Notes

Introduction

1 . Confucius, The Original Analects: Sayings of Confucius and His Successors/a new translation and commentary by E. Bruce Brooks and A. Taeko Brooks , trans. E. Bruce Brooks and A. Taeko Brooks (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 55. 2 . Carl Gustav Jung, The Development of Personality, trans. R.F.C. Hull (London: Routledge, 1991), 45. 3 . Ellen Pifer defines childhood as a “cultural construction.” Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll: Images of the Child in Contemporary Writing and Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 1. 4 . Lu Xun 剕䖙, “Kuangren riji” ⢖Ҏ᮹䆄 (Diary of a Madman), in Na Han, by Lu Xun (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1976), 12–26. 5 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales: Evolutionary Thinking and Modern Chinese Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011). 6 . Elizabeth Goodenough, Mark A. Heberle, and Naomi Sokoloff, eds, Infant Tongues: The Voice of the Child in Literature (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994), 6. 7 . Anne Behnke Kinney, ed., Chinese Views of Childhood (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1995), 1. 8 . One interesting gender-based difference comes from Confucian ritual texts. According to The Book of Rites (Liji), phases of development were different for girls and boys, with girls taking the steps which would prepare them for marriage at the age of fourteen, and boys as late as twenty, or even thirty. Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage: Children and Childhood in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005), 184. 9 . Yu Hua ԭढ, “Shi ba sui chu men yuanxing” कܿቕߎ䮼䖰㸠 (On the Road at Eighteen), in Yu Hua zuopin ji, by Yu Hua (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1995), 3–10. 10 . Wang Shuo ⥟᳨, “Dongwu xiongmeng” ࡼ⠽ߊ⣯ (Animal Ferocity), in Dongwu xiongmeng: ‘Shouhuo’ 50 nian jingxuan xilie 7, ed. Li Xiaolin, Xiao Yuanmin, and Cheng Yongxin (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chubanshe, 2009), 1–70. 11 . Wang Wenling ⥟᭛⦆, “Zhengzhi pipan gongju yu hao ertong: 80 niandai chuqi xiaoshuo chuangzuo zhong de ertong xingxiang” ᬓ⊏ᡍ߸Ꮉ݋Ϣདܓス: 80 ᑈҷ߱ᳳᇣ䇈߯԰Ёⱘܓスᔶ䈵 (Tools of political criticism and the good child: the child image in early 80s fiction), Xiandai yuwen (wenxue yanjiu ban) (September 2007), 127. 12 . Elizabeth Goodenough et al., eds, Infant Tongues , 3. 13 . Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage , 21. 14 . Dong Xi ϰ㽓, Erguang xiangliang 㘇ܝડ҂ (A Resounding Slap in the Face) (Changchun: Changchun chubanshe, 1998).

188 Notes 189

15 . See, for example: Sheldon Hsiao-Peng Lu, “Postmodernity, Popular Culture and the Intellectual: A Report on Post-Tiananmen China,” Boundary 2, 23.2 (Summer 1996): 139–169; Xudong Zhang, “Nationalism, Mass Culture and Intellectual Strategies in Post-Tiananmen China,” Social Text 55 (Summer 1998): 109–140; and Ben Xu, “Postmodern-Postcolonial Criticism and Pro-Democracy Enlightenment,” Modern China 27.1 (January 2001): 117–147. 16 . These turning points are identified, for example, in: Ben Xu, “Postmodern- Postcolonial Criticism,” 121; and Sheldon Hsiao-Peng Lu, “Postmodernity,” 140–141. Lu labels 1989 “a watershed in contemporary Chinese cultural and intellectual history.” 17 . Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll , 4. Pifer’s argument is circular: that the literary child is fiction, but that, through the observation of this image, we can “become more conscious of the cultural and epistemological implications of those images for us and our culture.” 18 . For one of the most high-profile examples of this tendency, one can look to the many responses to the awarding of the Nobel Prize in Literature to Gao Xingjian (2000) and Mo Yan (2012), and the degree to which assumptions (and judgements) about the authors’ lives, politics, and allegiances were and continue to be conjured in different ways, and by diverse commentators and interest groups, as determining, or perhaps even simply more significant than, the value of the literature which they have produced. 19 . An impressive study of the child in short fiction published in Chinese magazines and literary journals in the 1980s and 1990s by He Weiqing lists over 330 works. Even so, it excludes many novels, short stories published only in anthologies, and works by writers living outside China. He Weiqing ԩि䴦, Xiaoshuo ertong: 1980–2000 Zhongguo xiaoshuo de ertong shiye ᇣ䇈ܓス˖1980–2000 Ё೑ᇣ䇈ⱘܓス㾚䞢 (Children in fiction: the child viewpoint in Chinese fiction from 1980 to 2000) (Qingdao: Zhongguo haiyang daxue chubanshe, 2005). 20 . Jon L. Saari, for example, argues: “The very emphasis upon the centrality of childhood as a basis for adult life may in fact be a Western bias.” Jon L. Saari, Legacies of Childhood: Growing up Chinese in a Time of Crisis 1890–1920 (Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University Press, 1990), 1.

1 The Literary Child

1 . He Weiqing’s extensive study is discussed further below. He Weiqing ԩि䴦, Xiaoshuo ertong: 1980–2000 Zhongguo xiaoshuo de ertong shiye ᇣ䇈ܓス˖ 1980–2000 Ё೑ᇣ䇈ⱘܓス㾚䞢 (Children in fiction: the child view- point in Chinese fiction from 1980 to 2000) (Qingdao: Zhongguo haiyang daxue chubanshe, 2005). Xu Lanjun’s study of the child takes in film, essays, and fiction, and includes a gendered and author-centric reading of child tropes in a number of works by Yu Hua, Su Tong, Wang Anyi, and Tie Ning. Xu Lanjun, “Save the Children: Problem Childhoods and Narrative Politics in Twentieth-century Chinese Literature” (PhD Diss., Princeton, 2007). 2 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales: Evolutionary Thinking and Modern Chinese Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011). 190 Notes

3 . Xu Lanjun ᕤ݄৯ and Andrew F. Jones, eds, Ertong de faxian: xiandai zhongguo wenxue ji wenhua zhong de ertong wenti ܓスⱘথ⦄˖⦄ҷЁ೑᭛ᄺঞ᭛࣪Ёⱘ ܓス䯂乬 (The discovery of the child: the question of the child in modern Chinese fiction and culture) (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 2011). 4 . This point is made in Ala A. Alryyes, Original Subjects: the Child, the Novel, and the Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001). For interac- tions between child narratives and social change in Western literature see, for example: Robert Pattison, The Child Figure in English Literature (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1978); and, Laura C. Berry, The Child, the State, and the Victorian Novel (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999), 44. 5 . Ala Alryyes argues, for example, that “The sad experience of children is central to the rise of the novel.” Ala A. Alryyes, Original Subjects , 117. 6 . Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll: Images of the Child in Contemporary Writing and Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 16. 7 . Robert Pattison, The Child Figure in English Literature, 110. 8 . See, for example, Margarida Morgado, “A Loss Beyond Imagining: Child Disappearance in Fiction,” The Yearbook of English Studies 32 (2002): 244–245. 9 . Philip Thody, Twentieth-Century Literature: Critical Issues and Themes (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1996), 48–49, 68. 10 . Ibid., 68–69, 80. 11 . Reinhard Kuhn, Corruption in Paradise: The Child in Western Literature (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1982), 44. 12 . Philip Thody, Twentieth-Century Literature , 68–69, 80. 13 . Ibid., 69, 80. Thody makes this point succinctly: “Children, like adults, can behave well when circumstances are propitious ... and abominably when they are not.” 14 . Paul Ricoeur, A Ricoeur Reader: Reflection and Imagination , ed. Mario J. Valdés (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 345. 15 . John Steinbeck, East of Eden (London: Penguin Books, 2000), 269–270. 16 . As outlined in Andrew Jones’ discussion of pedagogy and Lu Xun’s “Diary of a Madman.” Andrew F. Jones, “The Child as History in Republican China: A Discourse on Development,” Positions 10.3 (2002): 695–715, 703. 17 . Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll , 14. 18 . Catherine E. Pease, “Remembering the Taste of Melons: Modern Chinese Stories of Childhood,” in Chinese Views of Childhood , ed. Anne Behnke Kinney, 312. 19 . As discussed, for example, in Gao Shaoyue 催ᇥ᳜, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’” ⦄ҷᗻϢ‘ܓスⱘথ⦄’ (Modernity and ‘the discovery of the child’), Minxi zhiye jixu xueyuan xuebao 10.3 (September 2008), 39–43. 20 . Ibid., 41. 21 . Ibid., 40. 22 . Andrew F. Jones, “The Child as History,” 707–708. 23 . Ibid., 708. 24 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales , 64–65. 25 . Andrew F. Jones, “The Child as History,” 708. 26 . Catherine E. Pease, “Remembering the Taste of Melons,” 312. Notes 191

