzel and behavior should expect convergence in orientations definite ways, we religious tradition People operating within the same within their ambits. outlooks. The in a similar manner and have similar should tend to behave that are marked across spheres of religious teachings behavior of individuals potential influence Given the should tend to vary. by significant divergence proper doxa it is unsurprising that what constitutes of religious teachings, some- has long been the subject of contestation, for a faith community the broader Such conflicts reflect groups to splinter. times causing religious strugglesKnight (1992, 19), Moe (2005, 217–26), and over institutions that others have written about. tion of why certain structures societies possess that lead to desired social, teachings to explain socioeconomic and political outcomes has a long his- a long has outcomes and political socioeconomic to explain teachings stands out the protestant ethic on the effects of (1998) work Weber’s tory. many are used to explain religious teachings example. Today, as a leading terrorism including social phenomena, political 2007; Pratt 2010), (Loza ” appropriate for Muslims in a minority migratoryfiqh” appropriate for Muslims in a minority con- Ambiguity and the coexistence of multiple and sometimes divergent Ambiguity and the coexistence of multiple While drawing inspiration from such works, I departWhile drawing inspiration from such from them by The haziness of institutions creates room for individuals to innovate creates room for individuals The haziness of institutions These reflections should dampen the expectation of convergence convergence of expectation the dampen should reflections These within institutional spheres. People operating within an institutional within institutional spheres. People operating within an institutional reception of an already prepared dish. Multiple recipients of these ingredients ingredients these of recipients Multiple dish. prepared already an of reception but they also may end up prepar- may well end up preparing a similar dish, different tastes, affecting consumers ing different dishes with significantly and the pertinent different ways. The possibly diverse beliefs body politic in teachings should give us pause for that may result from receipt of the same it is thought in deploying religious teachings as causal variables. Further, not unheard of for people to refuse to put into practice teachings that they without “practice of phenomenon the is there Finally, accept. and know belief” (Asad 2001, 220): many members of faith communities routinely doxa without believing in with religious engage in behavior that accords such teachings. and norms (Constable 2013, 1007). study of world religions (Asad 2001, interpretations have been cited in the of religious teachings partly213; Smith 1991, 66). These characteristics sense to speak of religion skepticism over whether it makes ground Asad’s 1991, 5). Masoud, Jamal, and Nugent as a noun at all (Asad 2011, 38; Smith of divergent versions of religious (2016) recognize and explore the effect Fall, advocating the elaboration of “a teachings on outlooks and behavior. contextualized legal pluralism, involving actors in an environment with multiple regulatory actors in an environment with multiple legal pluralism, involving choosing arrangementssystems strategically accord with their interests that text in Quebec, recognizes the importance of interpretation in the elabora- tion of religious teachings (2011, 18). the links between religious teachings emphasizing the need to problematize I stress the element of on the other. on the one hand and belief and practice transformingagency in how teachings are received, them into beliefs that It is better to think of this process more in termsmay influence behavior. of a meal, rather than as the that can be used to prepare acquiring ingredients passages in the same text. Multiple sources of rules sources text. Multiple the same in passages known and all may exist, constitute a coherent set. provisions may not rulesinterpreting by stated extending by and diverge may that ways in rules 11). The multiplicity situations (Mahoney and Thelen 2010, to new cherryof sources lets people widely studied by scholars of pick—a process their ambit because of the width and evolution of the phenomena that they that phenomena of the and evolution width of the ambit because their govern of institutions does 11). This character and Thelen 2010, (Mahoney occur by sometimes even a lack, and it may to be understood as not have institu- is stipulated by Even some of what 2013, 128–29). design (Onoma 105). The 229; Thelen 2000, (Jackson 2005, rather equivocal tions is often What a apply a rule to which one can situations clear. may not be entirely meaning the Often, obvious. always not is means passage or sentence, word, reference to other in a text can be deciphered only with of a word or passage

