Introduction
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Notes Introduction 1 . Confucius, The Original Analects: Sayings of Confucius and His Successors/a new translation and commentary by E. Bruce Brooks and A. Taeko Brooks , trans. E. Bruce Brooks and A. Taeko Brooks (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 55. 2 . Carl Gustav Jung, The Development of Personality , trans. R.F.C. Hull (London: Routledge, 1991), 45. 3 . Ellen Pifer defines childhood as a “cultural construction.” Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll: Images of the Child in Contemporary Writing and Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 1. 4 . Lu Xun 剕䖙, “Kuangren riji” ⢖Ҏ᮹䆄 (Diary of a Madman), in Na Han , by Lu Xun (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1976), 12–26. 5 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales: Evolutionary Thinking and Modern Chinese Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011). 6 . Elizabeth Goodenough, Mark A. Heberle, and Naomi Sokoloff, eds, Infant Tongues: The Voice of the Child in Literature (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994), 6. 7 . Anne Behnke Kinney, ed., Chinese Views of Childhood (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1995), 1. 8 . One interesting gender-based difference comes from Confucian ritual texts. According to The Book of Rites (Liji), phases of development were different for girls and boys, with girls taking the steps which would prepare them for marriage at the age of fourteen, and boys as late as twenty, or even thirty. Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage: Children and Childhood in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005), 184. 9 . Yu Hua ԭढ, “Shi ba sui chu men yuanxing” कܿቕߎ䮼䖰㸠 (On the Road at Eighteen), in Yu Hua zuopin ji , by Yu Hua (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1995), 3–10. 10 . Wang Shuo ⥟᳨, “Dongwu xiongmeng” ࡼ⠽ߊ⣯ (Animal Ferocity), in Dongwu xiongmeng : ‘Shouhuo’ 50 nian jingxuan xilie 7 , ed. Li Xiaolin, Xiao Yuanmin, and Cheng Yongxin (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chubanshe, 2009), 1–70. 11 . Wang Wenling ⥟᭛⦆, “Zhengzhi pipan gongju yu hao ertong: 80 niandai chuqi xiaoshuo chuangzuo zhong de ertong xingxiang” ᬓ⊏ᡍ߸ᎹϢདܓス: 80 ᑈҷ߱ᳳᇣ䇈߯Ёⱘܓスᔶ䈵 (Tools of political criticism and the good child: the child image in early 80s fiction), Xiandai yuwen ( wenxue yanjiu ban) (September 2007), 127. 12 . Elizabeth Goodenough et al., eds, Infant Tongues , 3. 13 . Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage , 21. 14 . Dong Xi ϰ㽓, Erguang xiangliang 㘇ܝડ҂ (A Resounding Slap in the Face) (Changchun: Changchun chubanshe, 1998). 188 Notes 189 15 . See, for example: Sheldon Hsiao-Peng Lu, “Postmodernity, Popular Culture and the Intellectual: A Report on Post-Tiananmen China,” Boundary 2, 23.2 (Summer 1996): 139–169; Xudong Zhang, “Nationalism, Mass Culture and Intellectual Strategies in Post-Tiananmen China,” Social Text 55 (Summer 1998): 109–140; and Ben Xu, “Postmodern-Postcolonial Criticism and Pro-Democracy Enlightenment,” Modern China 27.1 (January 2001): 117–147. 16 . These turning points are identified, for example, in: Ben Xu, “Postmodern- Postcolonial Criticism,” 121; and Sheldon Hsiao-Peng Lu, “Postmodernity,” 140–141. Lu labels 1989 “a watershed in contemporary Chinese cultural and intellectual history.” 17 . Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll , 4. Pifer’s argument is circular: that the literary child is fiction, but that, through the observation of this image, we can “become more conscious of the cultural and epistemological implications of those images for us and our culture.” 18 . For one of the most high-profile examples of this tendency, one can look to the many responses to the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Gao Xingjian (2000) and Mo Yan (2012), and the degree to which assumptions (and judgements) about the authors’ lives, politics, and allegiances were and continue to be conjured in different ways, and by diverse commentators and interest groups, as determining, or perhaps even simply more significant than, the value of the literature which they have produced. 19 . An impressive study of the child in short fiction published in Chinese magazines and literary journals in the 1980s and 1990s by He Weiqing lists over 330 works. Even so, it excludes many novels, short stories published only in anthologies, and works by writers living outside China. He Weiqing ԩि䴦, Xiaoshuo ertong: 1980–2000 Zhongguo xiaoshuo de ertong shiye ᇣ䇈ܓス˖1980–2000 Ёᇣ䇈ⱘܓス㾚䞢 (Children in fiction: the child viewpoint in Chinese fiction from 1980 to 2000) (Qingdao: Zhongguo haiyang daxue chubanshe, 2005). 20 . Jon L. Saari, for example, argues: “The very emphasis upon the centrality of childhood as a basis for adult life may in fact be a Western bias.” Jon L. Saari, Legacies of Childhood: Growing up Chinese in a Time of Crisis 1890–1920 (Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University Press, 1990), 1. 