27 . Wang Lijun ⥟咢৯, “Zhongguo xiandai wenxue zhong de ertong xingxiang lun” Ё೑⦄ҷ᭛ᄺЁⱘܓスᔶ䈵䆎 (On the child image in modern Chinese literature), Zhejiang shehui kexue 5 (May 2008), 111–117. 28 . Ibid., 111–112. 29 . Ibid., 112. 30 . Ibid., 116–117. 31 . Ibid., 116. 32 . This argument, drawn from Kirk Denton, follows his consciously general interpretation of the term “subaltern” as “classes or groups ‘subordinated’ to the power of other classes or groups.” Kirk Denton, The Problematic of Self in Modern Chinese Literature: Hu Feng and Lu Ling (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 20f. 33 . Ibid., 27–59, 55. This is a structure which Denton illustrates in part, para- phrasing Stephen Chan, through the relationship between the male intellec- tual and subaltern female in which “the woman (other) becomes the emptied site for the objectification of the crisis of [the] male self.” 34 . Ibid., 55. 35 . Ibid., 56–57. 36 . Ibid., 57–58. 37 . Lin Jinlan and Cao Wenxuan ᵫ᭸╰,᳍᭛䔽, “Xuyan” ᑣ㿔 (Introduction), in Luori hong men: xiaoshuo juan , ed. Lin Jinlan and Cao Wenxuan (Beijing: Dazhong wenyi chubanshe, 2000), 1–13. 38 . Ibid., 6. 39 . Ibid., 7. 40 . Cao Wenxuan ᳍᭛䔽, “Xuyan” ᑣ㿔 (Introduction), in Xiao xiliu de ge: ertong wenxue juan, ed. Yan Wenjing and Cao Wenxuan (Beijing: Dazhong wenyi chubanshe, 2000). 41 . Ibid., 7. 42 . Ibid. 43 . Ibid. 44 . Ibid. 45 . This is reflected, for example, in Pifer’s choice of imagery when describing the post-Romantic arrival of the evil child in the West: “The cult of sacred childhood has turned satanic, supplanting angelic children with demonic ones who serve the powers of darkness.” Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll , 15. 46 . Elizabeth Goodenough, Marke A. Heberle and Naomi Sokoloff, eds, Infant Tongues: The Voice of the Child in Literature (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994), 2. 47 . Elizabeth Wright, Psychoanalytic Criticism, a Reappraisal , 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 1998), 13. 48 . Ibid., 13–14. 49 . Steven G. Kellman, “The Fiction of Self-Begetting,” MLN 91.6 Comparative Literature (December 1976): 1243. 50 . Elizabeth Wright, Psychoanalytic Criticism , 152. 51 . Ibid. 52 . Carl Gustav Jung, The Development of Personality, trans. R.F.C. Hull (London: Routledge, 1991), 54–56. 53 . Ibid., 169–170. 192 Notes

54 . Dai Jinhua, “Rewriting Chinese Women: Gender Production and Cultural Space in the Eighties and Nineties,” trans. Yu Ning and Mayfair Mei-hui Yang, in Spaces of Their Own: Women’s Public Sphere in Transnational China, Public Worlds 4, ed. Mayfair Mei-hui Yang (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999): 192–193. 55 . Steven G. Kellman, “The Fiction of Self-Begetting,” 1244. 56 . Ibid., 1252. 57 . Ibid., 1245. 58 . Wang Lijun, “Ertong xingxiang lun,” 112. 59 . Ibid., 113–114. 60 . Ibid., 111–117. 61 . Cui Shuqin, “Working from the Margins: Urban Cinema and Independent Directors in Contemporary China,” PostScript: Essays in Film and the Humanities 20.2 and 3 (2001): 77–93. 62 . “Fifth generation” film generally refers to the work in the 1980s of the first group of directors to graduate and become active after the Cultural Revolution, including Zhang Yimou (b. 1951) and Chen Kaige (b. 1952). 63 . Cui Shuqin, “Working from the Margins,” 87. 64 . Ibid., 89. 65 . See, for example, Lisa Zunshine on the different outcomes that fiction dictated for illegitimate children depending on their gender. Lisa Zunshine, Bastards and Foundlings: Illegitimacy in Eighteenth-Century England (Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2005), 8–9. 66 . Zunshine’s study indicates the significance of cultural context. Ibid., 6. 67 . Ibid., 5. 68 . Ibid., 15. 69 . Ibid. 70 . Steven G. Kellman, “The Fiction of Self-Begetting,” 1252. 71 . Rong Cai comments, for example: “I failed to locate any significant discussions of bastards and unwed mothers by historians or anthropologists of China. Literature also seems to be reticent on this issue.” Rong Cai, “Problematizing the Foreign Other: Mother, Father, and the Bastard in Mo Yan’s ‘Large Breasts and Full Hips’ ”, Modern China 29.1 (2003): 134f. 72 . Charlotte Furth discusses the language of reproduction, including the use of zhong zi ⾡ᄤ. Of particular interest here is the emphasis this termi- nology places on the male role in reproduction as the source of all that is inherited. Charlotte Furth, “From Birth to Birth: The Growing Body in Chinese Medicine,” in Chinese Views of Childhood, ed. Anne Behnke Kinney, 161–163. 73 . Mo Yan 㥿㿔, Jiu Guo 䜦೑ (The Republic of Wine) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 2008). 74 . Mo Yan, The Republic of Wine, trans. Howard Goldblatt (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2000), 247. 75 . Mo Yan 㥿㿔, Hong gaoliang jiazu 㑶催㊅ᆊᮣ (Red Sorghum) (Jinan: Shandong wenyi chubanshe, 2002). 76 . There are several Chinese words and phrases to indicate illegitimacy, all of which have different implications. In the fiction discussed here they include wangbadan ⥟ܿ㲟 (bastard/son of a bitch), sisheng de ⾕⫳ⱘ (illegitimate), Notes 193