africa today 66(1) 34 Should Christians and Muslims Cohabit after Death? africa today 66(1) 35 Ato Kwamena Onoma egitimizing Narratives for Burial Patterns for Narratives egitimizing Inheriting such sticky institutions, people find the ambiguity of the Doubts over the utility of religion as a cause that explains social reali- as a cause that explains of religion Doubts over the utility ashioning L veneration of ancestors and the centrality of burial sites to its practice of burial sites to its practice veneration of ancestors and the centrality Africa have interacted with world have evolved over time as societies in 2011, 180; Gravrand 1990, 253; Jindra 2005, 357). Not religions (de Witte discarding the burial practices of the ancestors without significant cause can be thought of as part of the process of venerating forebearers and their ways of doing things. religious teachings in which these burials are immersed handy because it lets them craft interpretations of religious doctrines that accord with their inherited interment practices, obviating a need to undertake the exercise of makes reworking cemeteries at will difficult. Second, people’s desire to desire to difficult. Second, people’s makes reworking cemeteries at will as a significant barrierbe buried near their dead relatives acts to change in the spatial arrangement This wish sheds light on the of cemeteries. pervasiveness around the world. The in many cemeteries of family plots only one aspect of an attach- forebears is desire to be buried next to one’s partssome in noted been has which ancestors, to ment (Gravrand Africa of 1990, 267–69; Roberts Thomas and Luneau 1980, 103–06). This 2011, 214; First, the long history and burials that is partially of regulating cemeteries concerns health public in rooted 142) 2000, (MurraySantarsiero 130; 2003, F some- and diverse of people allows teachings religious ambiguity of The times contrasting interests and norms to create room under their ambit. is particularlyThis character of religious teachings conducive to people These actors can craft are sticky. attached to practices and outlooks that practices and beliefs. Local inter- interpretations compatible with their stickiness due to mechanisms that ment systems often demonstrate such Pierson speaks of (1992, 363–65). are akin to the “lock-in effects” that of institutions only because the ambiguity of these structuresof institutions only allow these to norms to pursue their interests and adhere actors significant freedom they 2013, 124). hold dear (Onoma Marxties have a rich heritage. as a mover of history did not see religion social practice and treated it as a manifestation of (1978), and Durkheim (Durkheim 1915). instead of their explanation power, institutions: it may well be that agents are willing to stay within the ambits within the ambits well be that agents are willing to stay institutions: it may sphere can sometimes have diverse preferences, outlooks, and practices that that practices and outlooks, preferences, diverse have sometimes can sphere diverging to adhering people Also, institution. this from inspiration draw all Asad that coincide. behavior and preferences may well exhibit institutions someone “unless you knew in some instances, in noting that may be right from or not merely she was a believer could not tell whether well, you rethink of call for a 49). These reflections lived” (Asad 2011, the way she that we often convergence within institutional realms how we understand adherence effects of institutions. Continued attribute to the constricting effects of not always be a sign of the constricting to an institution may - - People’s embrace of the dominant burial practice in their community embrace of the dominant burial practice People’s A complete understanding of dynamics in the commune requires a commune in the of dynamics understanding A complete In Joal-Fadiouth, people inherit burial practices that are not easy to that are not easy burial practices people inherit In Joal-Fadiouth, 1). These cemeteries were preceded by that of Fadiouth, as well as a previous 1). These cemeteries were preceded by that of Fadiouth, as well as a previous research on sleeping sickness, human African trypanosomiasis (Debien David Boilat in reference to a 1964, 20, 59). It was also mentioned by L’Abbé burial that took place there in 1784 (Boilat 1984, 139, 148–50). A long-time male community leader in the area was one of the people that indicated that the Muslim cemetery of Joal dates back to the early 1900s (Interview The finding that the dominant local modes of arrangingThe finding that the dominant local burials in the com- light on the type of cemeterymunity in which individuals live sheds that obvious or banal. People commonly they are open to being buried in is not community and long for and pursue detest the dominant practices in their elsewhere. The frequent trans- practices and frameworks that are prevalent portation Africa and between continents (Dime of African corpses within 46; Nyamnjoh 2013, 188) attests to and Fall 2011, 128–31; Geschiere 2005, and pursue possibilities and practices the fact that some Africans aspire to elsewhere when it comes to interments. is partly of cemeteries and the ambiguity of the linked to the stickiness in Joal People burial practices are immersed. in which religious doctrines that are not entirely easy to and Fadiouth have inherited burial practices communities is at least several hun- change. The use of cemeteries in these dred years old. What became the Christian cemetery