1 The Literary Child 1 . He Weiqing’s extensive study is discussed further below. He Weiqing ԩि䴦, Xiaoshuo ertong: 1980–2000 Zhongguo xiaoshuo de ertong shiye ᇣ䇈ܓス˖ 1980–2000 Ёᇣ䇈ⱘܓス㾚䞢 (Children in fiction: the child view- point in Chinese fiction from 1980 to 2000) (Qingdao: Zhongguo haiyang daxue chubanshe, 2005). Xu Lanjun’s study of the child takes in film, essays, and fiction, and includes a gendered and author-centric reading of child tropes in a number of works by Yu Hua, Su Tong, Wang Anyi, and Tie Ning. Xu Lanjun, “Save the Children: Problem Childhoods and Narrative Politics in Twentieth-century Chinese Literature” (PhD Diss., Princeton, 2007). 2 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales: Evolutionary Thinking and Modern Chinese Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011). 190 Notes 3 . Xu Lanjun ᕤ݄৯ and Andrew F. Jones, eds, Ertong de faxian: xiandai zhongguo wenxue ji wenhua zhong de ertong wenti ܓスⱘথ⦄˖⦄ҷЁ᭛ᄺঞ᭛࣪Ёⱘ ܓス䯂乬 (The discovery of the child: the question of the child in modern Chinese fiction and culture) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 2011). 4 . This point is made in Ala A. Alryyes, Original Subjects: the Child, the Novel, and the Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001). For interac- tions between child narratives and social change in Western literature see, for example: Robert Pattison, The Child Figure in English Literature (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1978); and, Laura C. Berry, The Child, the State, and the Victorian Novel (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999), 44. 5 . Ala Alryyes argues, for example, that “The sad experience of children is central to the rise of the novel.” Ala A. Alryyes, Original Subjects , 117. 6 . Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll: Images of the Child in Contemporary Writing and Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 16. 7 . Robert Pattison, The Child Figure in English Literature, 110. 8 . See, for example, Margarida Morgado, “A Loss Beyond Imagining: Child Disappearance in Fiction,” The Yearbook of English Studies 32 (2002): 244–245. 9 . Philip Thody, Twentieth-Century Literature: Critical Issues and Themes (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1996), 48–49, 68. 10 . Ibid., 68–69, 80. 11 . Reinhard Kuhn, Corruption in Paradise: The Child in Western Literature (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1982), 44. 12 . Philip Thody, Twentieth-Century Literature , 68–69, 80. 13 . Ibid., 69, 80. Thody makes this point succinctly: “Children, like adults, can behave well when circumstances are propitious ... and abominably when they are not.” 14 . Paul Ricoeur, A Ricoeur Reader: Reflection and Imagination , ed. Mario J. Valdés (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 345. 15 . John Steinbeck, East of Eden (London: Penguin Books, 2000), 269–270. 16 . As outlined in Andrew Jones’ discussion of pedagogy and Lu Xun’s “Diary of a Madman.” Andrew F. Jones, “The Child as History in Republican China: A Discourse on Development,” Positions 10.3 (2002): 695–715, 703. 17 . Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll , 14. 18 . Catherine E. Pease, “Remembering the Taste of Melons: Modern Chinese Stories of Childhood,” in Chinese Views of Childhood , ed. Anne Behnke Kinney, 312. 19 . As discussed, for example, in Gao Shaoyue 催ᇥ᳜, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’” ⦄ҷᗻϢ‘ܓスⱘথ⦄’ (Modernity and ‘the discovery of the child’), Minxi zhiye jixu xueyuan xuebao 10.3 (September 2008), 39–43. 20 . Ibid., 41. 21 . Ibid., 40. 22 . Andrew F. Jones, “The Child as History,” 707–708. 23 . Ibid., 708. 24 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales , 64–65. 25 . Andrew F. Jones, “The Child as History,” 708. 26 . Catherine E. Pease, “Remembering the Taste of Melons,” 312. Notes 191 27 . Wang Lijun ⥟咢৯, “Zhongguo xiandai wenxue zhong de ertong xingxiang lun” Ё⦄ҷ᭛ᄺЁⱘܓスᔶ䈵䆎 (On the child image in modern Chinese literature), Zhejiang shehui kexue 5 (May 2008), 111–117. 28 . Ibid., 111–112. 29 . Ibid., 112. 30 . Ibid., 116–117. 31 . Ibid., 116. 32 . This argument, drawn from Kirk Denton, follows his consciously general interpretation of the term “subaltern” as “classes or groups ‘subordinated’ to the power of other classes or groups.” Kirk Denton, The Problematic of Self in Modern Chinese Literature: Hu Feng and Lu Ling (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 20f. 33 . Ibid., 27–59, 55. This is a structure which Denton illustrates in part, para- phrasing Stephen Chan, through the relationship between the male intellec- tual and subaltern female in which “the woman (other) becomes the emptied site for the objectification of the crisis of [the] male self.” 34 . Ibid., 55. 35 . Ibid., 56–57. 36 . Ibid., 57–58. 37 . Lin Jinlan and Cao Wenxuan ᵫ᭸╰,᭛䔽, “Xuyan” ᑣ㿔 (Introduction), in Luori hong men: xiaoshuo juan , ed. Lin Jinlan and Cao Wenxuan (Beijing: Dazhong wenyi chubanshe, 2000), 1–13. 38 . Ibid., 6. 39 . Ibid., 7. 40 . Cao Wenxuan ᭛䔽, “Xuyan” ᑣ㿔 (Introduction), in Xiao xiliu de ge: ertong wenxue juan , ed. Yan Wenjing and Cao Wenxuan (Beijing: Dazhong wenyi chubanshe, 2000). 41 . Ibid., 7. 42 . Ibid. 43 . Ibid. 44 . Ibid. 45 . This is reflected, for example, in Pifer’s choice of imagery when describing the post-Romantic arrival of the evil child in the West: “The cult of sacred childhood has turned satanic, supplanting angelic children with demonic ones who serve the powers of darkness.” Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll , 15.