zaizi ጑ᄤ (whelp/bastard) and zazhong ᴖ⾡ (hybrid/crossbreed/bastard), which is the description Mo Yan gives to the pervasive and ugly modern sorghum, and which is also used of Jintong, the protagonist in his later novel Big Breasts and Wide Hips , discussed in Chapter 4. 77 . Irena R. Makaryk, ed., Encyclopaedia of Contemporary Literary Theory (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 167. 78 . As a case in point, Wang Lijun’s essay on abandoned children, discussed earlier in this chapter, focuses on the absence of the father, although many of the children are in fact missing both father and mother. Wang Lijun, “Ertong xingxiang lun.” 79 . Of the many examples, one of the most memorable depictions of relentless female suffering is Sister Xianglin in Lu Xun’s “New Year’s Sacrifice” (Zhufu, 1924). Widowed, forced into a second marriage and widowed again, Sister Xianglin loses her infant son to hungry wolves and dies in fear that both of her two husbands will claim her after death. Lu Xun, “New Year’s Sacrifice,” trans. William A. Lyell, in Diary of a Madman and Other Stories, by Lu Xun (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1990), 219–241. 80 . David Der-wei Wang, “Impersonating China,” Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Review 25 (2003): 140. 81 . Zhu Hong, “Women, Illness and Hospitalization: Images of Women in Contemporary Chinese Fiction,” in Engendering China: Women, Culture and the State, ed. Christina Gilmartin, Gail Hershatter, Lisa Rofel, and Tyrene White (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 320–322. 82 . Ibid., 337. Zhu Hong draws an example from Lu Xing’er’s short story “There is No Sun Today”, a work discussed in Chapter 3. 83 . Ba Jin Ꮘ䞥, “Di er de muqin” ㄀Ѡⱘ↡҆ (The Second Mother), in Ba Jin duanpian xiaoshuo ji, di san kan, by Ba Jin (Hong Kong: Jindai tushu gongsi, 1959): 17–36. 84 . David Der-wei Wang, “Impersonating China,” 147. 85 . I return to Joan Judge’s examination of the early-twentieth-century positioning of women as citizens and “mothers of citizens” in the following chapter. Joan Judge, “Citizens or Mothers of Citizens? Gender and the Meaning of Modern Chinese Citizenship,” in Changing Meanings of Citizenship in Modern China , ed. Merle Goldman and Elizabeth J. Perry (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002), 30. 86 . David Der-wei Wang, “Impersonating China,” 141. 87 . Changing responses to the one-child policy are discussed, for example, in: Elizabeth Perry and Mark Selden, eds, Chinese Society: Change, Conflict and Resistance (New York: Routledge Curzon, 2003), 5, 12–13. 88 . An additional indication of this marginalization is seen in references to foot binding. Narratives set before and soon after 1949 often feature female char- acters with bound feet, but few stories consider foot binding in any detail. A well-known exception is Feng Jicai’s The Three-Inch Golden Lotus (Sancun jinlian, 1985) which opens with a description of the breaking and binding of the feet of a six-year-old girl. Feng Jicai, The Three-Inch Golden Lotus, trans. David Wakefield (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1994.) 89 . Elizabeth Goodenough et al., eds, Infant Tongues , 2. 90 . Ibid., 6. 194 Notes

91 . Ibid., 3. 92 . Ibid., 4. 93 . Mieke Bal, Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, 3rd edn (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009), 145. 94 . Ibid., 150. 95 . Ibid. 96 . Ibid. 97 . Ibid., 146. 98 . Elizabeth Goodenough et al., eds, Infant Tongues , 7. 99 . Andrew Wachtel, “Narrating the Past: The Role of Childhood and History in Russian Literary Culture,” in Infant Tongues: The Voice of the Child in Literature, ed. Elizabeth Goodenough, Mark A. Heberle, and Naomi B. Sokoloff (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994), 110. 100 . Ibid., 114. 101 . Ibid., 119. 102 . Ibid. 103 . Ibid., 111. 104 . Catherine E. Pease, “Remembering the Taste of Melons,” 314. 105 . Ibid., 279–280. 106 . Ibid., 279. 107 . Ibid., 289. 108 . Ibid., 279–314. 109 . He Weiqing, Xiaoshuo ertong , 65–123. 110 . Wang Wenling ⥟᭛⦆, “Xin shiqi ertong shijiao xiaoshuo chuangzuo lun” ᮄᯊᳳܓス㾚㾦ᇣ䇈߯԰䆎 (On new era fiction written from the child’s perspective), Dongbei shi daxue bao (zhexue shehui kexue ban) 1 (2006): 98–102. 111 . Wang Wenling ⥟᭛⦆, “Zhengzhi pipan gongju yu hao ertong: 80 niandai chuqi xiaoshuo chuangzuo zhong de ertong xingxiang” ᬓ⊏ᡍ߸Ꮉ݋Ϣད ܓス: 80 ᑈҷ߱ᳳᇣ䇈߯԰Ёⱘܓスᔶ䈵 (Tools of political criticism and the good child: the child image in the creation of early 80s fiction), Xiandai yuwen ( wenxue yanjiu ban) (September 2007), 126. 112 . Ibid. 113 . Ibid., 127. 114 . Ibid., 126–127. 115 . Ibid., 127. Wang uses the term maimo ඟ≵ (buried). 116 . Andrew Wachtel, “Narrating the Past,” 111. 117 . Li Weizhi ᴢ㓈ᱎ, “Yu Hua xiaoshuo zhong de ertong xingxiang fenxi” ԭढᇣ䇈Ёⱘܓスᔶ䈵ߚᵤ (Analysis of the child image in the fiction of Yu Hua), Dongbei shifan daxue jiaoyu kexue xueyuan yuwen xuekan 9 (2005): 84. 118 . Mo Yan 㥿㿔, Feng ru fei tun Єч㙹㞔 (Big Breasts and Wide Hips) (Beijing: Zhongguo gongren chubanshe, 2003). 119 . Yibing Huang, Contemporary Chinese Literature: From the Cultural Revolution to the Future (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 103. 120 . Ban Wang, “History in a Mythical Key: Temporality, Memory, and Tradition in Wang Anyi’s Fiction,” Journal of Contemporary China 12.37 (November 2003): 616. 121 . Ibid., 608. 122 . Lin Jinlan and Cao Wenxuan, “Xuyan,” in Luori hong men , 10. 123 . Ibid. Notes 195

124 . Zhong Xueping, Masculinity Besieged? Issues of Modernity and Male Subjectivity in Chinese Literature of the Late Twentieth Century (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000), 38. 125 . Ibid., 30–32, 39. 126 . See, for example, Ibid., 168–169. 127 . Ibid., 150–170, 163. On “the desire to begin again” in Chinese culture, Ibid., 166–167. 128 . Andrew F. Jones, “The Child as History,” 708. 129 . Ban Wang, “History in a Mythical Key,” 610. 130 . Ibid. 131 . Yibing Huang, Contemporary Chinese Literature , 4. 132 . Ibid., 1–5. 133 . Ibid., 95. 134 . Xudong Zhang applies this term to the 1980s. Xudong Zhang, “On Some Motifs in the Chinese ‘Cultural Fever’ of the Late 1980s: Social Change, Ideology, and Theory,” Social Text 39 (Summer, 1994): 129. 135 . Sheldon Hsiao-Peng Lu, “Postmodernity, Popular Culture and the Intellectual: A Report on Post-Tiananmen China,” Boundary 2, 23.2 (Summer 1996): 139–169. 136 . Ibid., 141. 137 . This is how Lu describes the dual role of intellectuals called for in the May Fourth era by Lu Xun and others. Ibid., 142. 138 . Ibid., 143. 139 . Ibid., 145. 140 . Sheldon Hsiao-Peng Lu, “Global Post Modernization: The Intellectual, The Artist, and China’s Condition,” Boundary 2 , 24.3 (Autumn 1997): 68. 141 . Sheldon Hsiao-Peng Lu, “Postmodernity,” 150. 142 . Ben Xu, “Postmodern-Postcolonial Criticism and Pro-Democracy Enlight- enment.” Modern China 27.1 (January 2001): 117–147. 143 . Ibid., 135. 144 . Gan Yang, “A Critique of Chinese Conservatism in the 1990s,” Social Text 55 (Summer 1998): 48. 145 . Sheldon Hsiao-Peng Lu, “Postmodernity,” 158. 146 . Ibid. 147 . Ibid., 140–141. Lu makes this point by expanding both back and forwards from 1989 to establish the years over which the transformation from the New Era to the Post-New Era took place. In relation to post-Mao fiction, Yibing Huang argues for a blurring of the lines and even an active interaction between the development phases of the 1980s and 1990s. Regarding Wang Shuo in particular, Huang points to, and argues against, attempts to in essence place cultural concepts above facts and “squeeze him into the 1990s” because of his style and approach, when Wang Shuo actually first published in the mid-1980s. Yibing Huang, Contemporary Chinese Literature, 64–66, 182–184.