of Joal is mentioned by ArmandDoctor Corre conduct to area the visited he when 1876, as early as ited burial patterns. majority of Muslims and It is on account of this that the burial spaces as what is required Christians in Joal tend to see segregated mixed see Fadiouth in neighbors their of majority the while faiths, their by teachings of the same faiths. burials as entirely legitimate under the in Joal and Fadiouth on Interments Discourses Divergent contemplation of Christianity and Islam, which individuals always reference and Islam, which individuals contemplation of Christianity interments.of speaking in perfectedhave people communities, both In the art legitimize their inher interpretations of religious doxa that of elaborating preferences concerning preferences interments.of segregation faith-based the sticki The responses a broad set of tell us which among does not ness of institutions toward these arrangements include warmly people adopt. These options embracing burial arrangements, to living with what reconciling themselves odious practices, quietly subvertingthey may consider these measures, and protesting and strugglingfleeing or loudly these structures. against These practices and have noted in response to dominant are all paths that scholars 2009). world (Hirschman 1970; Scott 1990, policies around the changing burial patterns burial changing they to which faiths the of teachings the or disobey fervently adhere. in explaining goes so far only practices these of the stickiness change, but

africa today 66(1) 36 Should Christians and Muslims Cohabit after Death? africa today 66(1) 37 Ato Kwamena Onoma Attachment to the dead is deeply rooted in the cosmology of the cosmology in the deeply rooted dead is to the Attachment burial practices helps us partlyThe difficulty of changing inherited The wish to be buried near the bodies of relatives already interred bodies of relatives to be buried near the The wish in surveyed in Fadiouth are open to interment in mixed cemeteries. They insist that mixed cemeteries are in accordance with the teaching of their faiths. In Joal, the majority of Muslims (91.43 percent) and Christians (52 percent) both Islam and arguing that in segregated cemeteries, be buried only wish to Christianity require segregated cemeteries. Similarities in the variants of Islam and Christianity practiced in the two localities, the pervasiveness of com- neighboring the between flows free the and activities, religious joint munities have not led to convergence in preferences within faiths. ties (who are almost all Roman Catholics) to tend to have similar preferencesties (who are almost all Roman Catholics) of burials, just as their Muslim with regard to the faith-based segregation neighbors (who are overwhelmingly Sufi). But contrary to this expectation, a survey in 2016 indicates that preferences do I conducted in the commune Instead, it revealed a in this way. not neatly map onto religious orientations lived and what their preferences were. strong overlap between where people percent) and Muslims (76 percent) The majority of both Christians (87.9 contemplation of Christianity and Islam, which individuals always referencecontemplation of Christianity and Islam, people always assertin speaking of local inhumations. In Joal-Fadiouth that their preferences concerning interments are in line with the teachings of preferences will neatly map onto their religion, leading one to expect that communi- the two across Christians would expect One divisions. religious Fadiouth (Interview (Interview 1), a female public official in Fadiouth 3), and leader from Joal (Interviewa female community all indicated that some 15) secure cemetery plots to make this possible. their ancestors of veneration home. The their commune the who call Serere which acknowl- is an important part of a monotheistic Serere cosmology, to be particularly god. But Roog is not thought edges Roog as the supreme , that are more lives. It is the ancestors, called pangool implicated in human great things in lives. They were people who achieved involved in human at death with prayers, sacrifices, liba- life and are venerated and propitiated punish, protect, and reward humans tions, and so on. They are the ones that and con- is pervasive(Gravrand 1990, 305–52). Their veneration even today, tinuing with the burial patterns they established can be thought of as part of the process of following in their footsteps. segregation of intermentsunderstand attitudes toward the faith-based in of the phenomenon requires a Joal-Fadiouth. A complete understanding cemetery (Onoma Joal in Moulonga of neighborhood the today is what in for special places existed and Islam, the advent of Christianity 2018). Before burying religious used for traditional as great people, spaces those regarded (Onoma 2018). rites today terms this desire in in the area. Some express is widespread the commune of same cemetery the area, but many wish to lie in the just being buried in or certainto the grave of right next leader from A male community relatives. - - important The task of working one’s way through religious doctrines is made way through religious doctrines is one’s The task of working The lack of convergence along religious