2 Children of Reality and Fiction

1 . Guo Yingjie, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary China: The Search for National Identity under Reform (London: Routledge Curzon, 2004), 62. 196 Notes

2 . This nationwide birth control system restricts the number of children a married couple are allowed to have and has been widely enforced. Though it is commonly referred to as the “one-child policy,” as it is here for conven- ience, there have in fact always been categories where additional children may be permitted. For a detailed study of the policy, see: Susan Greenhalgh, Just One Child: Science and Policy in Deng’s China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008). 3 . Throughout the 1980s the question of population “quality” became an increasing focus of debate, with many factors considered, from social and educational to medical and physical. The elements of “quality” are discussed, for example, in: Li Shuqing ᴢ╡॓, “Renkou suzhi yanjiu renzhong daoyuan” Ҏষ㋴䋼ⷨおӏ䞡䘧䖰 (The long road ahead for population quality research), Zhongguo renkou kexue 6 (1988): 66–68; as reproduced in Zhongguo renmin daxue shubao ziliao zhongxin; fuyin baokan ziliao 1 (1989): 108–110. See also Ann Anagnost on a “reform-era focus on population quality” in: Ann Anagnost, “Children and National Transcendence in China,” in Constructing China: The Interaction of Culture and Economics, ed. Kenneth G. Lieberthal, Shuen-fu Lin and Ernest P. Young (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1997), 195–222. 4 . Richard Smith, China’s Cultural Heritage: The Qing Dynasty, 1644–1912 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), 139. 5 . Jon L. Saari, Legacies of Childhood: Growing up Chinese in a Time of Crisis 1890– 1920 (Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University Press, 1990), 233. 6 . Ibid., 113, 233. 7 . Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage: Children and Childhood in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005), 101. 8 . See, for example, the individual instances of expressed preference for girls in the Ming and Qing eras, as examined by Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage , 183. 9 . Ibid., 194, 196. 10 . Jon L. Saari, Legacies of Childhood, 104–105. 11 . Richard Smith, China’s Cultural Heritage , 250. 12 . Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage, 103–127. Hsiung highlights, for example, instances of mother-educators and fathers who involved themselves in early childcare. 13 . Richard Smith, China’s Cultural Heritage, 249–250. Smith provides an intro- duction to filial piety and other Confucian ideals which govern the child/ parent relationship, noting that Qing-era almanacs regularly featured anecdotes which “illustrate the extremes to which Chinese children were expected to go in the service of their parents.” These anecdotes included “the surprisingly common practice known as gegu (lit. cutting the thigh {for one’s parents}) which was institutionally rewarded by the Qing state.” 14 . Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage , 114. 15 . Jon L. Saari, Legacies of Childhood, 8. 16 . Ibid., 13–15. 17 . Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage , 51–73. 18 . Jon L. Saari, Legacies of Childhood , vii. 19 . Ibid., 38. Notes 197

20 . Maurizio Scarpari, “The Debate on Human Nature in Early Confucian Literature,” Philosophy East and West 53.3 (2003): 324. 21 . Ibid. 22 . Ibid. 23 . Ibid. 24 . Anne Behnke Kinney, “Dyed Silk: Han Notions of the Moral Development of Children,” in Chinese Views of Childhood , ed. Anne Behnke Kinney, 27–28. 25 . Ibid. 26 . Ibid., 27. The introduction given here to traditional thought as a background to the modern era is of necessity limited to issues most relevant to this research. I have referenced Anne Behnke Kinney’s summary of contrasting thought on the role of the mother because it is both pertinent and an indi- cation of the diverse ideas that exist within what is often presented as a homogeneous patriarchal tradition. Citing Xunzi and Liu Xiang, Kinney concludes: “Because Xunzi associated moral instruction with book learning, he furthermore denied that women, who were themselves denied education, were able to provide moral education for their children. Liu Xiang’s program of education as found in the Lienü zhuan therefore advances beyond Xunzi’s theories in two crucial respects: it makes early childhood (including the prenatal stage) the starting point in a person’s education [whereas for Xunzi, moral education began with memorizing the Five Classics], and it grants to women an important role in the moral development of their children and charges.” 27 . Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage , 128–155. 28 . Ibid., 129, 139. 29 . Ibid., 129. 30 . Ibid., 141, 144–145. 31 . Ibid., 145. 32 . Maeda Shigeki, “Between Karmic Retribution and Entwining Infusion: Is the Karma of the Parent Visited Upon the Child?” In Daoism in History: Essays in Honour of Liu Ts ’un-yan, ed. Benjamin Penny (London: Routledge, 2006), 101–120. 33 . Ibid., 101. 34 . Ibid., 102. 35 . Ibid., 106–109. 36 . Ibid., 107. 37 . Ibid. Maeda Shigeki quotes from the Taiping Jing (The Scripture of the Great Peace): “Those who live before put a load on the back of those who come later.” 38 . Ibid., 116–117. 39 . Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage , 258. 40 . Ibid., 257. 41 . This connection is discussed with particular reference to the thought of Liang Qichao (1873–1929) in: Xu Lanjun, “Save the Children: Problem Childhoods and Narrative Politics in Twentieth-century Chinese Literature” (PhD diss., Princeton, 2007), 31–48. 42 . Andrew F. Jones, “The Child as History in Republican China: A Discourse on Development,” Positions 10.3 (2002): 701. 43 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales: Evolutionary Thinking and Modern Chinese Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011), 18. 198 Notes

44 . Jon L. Saari, Legacies of Childhood , 46. 45 . Gao Shaoyue 催ᇥ᳜, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’ ” ⦄ҷᗻϢ‘ܓスⱘথ⦄’ (Modernity and ‘the discovery of the child’), Minxi zhiye jixu xueyuan xuebao 10.3 (September 2008): 40. 46 . Ibid., 39–40. 47 . Ibid., 40. 48 . Ibid. 49 . Susan Daruvala, Zhou Zuoren and an Alternative Chinese Response to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 172. This in turn demonstrates the influence on Li Zhi of the neo-Confucian school of Wang Yangming (1472–1529), proponents of which “equated the child’s mind with spiritual perfection and in some cases regarded it as superior to the adult mind, which, they averred, was often confused and corrupted with too much learning.” Anne Behnke Kinney, ed., Chinese Views of Childhood , 5. 50 . Susan Daruvala, Zhou Zuoren , 212. 51 . Qian Liqun 䪅⧚㕸, “ ‘Fu fu zi zi’ li de wenhua” ‘⠊⠊ᄤᄤ’䞠ⱘ᭛࣪ (Father/ son culture), in Ershi shiji Zhongguo wenxue san ren tan: man shuo wenhua , ed. Qian Liqun, Huang Ziping and Chen Pingyuan (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 2004), 167. 52 . Gao Shaoyue, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’ ”, 39–43. 53 . Chen Duxiu 䰜⣀⾔, “Jinggao qingnian” ᭀਞ䴦ᑈ (A Notice to Youth), Xin Qingnian 1.1 (1915) (Tokyo: Facsimile edition, 1962): 21–26. 54 . Gao Shaoyue, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’ ”, 40. 55 . Qian Liqun, “ ‘Fu fu zi zi’ li de wenhua,” 167. 56 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales , 5. 57 . Ibid., 106–111. 58 . As discussed, for example, in Gao Shaoyue, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’ ”, 40. 59 . Catherine E. Pease, “Remembering the Taste of Melons: Modern Chinese Stories of Childhood,” in Chinese Views of Childhood , ed. Anne Behnke Kinney, 314. 60 . Qian Liqun, “ ‘Fu fu zi zi’ li de wenhua,” 167. 61 . Ibid., 168. 62 . Ibid. 63 . Joan Judge, “Citizens or Mothers of Citizens? Gender and the Meaning of Modern Chinese Citizenship,” in Changing Meanings of Citizenship in Modern China , ed. Merle Goldman and Elizabeth J. Perry (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002), 30–31. 64 . Merle Goldman and Elizabeth J. Perry, “Political Citizenship in Modern China,” in Changing Meanings of Citizenship in Modern China , ed. Merle Goldman and Elizabeth J. Perry, 7. 65 . Goldman and Perry discuss the etymology of guomin (people of a nation) to refer to China’s citizens as part of the changing understanding of citizenship in China. Merle Goldman and Elizabeth J. Perry, “Political Citizenship,” 4–7. 66 . Ibid., 7. 67 . Joan Judge, “Citizens or Mothers of Citizens,” 24. 68 . Jin Feng, The New Woman in Early Twentieth-Century Chinese Fiction (Purdue: Purdue University, 2004), provides a detailed study of the New Woman, from Notes 199

girl student to revolutionary, including analysis of the modern schoolgirl as imagined by Lu Xun, Yu Dafu, and Ba Jin. 69 . This image is memorable, for example, in the urban co-eds of Shen Congwen’s (1902–1988) short story “Xiaoxiao” (1929) whose appearance in the country- side each summer holiday so fascinates the eponymous protagonist, a young rural girl. 70 . Su Qing, “Waves,” trans. Cathy Silber, in Writing Women in Modern China: The Revolutionary Years, 1936–1976 , ed. Amy Dooling (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 180–206. 71 . Ibid., 180. 72 . Tyrene White, “The Origins of China’s Birth Planning Policy,” in Engendering China: Women, Culture and the State , ed. Christina Gilmartin, Gail Hershatter, Lisa Rofel, and Tyrene White (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), 254. 73 . Ibid., 255. Tyrene White explains, for example, that a policy introduced in the 1950s only allowed sterilization for women who had already produced six children. 74 . Ibid., 263–265; 270–272. 75 . From the early days of Communist rule, the literary works permitted to be taught in schools in China have been dictated by the centre and selected in line with political concerns, a practice which continues today to the degree that a decision, in 2010, to revise school textbooks (including the replace- ment of some long-standing works) sparked controversy among China’s on-line communities and in the traditional media. 76 . This story was also used in Chinese-language textbooks and appears in English translation as part of an “autobiographical novel” completed in the early 1950s after Gao joined the People’s Liberation Army and learned to write. Kao Yu-pao, My Childhood (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1960), 217–226. 77 . T.E. Woronov, “Performing the Nation: China’s Children as Little Red Pioneers,” Anthropological Quarterly 80.3 (Summer 2007): 647–672. 78 . Ibid., 658–659. 79 . Ibid., 658–660. 80 . Ibid., 656. 81 . Ibid., 653. 82 . Mark Lupher describes depictions of Mao as “the ultimate patriarchal authority figure.” Mark Lupher, “Revolutionary Little Red Devils: The Social Psychology of Rebel Youth, 1966-1967,” in Chinese Views of Childhood , ed. Anne Behnke Kinney, 334. The journalist and writer Xinran (b.1958) remem- bers the pressures on the parent to set aside the parental role in favour of their required contribution to the state thus: “The political party came first, your motherland came second and helping others came third. Anyone who cared about their own family and children was considered a capitalist and could be punished – at the very least, you would be looked down upon by everyone, including your own family.” Xinran, “Xinran: Once Upon a Life,” The Observer, 24 April 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2011 /apr/24/xinran-childhood-motherhood (accessed 15 June 2013). 83 . T.E. Woronov, “Performing the Nation,” 656–657. 200 Notes

84 . By the time of the Cultural Revolution, the definition of class had evolved from the early days of Communist power, when it was related to the source of economic support, to a detailed but ambiguous stratification of society’s good and bad elements according to criteria which included wealth and employment alongside political behaviour and recognized social groups. A child’s “Class Origin” ߎ䑿 ( chushen ) depended on their parents’ “Class Status” ៤ߚ ( chengfen ). 85 . Tih-Fen Ting, “Resources, Fertility and Parental Investment in Mao’s China,” Population and Environment 25.4 (March 2004): 295. 86 . Yu Luoke 䘛㔫ܟ, “Chushen lun” ߎ䑿䆎 (On Class Origin), Dalu dixia kanwu huibian, zhong gong yanjiu zazhi shebian yin 8 (1980): 7–19. 87 . Ibid., 11. 88 . Mark Lupher, “Revolutionary Little Red Devils,” 321. 89 . Ibid., 321–324, 327–331, 336–339. 90 . Richard King, “Introduction,” in Living with Their Past: Post-Urban Youth Fiction , by Zhang Kangkang, ed. Richard King (Hong Kong: Renditions Paperbacks, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2003), 8; Leung Laifong, Morning Sun: Interviews with Chinese Writers of the Lost Generation (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), xxiii. 91 . Leung Laifong, Morning Sun. 92 . Susan Greenhalgh, Just One Child , xi. 93 . Ann Anagnost, National Past-times: Narrative, Representation, and Power in Modern China (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), 117. 94 . Literally “little” or “child” emperor, xiao huangdi, is also now translated as, simply, “spoiled child.” Julie Kleeman and Harry Yu, eds, Oxford Chinese Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 823. 95 . Article forty-nine of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China includes the requirement for adult children “to support and assist their parents.” (It also states: “Both husband and wife have the duty to practice family planning.”) Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1990), 33. 96 . The body of information published outside China on the application and consequences for girls of gender preference ranges from Xinran’s investiga- tive and emotional accounts to the anomalies noted in China’s population statistics over time. For two contrasting approaches to the topic see, for example: Xinran, Message from an Unknown Chinese Mother (London: Chatto & Windus, 2010); and Ansley J. Coale and Judith Banister, “Five Decades of Missing Females in China,” Demography 31.3 (August 1994): 459–479. 97 . The status of urban girls has become a subject for anthropological study, as, for example, in: Vanessa Fong, “China’s One Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters,” American Anthropologist, New Series 104.4 (December 2002): 1098–1109. 98 . Susan Greenhalgh, Just One Child , xiv. 99 . Tyrene White, “The Origins of China’s Birth Planning Policy,” 250–251. 100 . Mark McDonald, “Abortions Surge in China; Officials Cite Poor Sex Education,” New York Times , 30 July 2009. 101 . Susan Greenhalgh, Just One Child , 4. 102 . T.E. Woronov, “Governing China’s Children: Governmentality and ‘Education for Quality’,” Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 17.3 (Winter 2009): 571. Notes 201