lines reflects the fact that the that the the fact reflects lines along religious of convergence The lack eaving Discourses eaving practice. These discourses are passed on over generations and refined over practice. These discourses are passed on over generations and refined over time. It is through these processes that most people in each community have come to embrace their dominant local practice as their preference. W in the commune have become The creativity and ingenuity of individuals crucial to the task of determining proper conduct on the question of the spa- tial organization of the burial of people of different faiths. The ambiguity of Christian and Muslim teachings allows the majority in each community to weave discourses that assert the propriety of their dominant inherited burial Some simply referred religion teaches,” without being specific to “what our circulate include these teachings which through sources. The media on mosques, sermons, conferences, radio and TV programs, MP3, and religious guides, social media platformsUSB keys containing the teachings of various Lumière sur on. The book Khouratou Ayni: and so and websites, YouTube, les Pratiques Islamiques, written by Serigne Abo Madyana Shouhaibou few texts that ordinaryMbacké, a Mouride sage, is one of the members of talked said they consulted daily to get the Mouride Sufi order with whom I seeking guidelines have to undertakedirections on proper conduct. People sortingincludes process that a or of sources number significant through a best. settling on a few that they judge to be Muslims in Senegal are adherents of the Maliki School). Many of the ordinaryMuslims in Senegal are adherents of the the teachings of their neighborhood Muslims I talked to mostly referenced and eruditeimams, religious guides, Quranic schoolteachers, acquaintances. vative agents. Respected religious teachings are often silent on ­ teachings are Respected religious vative agents. of inter segregation encourages the faith-based condemns nor Quran neither cite are some- contained in the sources people the counsel ments. Further, arriveto people for room leaving vague, times on conclusions different at members many where even that ensures This faith. their by required is what the teachings of claim to believe in and comply with of a faith community because of differ- preferences and behavior may diverge their religion, their understand those teachings to be. ences in what they that people see the fact that there are multiple sources more interesting by Christians of these religions. In Joal-Fadiouth, as containing the teachings them are Roman Bible, but since the vast majority of regularly refer to the to Catholic canon unusual for them to make recourse Catholic, it is not Muslim reli- or catechists say. People may refer to what various priests law. as secondarywell as hadiths, and the Quran the refer to often leaders gious texts (the overwhelmingsources that often include Maliki Fiqh majority of religious teachings that people cite are rather nebulous in important cite are rather nebulous that people religious teachings respects, and inno by clever and stretching susceptible to interpretation making them that the instance, point out and Fadiouth, for clerics in Joal matters. Many

africa today 66(1) 38 Should Christians and Muslims Cohabit after Death? africa today 66(1) 39 Ato Kwamena Onoma learn Mohammad from the behavior and sayings of the Prophet (Interview(Peace be Upon Him) as told in the hadiths. 22) Having separate cemeteries is important. Muslims have to be buried in a cemetery that is only for Muslims. According (Peace be Upon Him) to the hadiths, the Prophet Mohammad Muslims use the Holy was buried in a cemetery like that. We but we also Quran, the word of God, to guide our behavior, about the place where the burial should take place. That is notabout the place where all important.at buried should be Muslim someone says a If in a cemetery for only Muslims, tell the person to show you so. (Interviewjust one verse in the Holy Quran that says 18) Our practice [of burying in a mixed cemetery] conforms with Quran states some rulesthe Holy Quran. The on how to pre- to lay it in the grave. Once you follow pare the corpse and how these rules, is the end. The Holy Quran says nothing that One of the most common strategies for legitimizing burial practices in burial practices for legitimizing strategies common of the most One ture and legitimize their views on interments.ture and legitimize their views on Christian and Muslim Joal often focus on religious teachings defenders of segregated cemeteries in on respect for all in defending their preference for segregated cemeteries. The argument, as enunciated separately by a male Muslim cleric in Joal (Interview 14) and a male leader in the Christian community there (Inter- view 9), went thus: Christianity and Islam both preach respect for all, and so each religion is to be respected. Respecting a religion includes giving Burials are core parts it space to conduct its rites and rituals in privacy. of the rites and rituals of each faith. Therefore, segregating cemeteries is The innovative interpretation of texts is another strategy for wading through is another strategy for wading through The innovative interpretation of texts disposal as they seek to struc- the wealth of religious teachings at people’s in Joal who insisted on using segregated cemeteries pointed out the cherryin Joal who insisted on using segregated picking involved in the one-verse challenge: I was never able to find someone who could meet the one-verse challenge I was never able to find someone who Muslim cleric cemeteries, but a male among the many who prefer segregated ing enticing, and some in the commune have developed it into a veritable art it into a veritable commune have developed and some in the ing enticing, form.