103 . The composition and contradictions inherent in suzhi jiaoyu are examined in: Ibid., 567–589. 104 . T.E. Woronov, “Performing the Nation,” 657. 105 . This trend is described in, Ibid., 653. 106 . T.E. Woronov, “Governing China’s Children,” 572–576, 579–580. 107 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales , 25–26. 108 . Ibid., 130. 109 . Parental ambition for the child, even in extreme forms, is, of course, neither a culturally nor a historically specific issue, and the motives vary. Jung observed in the early 1930s, for example, that “children are goaded on to achieve their parents’ most dismal failures, and are loaded with ambitions that are never fulfilled. Such methods and ideals only engender educational monstrosities.” Carl Gustav Jung, The Development of Personality , trans. R.F.C. Hull (London: Routledge, 1991), 171. 110 . T.E. Woronov, “Governing China’s Children,” 576–577. 111 . Ibid., 577. 112 . Anne Behnke Kinney, “Dyed Silk,” 44. 113 . Ann Anagnost, “Children and National Transcendence,” 195. 114 . Writing in 2007, Hong Zhang highlights evidence of a growing connection between money and parenthood in accounts of “newly rich” couples using their resources to pay for fines, bribes, and births abroad, to circumvent the one-child policy, making multiple children in particular a mark of the “wealthy and famous.” Hong Zhang, “From Resisting to ‘Embracing?’ The One-Child Rule: Understanding New Fertility Trends in a Central China Village,” The China Quarterly 192 (December 2007): 872–874. 115 . Ann Anagnost, “Children and National Transcendence,” 196–197, 199. 116 . Ibid., 195, 197. 117 . Ibid., 196. 118 . Ibid., 199. 119 . One 2008 press article argued, for example, “China may be the world’s next great superpower but it’s facing a looming crisis as millions of overpressu- rised, hypereducated only children come of age in a nation that can’t fulfil their expectations.” Taylor Clark, “Generation Stress,” Post Magazine: South China Morning Post (10 August 2008): 24. 120 . This is a differentiation emphasized, for example, by Pifer. Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll: Images of the Child in Contemporary Writing and Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 6. 121 . Robert E. Hegel, “An Exploration of the Chinese Literary Self,” in Expressions of Self in Chinese Literature, ed. Robert E. Hegel and Richard C. Hessney (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 3. This point is also made in the context of 1980s Roots-Seeking literature in, for example: Li Qingxi, “Searching for Roots: Anticultural Return in Mainland Chinese Literature of the 1980s,” in Chinese Literature in the Second Half of a Modern Century: A Critical Survey, ed. Chi Pang-yuan and David Wang (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 114–115. 122 . He Weiqing, ԩि䴦, “Jin ershi nian lai Zhongguo xiaoshuo de ertong shiye” 䖥ѠकᑈᴹЁ೑ᇣ䇈ⱘܓス㾚䞢 (The child perspective in Chinese fiction of the last 20 years) (PhD diss., Sichuan daxue, 2004), 6. 123 . Qian Liqun, “ ‘Fu fu zi zi’ li de wenhua,” 165–170. 202 Notes

124 . The best-known such example in pre-modern literature is that of Jia Baoyu, who, along with his young cousins, travels the path to maturity in Cao Xueqin’s celebrated eighteenth-century work Dream of the Red Chamber (Honglou meng). For a discussion of the children of Dream of the Red Chamber and their world, see: Lucien Miller, “Children of the Dream: The Adolescent World in Cao Xueqin’s Honglou meng,” in Chinese Views of Childhood, ed. Anne Behnke Kinney, 219–247. 125 . Gao Shaoyue, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’,” 39–43. 126 . Lu Xun 剕䖙, “Kuangren riji” ⢖Ҏ᮹䆄 (Diary of a Madman), in Na Han , by Lu Xun (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1976), 24. 127 . Several scholars have explored the complexity of Lu Xun’s view in different ways, including, for example: Andrew Jones, “The Child as History”; Wang Lijun ⥟咢৯, “Zhongguo xiandai wenxue zhong de ertong shijiao” Ё೑⦄ҷ᭛ᄺЁⱘܓス㾚㾦 (The child’s point of view in modern Chinese literature), Wenxue pinglun 6 (2005): 98–106; and Gao Shaoyue, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’,” 42. 128 . Susan Daruvala, Zhou Zuoren , 38. 129 . On the coercion of the child into cannibalism in the works of Lu Xun see, for example: Li Jia ᴢՇ, “Lu Xun bi xia de ertong shijie” 剕䖙ヨϟⱘܓスϪ⬠ (The world of the child in the works of Lu Xun), Bohai daxue xuebao (zhexue shehui kexue ban ) 28.3 (2006): 10. 130 . Lu Xun 剕䖙, “Kong yi ji” ᄨЭᏅ (Kong Yi Ji), in Na Han, by Lu Xun (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1976), 27–33. 131 . The narrator is discussed, for example, in: Wang Lijun, “Zhongguo xiandai wenxue zhong de ertong shijiao,” 98–106. 132 . Lu Xun 剕䖙, “Gudu zhe” ᄸ⣀㗙 (The Misanthrope), in Panghuang , by Lu Xun (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1954), 107–137. 133 . Ibid., 114. The term the narrator uses is quite literal, huai ണ, meaning bad or evil, genmiao ḍ㢫, which can be translated as roots, but can also mean offspring. 134 . Ibid., 114–115. 135 . Ibid., 115. Multiple similar images are found in Lu Xun’s short stories, including the direct replication of the image of the shooting toddler. Xian Liqiang ઌゟᔎ, “Lu Xun chuangzuo zhong de ‘chuoyisha’ yixiang” 剕䖙߯԰Ёⱘ ‘᠇Ӟᴔ’ ᛣ䈵 (The ‘Chuoyisha’ [distorted child] image in the works of Lu Xun), Guizhou shifan daxue xuebao (shehui kexue ban) 136 (2005): 85–89, 86. 136 . Lu Xun, “Gudu zhe,” 115. 137 . Gao Shaoyue, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’”, 40. 138 . Ibid., 40–41. Indeed, Bing Xin has been characterized as creating “angelic” children. See also: Wang Lijun ⥟咢৯, “Zhongguo xiandai wenxue zhong de ertong xingxiang lun” Ё೑⦄ҷ᭛ᄺЁⱘܓスᔶ䈵䆎 (On the child image in modern Chinese literature), Zhejiang shehui kexue 5 (May 2008): 112. A direct comparison between Lu Xun’s ambiguous child figures and Bing Xin’s angelic children is made in Xu Lanjun, “Save the Children,” 70–119. 139 . Mao Dun, “Spring Silkworms,” trans. Sidney Shapiro, The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature, ed. Joseph S.M. Lau and Howard Goldblatt (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 70–88. 140 . Ibid., 75. Notes 203

141 . Ye Shaojun, “A Posthumous Son,” trans. Bonnie S. McDougall, in The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature, ed. Joseph S.M. Lau and Howard Goldblatt, 35–43. 142 . Ibid., 40. 143 . The collections from which the following examples are drawn illustrate the use of the child alongside various illnesses, notably venereal disease, as markers of the specific afflictions and suffering visited on women. Amy D. Dooling and Kristina Torgeson, eds, Writing Women in Modern China: an Anthology of Women’s Literature from the Early Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998); and Amy Dooling, ed., Writing Women in Modern China: The Revolutionary Years, 1936-1976 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005). 144 . Xie Bingying, “The Girl Umeko,” trans. Hu Mingliang, in Writing Women in Modern China: The Revolutionary Years , ed. Amy Dooling, 97–111. 145 . Ibid., 100. 146 . Ibid., 101. 147 . Xiao Hong, “Abandoned Child,” trans. Amy Dooling and Kristina Torgeson, in Writing Women in Modern China, ed. Amy Dooling and Kristina Torgeson, 347–361. 148 . Ibid., 359. 149 . Ibid., 360. 150 . Yang Gang, “Fragment From a Lost Diary,” in Writing Women in Modern China: The Revolutionary Years, ed. Amy Dooling, 37–49. Amy Dooling records that Yang Gang wrote this work in English, later translating it into Chinese. 151 . Ibid., 37. 152 . Ibid., 42. 153 . Ibid., 43. 154 . Xiao Hong, “Hands,” trans. Howard Goldblatt, in The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature, ed. Joseph S.M. Lau and Howard Goldblatt, 174–187. 155 . Ibid., 174. 156 . Ibid., 177–178. 157 . Catherine E. Pease, “Remembering the Taste of Melons,” 279–320 158 . Ibid. 159 . Ibid., 289. 160 . Gao Shaoyue, for example, suggests that the first appearance of the phrase “ertong wenxue” ܓス᭛ᄺ (children’s literature) as a concept in China may have been in the January 1918 edition of New Youth . Gao Shaoyue, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’”, 39. 161 . Ibid., 39–40. 162 . Mary Farquhar, Children’s Literature in China from Lu Xun to Mao Zedong (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1998), 26, 35; on Lu Xun, 43–53; on Bing Xin and Ye Shengtao, 91–142. Farquhar lists Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren, Ye Shengtao, Bing Xin, Zhang Tianyi, Mao Dun, Ba Jin, and Lao She as influential. Lu Xun, while not a children’s writer, wrote on children’s fiction and translated foreign works. Others, notably Bing Xin and Ye Shengtao, were pioneers of new fiction for children. 163 . In critical commentary, works of fiction which feature children, particu- larly stories with child narrators, are sometimes discussed as if they were 204 Notes