- the one-verse chal came to call in what I eventually It is illustrated to justify is often deployed This challenge my field research. lenge during defenders of mixed cemeteries in Fadiouth. It involves the preference for cemeteries segregated in burial on insist who those asking cemeteries mixed or the Bible that mandates segregation in the Quran to show a single verse in Fadiouth senior member of the Muslim community of the dead. A male put the challenge forcefully: Joal-Fadiouth is that of cherryJoal-Fadiouth of written and oral The multiplicity picking. cherryof adoption the makes Christianity and Islam within teachings pick- - - A cemetery so Muslims are buried is like a mosque, where we have to observe strict rules of decorum when entering exist for rulesand staying in such cemeteries. Those don’t separate cemeteries. we should have is why Christians. That (Interview 15) The passion that many interviewees demonstrated gave a clear indica- Another interpretive exercise undertaken exercise Another interpretive some Muslim residents by I did not encounter anyone who claimed to be cherry be to claimed who anyone were many encounter but not did I picking, quick to accuse others of strategically ignoring certain sources in favor of those that were more in line with their choices. picking was always portrayed as what others did that one did not agree with. should be buried in cemeteries dedicated only to Muslims, exceptional cir- should be buried in cemeteries dedicated to be buried in mixed cemeteriescumstances make it legitimate for Muslims (Interview exceptional circumstances is not 22). Because what constitutes room can occur for innovation and contestation. always clear, were, for them, parttion that discussions during these sessions of impor- This passion often they hold dear. tant debates over doxa in religions that informativeand highly combative, transformed interviewsinto lengthy, as ambiguous, but many admitted discussions. No one spoke of their faith to as much in pointing to the silences in matters concerning interments in their holy texts and how this permitted divergent multiple and sometimes cherry realize that to came I field, the in spent I months the During choices. ments. In Fadiouth, imaginative readings are often used by Muslims to defendments. In Fadiouth, imaginative readings circumstancesby exceptional The exigencies imposed mixed cemeteries. of the Muslim community inconstitute one argument. A senior member Quran permitsFadiouth made the argument thus: the Muslims to stray from make exceptional circumstances where in situations recommended practices following rules if one agreed that in an ideal world, Muslims impossible. Even Interpretation is deployed not only in supportInterpretation is deployed not only in of the segregation of inter- respect these rules cemeteries. It is there for entering and staying in Muslim this argument, a to be segregated. In enunciating fore proper for cemeteries the for said prayers and to proffered greetings the to pointed cleric Muslim a cemeterydead when one enters are buried (Interview where Muslims 22). A female public servant from Joal was of the same opinion: goes, are in many ways like mosques, because they are the sites of important like mosques, because they are the goes, are in many ways require adher means that entering and staying in them religious rituals. This ence to certain norms. to understand and uphold It is possible for Muslims these rules. for Christians to of limited knowledge, it is impossible Because an importantan and Christians Proper faith. each for respect showing of way for the that are used only embrace cemeteries should, therefore, Muslims of their faith. burial of members places of the resting cemeteries compares defense of segregated of Joal in argument are buried, the where Muslims mosques. Cemeteries the dead to

africa today 66(1) 40 Should Christians and Muslims Cohabit after Death? africa today 66(1) 41 Ato Kwamena Onoma circumstances or explain such deviation as the result of igno- such deviation as the result of circumstances or explain extremism, and so on. extremism, and so The history communities might begin to shed of migration in the two As I conducted research, I noticed a tension between the tolerance of the tolerance between a tension I noticed research, conducted As I The phenomenon of religious extremism is a competing hypothesis invoked in theindividuals why some to explain in Joal-Fadiouth some people by commune prefer to be buried in segregated cemeteries while others remain A Question of Extremism and Moderation? cemeteries than Christians. It may help us understand why Muslims tend to cemeteries than Christians. It may help the attachment to mixed cemeteries be the majority of those deviating from against the to go than Christians are less likely but Muslims in Fadiouth, in Joal. dominant practice of segregating cemeteries dominant practice of segregated interments in Joal are Christians, unlike in against the idea of mixed cemeteries Fadiouth, where most of those going are Muslims. two communities are contrasting light on some of these dynamics. The of large numbers of migrants with regard to migration. Joal is the recipient of its aquatic wealth, while Fadiouth from Senegal and beyond on account 2018). Most of the immigrants are is best known for emigration (Onoma where segregated cemeteries are the Muslims from other areas of Senegal, norm prefer burial in such cemeteries. This may help and who are likely to insistent on intermentexplain why Muslims tend to be more in segregated Migration, Dissenting “Minorities,” and Other and Dynamics Interesting “Minorities,” Dissenting Migration, a few patternsThe commune exhibits did not set out to deal with that I are worthbut that here concerns One of these pointing out. the minorities 20 These constitute trends in each community. deviating from dominant percent of those interviewed in Fadiouth. Muslims in Joal and 14 percent idea of segregated cemeteries in the overall tend to be more tied to the burial to openness in difference The locality. the of regardless commune, and Muslims is only 12 percent in mixed cemeteries between Christians of those interviewed but constitutes 39 percent in Joal. Fur- in Fadiouth is an inverse trend in the tendency of faith communities to there ther, two areas. Most of those defying the deviate from dominant trends in the more troublesome installation of one’s practice as the best way or the the or way best the as practice one’s of installation troublesome more then Some would a faith. dictates of with the in line approach that is only on account of the less than proper approaches excuse others for adopting ­exceptional ­ rance, ­ other ways of approaching burials and the urge to regard one’s approach as approach to regard one’s and the urge of approaching burials other ways that with the tolerance coincides The first approach way. the only proper seemed often tendency second The Senegal. in for noted is Joal-Fadiouth and the position as right assertionfrom elision of the to result one’s of It is very hard to see people that call themselves animists these days, but the practices remain. It does not matter whether people are Christian or Muslim. They pour libations and do is mixed and belongs to all. Each faith has its part.its has faith Each all. to belongs and mixed is some But to rooted in intolerance. It applies people believe in separation see each in the commune. You both Muslims and Christians trying even blanket to their side. It manifests itself to pull the to buryin their not agreeing next to people of different faiths (Interview26) each other. You have to praise the tolerance in Fadiouth. They live like Fadiouth. They live the tolerance in have to praise You Their cemeterythat and also bury like that, next to each other. Residents of the commune are quick to proffer explanations for peo- Residents of the commune are quick gious practices that bring Muslims and Christians together. A retired female gious practices that bring Muslims and Christians together. teacher and farmer in Joal who is Christian emphasized this factor: This argument coincides with the use of extremism to explain terrorism with the use of extremism to This argument coincides that focuses on 2010, 440). It refines the argument (Loza 2007, 142; Pratt may be more in recognizing that strains within faiths religious affiliation, important as such. Field research did not uncover that religious affiliation much support People in the two communities display for this hypothesis. questions of interfaithsimilarly high levels of moderation on interactions, to explain the stark variations making it impossible for these attitudes in preferences concerning of interment place across the two localities. formtolerant the for known is Senegal of many by practiced Islam Sufi of 2013; Diouf 2013; Mbacké 2005; its inhabitants (Babou 2013; Cochrane 1995). In the general environment of moderation, Stepan 2013; Villalon particularlyJoal-Fadiouth has the reputation of being tolerant on questions of interfaith the practices there do not make sense to relations. Some of A senior member of Senegalese living in many other parts of the country. indicated that Christians wishing to the Muslim community in Fadiouth with Muslim neighbors will share the meat of their slaughtered animals in line with Islamic teachings allow these neighbors to kill the animals (Interview a rosary 18). I received a gift of and counsel to “be stronger in cleric in Joal with whom I held [my] Catholic faith” from a senior Muslim long discussions during fieldwork. an old Muslim differences. Some, like on religious moderate outlooks ple’s farmerdo the commune in people that suggest Fadiouth, to in spoke I that not get carried in world religions because they are still away by differences united by strong adherence to traditional religious beliefs (Interview 11). Many in the commune readily attest to the persistence of traditional reli- who is a close observerwho is a close of interfaith it this way: the commune put relations in open to inhumation in mixed cemeteries. It is argued that those who insist that those It is argued mixed cemeteries. in to inhumation open mixedto open are who while people extremists, cemeteries are segregated on Fadiouthin community Christian the in leader A moderates. are cemeteries