necessarily fiction for children. Writers who have written about children can also find themselves labelled as children’s fiction writers, sometimes inappropriately. Wang Anyi has suggested that this was the case for her in the 1980s: Wang Anyi – a Female Writer of Constant Innovations , http: //www.china.org.cn/english/NM-e/142642.htm (accessed 25 May 2011). Confusion over audiences is also clear in remarks made by Bing Xin, who argued that stories intended for adults had been misread as fiction for chil- dren. Xu Lanjun, “Save the Children,” 96. 164 . Mary Farquhar, “Revolutionary Children’s Literature.” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 4 (1980): 61. 165 . Gao Shaoyue, “Xiandaixing yu ‘ertong de faxian’”, 41–42. 166 . Mary Farquhar, “Revolutionary Children’s Literature,” 61–62. 167 . Mary Farquhar, Children’s Literature in China , 163. 168 . Ibid., 158. 169 . Mary Farquhar, “Revolutionary Children’s Literature,” 62. 170 . Ibid., 64. 171 . Elizabeth Goodenough, Mark A. Heberle, and Naomi Sokoloff, eds, Infant Tongues: The Voice of the Child in Literature (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994), 3. 172 . Pär Bergman, Paragons of Virtue in Chinese Short Stories during the Cultural Revolution (Göteburg: Skrifter utgivna av Föreningen för Orientaliska Studier, 1984), 5. 173 . Lin Jinlan and Cao Wenxuan ᵫ᭸╰,᳍᭛䔽, “Xuyan” ᑣ㿔 (Introduction), in Luori hong men: xiaoshuo juan, ed. Lin Jinlan and Cao Wenxuan (Beijing: Dazhong wenyi chubanshe, 2000), 3. 174 . See, for example: Mary Sheridan, “The Emulation of Heroes,” The China Quarterly 33 (January–March 1968): 49, 68–70; and, on tales of “young model heroes,” Pär Bergman, Paragons of Virtue , 90. 175 . Mary Sheridan, “The Emulation of Heroes,” 65. 176 . Mary Farquhar, “Revolutionary Children’s Literature,” 80. 177 . Pär Bergman, Paragons of Virtue , 5–10. 178 . The stories of exemplary children had been recorded “for moral or political reasons” since ancient times. Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage , 121. 179 . Hao Ran ⌽✊, Yan yang tian 㡇䰇໽ (Bright Sunny Skies) (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1975). 180 . Hao Ran, “‘Xiao shitou’ diao le yihou” ‘ᇣ⷇༈’϶њҹৢ (‘Little Pebble’ is Missing) (Hong Kong: Chaoyang Publishing Co., 1973). 181 . Ibid., 24. 182 . Mary Sheridan, “The Emulation of Heroes,” 70. 183 . Ibid. 184 . Ibid., 70–71. 185 . This dual loss was explored in fiction by poet Han Dong (b. 1961) in the novel Striking Root (Zhagen, 2003), published in English translation as Banished! , a narrative which features a father whose career as a writer is halted and then manipulated through the political, ideological, and practical demands of survival during and after the Cultural Revolution. Han Dong, Banished! , trans. Nicky Harman (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2009). 186 . Lan Yang, “Cultural Restoration Versus Cultural Revolution: A Traditional Cultural Perspective on Hao Ran’s The Golden Road,” China Information 18.3 (2004): 467. Notes 205

187 . Ibid., 467, 480. 188 . Ibid., 471. The quotation is from Hao Ran’s The Golden Road as translated in Lan Yang’s article. 189 . Ibid., 471–472 190 . Ibid., 470. 191 . Ibid. 192 . Ibid., 481. 193 . See, for example, the introduction to: Geremie Barmé and John Minford, eds, Seeds of Fire: Chinese Voices of Conscience (Hong Kong: Far Eastern Economic Review Ltd, 1986), xi. 194 . Liu Xinwu, “Class Counsellor,” trans. Bennett Lee, in The Wounded: New Stories of the Cultural Revolution, 1977-78, ed. Geremie Barmé and Bennett Lee (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Co., 1979), 147–178. 195 . Ibid., 161. 196 . Ibid., 155. 197 . Ibid., 176. 198 . Ibid., 168. 199 . Ibid., 167. 200 . Kam Louie, Between Fact and Fiction: Essays on Post-Mao Chinese Literature and Society (Sydney: Wild Peony, 1989), 19–20. 201 . This criticism, attributed to “veteran art director Han Shangyi,” is cited in Geremie Barmé and John Minford, eds, Seeds of Fire , 263. 202 . See, for example, Lin Jinlan and Cao Wenxuan, “Xuyan,” in Luori hong men .

3 Child of Sorrow: The Arrested Infant

1 . Thomas Hardy, Tess of the D’Urbervilles (London: Penguin Classics, 2003 [1891]). 2 . The ill-fated baby is named “Sorrow” by Tess, a name expanded by the omniscient narrator to the wonderful “Sorrow the Undesired.” Thomas Hardy, Tess of the D’Urbervilles , 96. 3 . Thomas Hardy, Tess of the D’Urbervilles , 75–100. 4 . Xu Lanjun, “Save the Children: Problem Childhoods and Narrative Politics in Twentieth-century Chinese Literature” (PhD diss., Princeton, 2007), 1–2, 17. 5 . See, for example: Wang Lijun ⥟咢৯, “Zhongguo xiandai wenxue zhong de ertong shijiao” Ё೑⦄ҷ᭛ᄺЁⱘܓス㾚㾦 (The child’s point of view in modern Chinese literature), Wenxue pinglun 6 (2005): 98–106; and Yi Wenxiang ᯧ᭛㖨, “Shilun jin 20 nian xiaoshuo zhong shao’er shijiao de jiangou” 䆩䆎䖥20ᑈᇣ䇈Ёᇥܓ㾚㾦ⱘᓎᵘ (The construct of the child’s point of view in the fiction of the last twenty years), Jiaying xueyuan xuebao 22.2 (2004): 59–62. 6 . I am using the words “infant” and “infantile” here with the specific meaning “unable to speak,” rather than as a reference to the age or other developmental stage of a child. The idea of being excluded from language is central to the function of the arrested infant image, in large part because of the role which access to language plays in theories of identity formation, as discussed, for example, in Elizabeth Wright, Psychoanalytic Criticism, a Reappraisal , 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 1998), 99–104. 7 . Gu Cheng 乒ජ, “Jianli” ㅔग़ (Curriculum Vitae), in Gu Cheng shi quan bian , ed. Gu Gong (Shanghai: Shanghai sanlian shudian, 1995), 230. 206 Notes