africa today 66(1) 42 Should Christians and Muslims Cohabit after Death? africa today 66(1) 43 Ato Kwamena Onoma . . Family relations preceded religion. I have an uncle who is Christian. When I was a kid, he used to buy me clothes for Now what can (Eid al-Adha) so I could go and pray. Tabaski I say to him about religion? When I was going to Mecca, my Catholic relatives gave me 50,000 francs to help pay for the trip. (Interview 13) I am Catholic. My older sister is Muslim. She marriedI am Catholic. My older sister is Muslim. a beer have kept our relationship. I drink Muslim husband. We prays with a mat I in their glass when I visit them. Here she same mother and father and one blood. have the We give her. talk about does This Islamo-Christian dialogue thing people a dialogue of blood. not exist here. In Joal-Fadiouth, we have (Interview 34) attentively, but they continue with their practices. (Interview practices. their with continue they but 7) attentively, practices like drinking [alcohol] and eatingMuslims left behind Christians Muslims and Both libations. pour still but we pigs, to the sacred grove on a day each week tofrom our lineage go with the ancestors. (Interviewvenerate and commune 3) sacrifices. They venerate the ancestors. We do it today. When today. We do it the ancestors. venerate They sacrifices. people Lomb, where the great we go to pray at the rains delay, rain falls. . we come back, the even before and are buried, listen practices, and people preaches against these The church The crosscutting character of importantof crosscutting character The commune in the cleavages The thoughts of an old man who is a leader in the Muslim community in The thoughts of an old man who is a Fadiouth went in the same direction. gets mentioned often in the effort the in often mentioned gets role The area. the in moderation explain to conflicts is the subject of a consider- of crosscutting cleavages in mitigating able body of literature (Dunning and Harrison 2010; Goodin 1975). A leader families have that many in Fadiouth noted in the Christian community allowing family ties and processes both Muslim and Christian members, (Interviewaffiliation religious on based differences assuage to com- A 26). that the maternalmunity leader from Fadiouth suggested lineages, which importantare and both Muslim unite commune, the Serere of the among reli- in differences that tensions the attenuating again members, Christian gious affiliation might instigate (Interview 1). A middle-aged man involved in cemetery noted: work in the commune These accounts attest to the environment of religious pluralism in the com- to the environment of religious pluralism These accounts attest also noted in her that Langewiesche (2003) mune. This is a phenomenon study of Burkina Faso. A female Muslim public servantA female Muslim public similar observations: from Fadiouth made - - I don’t want to be buried in a cemeteryin buried be to want I Muslims! with don’t I Living in Joal. here are done separate cemeteries as they want die, they want to together is not a problem, but when people be returned Even with mixed couples, each to their religion. in the place reservedis buried according to their religion and for their faith. (Interview 8) This study suggests that the influence of religious ideologies on indi- This study suggests that the influence ous factors that go beyond these ideologies. A wide range of issues, includingthat go beyond these ideologies. A wide range factors ous economic marginalization, and political oppression, have been cited poverty, in the literature in this regard (Loza 2007; Pech and Slade 2006). This article suggests that attention to pluralism holds some promise for understanding the This study raises questions about the extent to which these religious ideologiesThis study raises questions about the extent can explain broad patterns Because the ambiguity of ideologies of behavior. provides room for interpretation, the question inevitably arises of why people Why do some settle on more extreme interpret religious teachings differently. versions, while others arriveexplain theneed to at more moderate ones? The extrane for space up opens on settle people that teachings religious of versions these ideologies as uniformlyall aspects of their adherents’ lives. influencing of being wholly uniform:viduals’ behavior is segmented, instead it is accord ingly better to portray as holding extreme or moderate views on individuals portray to than issues specific Individuals moderates. or extremists as them issue may have moderate views on who may hold extreme views on one who may have no problem marryingothers. In Joal-Fadiouth, individuals scream may faiths other of people alongside lives entire their living and “God forbid!” or “Astaghfirullah! ” when it is suggested to them that their bodies should be buried in a cemetery containing the bodies of people of retired public official with whom I other faiths. The declaration of a female spoke in Joal shows this dynamic: behavior. This outlook has led to the spread of deradicalization and coun- led to the spread of deradicalization This outlook has behavior. terradicalization behavior by which seek to change individuals’ programs, extreme religious views and to prevent the spread of altering their religious (Horgan and Altier 2012; Sternideologies, respectively 2010). The portrayal of actors holding extremists or moderates, instead of individuals as being views on certainextreme or moderate to the tendency to see issues, points religious ideologies frequently invoked to justify violence, which has a has which violence, justify to invoked frequently ideologies religious et al. 2012). Such in Africa (Adesoji 2011; Maiangwa destabilizing influence violence mirrors, in other parts and is sometimes connected to, conflicts of context that observersthe world. It is in this concern have over the spread violent motivate to thought are which ideologies, religious extreme of Conclusion articleThis arranging modes of spatially on why local light sheds burial the are so warmlyof different faiths of people by majorities across embraced to importantFadiouth. It speaks in Joal and religious divides debates about

africa today 66(1) 44 Should Christians and Muslims Cohabit after Death? africa today 66(1) 45 Ato Kwamena Onoma - undamentalism undamentalism and the F aram: Haram: Islamic oko B etween etween Maitatsine and . Dependence in the Economy Ann Returns and Path Increasing Arbor: University of 1994. 57 (4): 99–119. doi:10.2979/africatoday.57.4.99. Today Africa esponse of the Nigerian State.” R Michigan Press. The coexistence of such sharply differing preferences in these proximate sharply differing preferences in these The coexistence of such The role of interpretation in how people receive religious teachings rein teachings religious receive people how in interpretation of role The Brian. cknowledgements S CITED REFERENCES A Adesoji, Adesoji, Abimbola. 2011. “B I wish to thank Serigne Cheikh Ka, Justin Sonko, Simone Faye, Ellen Dibor I wish to thank Serigne Cheikh Ka, Justin project. this on assistance research for Diouf Fallou Mamadou and Ngom, and editors of Africa Today I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers helped me improve this work. This for their insightful comments that have study was generously supported a grant from the Nagel Institute for the by Christianity at Calvin College. Study of World Arthur, Arthur, communities suggests the importance of understanding the ways in which broad global visions are received, transformed, and deployed in local contexts. the global and the local is importantThe focus on the encounter between of manifestations and effects ofbecause it helps us make sense of the panoply teach- religious same the do Why global flows. same the ostensibly are what people of other faiths, certainings provoke less tolerant attitudes toward in some contexts while eliciting moregenders, and various minority groups localof exploration The situations? other in populations these to openness dynamics as undertaken in this article stands to shed light on this puzzle. forces an insight from recent work on historical institutionalism. Structure recent work on historical institutionalism. forces an insight from and its ability to determine highlighted in explanations behavior tends to get (Arthurof institutional continuity but the inability of 1994; Thelen 1999), institutions to structure can contribute behavior because of their ambiguity embrace versions and persistence by allowing people to to their legitimation 2013, 124). that they find convenient (Onoma of these institutions versions of world religions that people adopt. It follows Langewiesche (2003) Langewiesche It follows adopt. that people religions of world versions attach- religious pluralism, marked by that in environments in suggesting make influence how people orientation can of one religious ment to elements study, they adhere. In this doxa to which relate to other religious sense of and theto around attachment religious beliefs traditional of elements persisting teachings ambiguous how people interpret and their ways influence ancestors interments.of world religions on literature, these traditional As noted in the have in their turnpractices and beliefs immune to the influences of not been (Gravrand 1990, 253; Jindra 2005, 357). these world religions

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Xibar.net. 2015. “Promesses Non Tenues: Abdou Diouf, Snobe ATO KWAMENA ONOMA is a senior program officer at the Council for the a senior program officer at the Council ONOMA is KWAMENA ATO He holds Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA). Development of Social and Political Science. His currentdegrees in Philosophy work uses epidem- ics and interment relations in Africa. practices to explore intercommunal W

africa today 66(1) 50 Should Christians and Muslims Cohabit after Death?

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