8 . Kirk Denton, The Problematic of Self in Modern Chinese Literature: Hu Feng and Lu Ling (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 20f, 54–55. 9 . Considering the subaltern in Lu Xun’s works, for example, Denton argues that: “For Lu Xun the self and the other are at once victims and victimizers: the victim is never solely the object of oppression and is more often than not an unwitting accomplice in his own oppression.” Ibid., 56. 10 . Ye Shaojun’s short story “A Posthumous Son,” referenced above, is an extreme example of this frequent theme. It can also be read in the ambiguous fate of women who refuse the traditional role in favour of a “modern” inde- pendence, such as the eponymous protagonist of Ding Ling’s “Miss Sophia’s Diary.” Ding Ling, “Miss Sophia’s Diary,” trans. Tani Barlow, in I Myself am a Woman: Selected Writing of Ding Ling, ed. Tani E. Barlow with Gary J. Bjorge (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 49–81. 11 . The issue had already been picked up by the international media in the twen- tieth century, and continues to generate headlines, including, for example, “Gender Genocide” (The Times, 26 August 2007); “China faces population imbalance crisis” (The Times, 12 January 2007); “More men than women as population grows by 8 million” (The Guardian, 17 March 2006); and “China’s Gender Crisis” ( The Guardian , 2 November 2011.) 12 . Ha Jin, Waiting (London: Vintage, 2000). 13 . Ibid., 49. 14 . Ibid., 237–244. The wedding day sees the bride leaving early and the groom thinking: “How bored he was by their wedding.” 15 . Ibid., 253. 16 . Ibid., 273. 17 . Ibid., 294–295. 18 . Ibid., 274. 19 . Ibid., 296–297. 20 . Ibid., 307. 21 . Wang Anyi ⥟ᅝᖚ, “Hao Muma, Xie Bobo, Xiao Mei Ayi he Nini” དྚཛྷ,䇶ԃԃ, ᇣྍ䰓ྼ੠ྂྂ (Hao Muma, Xie Bobo, Aunty Xiaomei and Nini), Shouhuo 1 (1986): 4–55. 22 . Su Tong 㢣ス, Mi ㉇ ( Rice ) (Jiangsu: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1993). 23 . Ibid., 100. 24 . Indeed, Sixth Master tells Cloud Weave that pregnancy has changed her from a “flower” into “dog shit.” Ibid., 101. 25 . Ibid., 100. 26 . Tie Ning 䪕ޱ, “Yunfu he niu” ᄩཛ੠⠯ (The Pregnant Woman and the Cow), in ’92 Zhongguo xiaoshuo jingcui , ed. Shu Nan and Xing An (Beijing: Nongcun duwu chubanshe, 1994), 121–126. 27 . The woman is, for example, described as having “an imposing bearing, like a valiant general.” Ibid., 122. 28 . Ibid., 124. 29 . Ibid. 30 . Ibid. 31 . Ibid. 32 . Ibid., 125. 33 . Ibid. Notes 207

34 . Wu Yusheng ਈ↧⫳, “Zai lishi yu weilai zhijian: du Tie Ning de ‘Yunfu he niu’” ೼ग़৆Ϣ᳾ᴹП䯈˖䇏䪕ޱⱘ ‘ᄩཛ੠⠯’ (Between history and the future: reading Tie Ning’s “The Pregnant Woman and the Cow”), Ming zuo xinshang 3 (1993): 32. 35 . Tie Ning, “Yunfu he niu,” 126. 36 . Wang Yumei ⥟⥝ṙ, “Yunyu shengming he xiji: lun ‘Yunfu he niu’ de zhuzhi yiwen ji yuyan yishu” ᄩ㚆⫳ੑ੠Ꮰݔ:䆎 ‘ᄩཛ੠⠯ ’ⱘЏᮼᛣ㭈ঞ䇁㿔㡎ᴃ (Pregnant with life and expectation: on the meaning and language of “The Pregnant Woman and the Cow”), Dianying wenxue 24 (2008): 149. 37 . Xu Lanjun, for example, discusses the ambiguous female figures, including a decidedly un-maternal grandmother, who populate Tie Ning’s novel The Rose Door (Meigui men, 1988). Xu Lanjun, “Save the Children,” 186–195. 38 . Yu Hua ԭढ, “Xianshi yi zhong” ⦄ᅲϔ⾡ (One Kind of Reality), in Yu Hua zuopin ji , vol. 2 (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui Kexue chubanshe, 1995), 3–45. 39 . Yu Hua ԭढ, Huo zhe ⌏ⴔ (To Live) (Taibei: Maitian chuban, 2007). 40 . Lu Xing’er 䰚᯳ܓ, “Jintian meiyou taiyang” Ҟ໽≵᳝໾䰇 (There is No Sun Today), Shiyue 1 (1987): 161–166. 41 . Dong Xi ϰ㽓, Erguang xiangliang 㘇ܝડ҂ (A Resounding Slap in the Face) (Changchun: Changchun chubanshe, 1998). 42 . Yu Hua, Huhan yu xiyu ੐୞Ϣ㒚䲼 (Cries and Drizzle) (Taibei: Yuanliu chuban gongsi, 1992). A discussion of the development in the 1980s of Avant-Garde fiction can be found in Henry Zhao, “New Waves in Recent Chinese Fiction,” in The Lost Boat: Avant-Garde Fiction from China , ed. Henry Y.H. Zhao (London: Wellsweep Press, 1993), 9–18. Yu Hua’s career evolution in the 1980s and 1990s is outlined in Michael Berry’s commentary on To Live. Michael Berry, “Afterword,” in Yu Hua, To Live , trans. Michael Berry, 238–240. A discussion of the position of Cries in the Drizzle within Yu Hua’s career can be found in Lin Zhong ᵫᖴ, “Yi ‘Zai xiyu zhong huhan’ kan Yu Hua 90 niandai chuangzuo de zhuanbian” ҹ‘೼㒚䲼Ё੐୞’ⳟԭढ 90 ᑈҷ߯԰ⱘ䕀ব (The 1990s creative transformation of Yu Hua through ‘Cries in the Drizzle’), Leshan shifan xueyuan xuebao 19.11 (2004): 52–55. 43 . Yu Hua makes frequent use of the child image in his fiction, as the discussion of his works here implies. See also: Shen Xingpei and Jiang Yu ≜ᴣ෍,ྰ⨰, “Tongxin de toushi: lun Yu Hua xiaoshuo de ertong shijiao xushi celüe” スᖗⱘ䗣㾚:䆎ԭढᇣ䇈ⱘܓス㾚㾦ভџㄪ⬹ (Childlike perspective: on the child’s point of view as narrative strategy in Yu Hua’s fiction), Nanjing shifan daxue wenxueyuan xuebao 9 (September 2004): 70. For a summary of the miserable fates of children in Yu Hua’s fiction, see: Li Weizhi ᴢ㓈ᱎ, “Yu Hua xiaoshuo zhong de ertong xingxiang fenxi” ԭढᇣ䇈Ёⱘܓスᔶ䈵ߚᵤ (Analysis of the child image in the fiction of Yu Hua), Dongbei shifan daxue jiaoyu kexue xueyuan yuwen xuekan 9 (2005): 84–85. 44 . The opening scene sets the tone, with the relentless dripping of rain, images of moss, mould, and mud, and the intrusively close proximity in which the characters live. Yu Hua, “Xianshi yi zhong,” 3. 45 . Ibid., 3; and recurring throughout the narrative. 46 . Ibid., 5–7. 47 . This conclusion is argued, for example, in: Li Weizhi, “Yu Hua xiaoshuo zhong de ertong xingxiang fenxi,” 85. 48 . Yu Hua, “Xianshi yi zhong,” 17. 208 Notes

49 . Ibid., 42–44. 50 . Ibid., 45. 51 . Yu Hua, Huo zhe , 164–178. 52 . Ibid., 164–165. 53 . Li Weizhi, “Yu Hua xiaoshuo zhong de ertong xingxiang fenxi,” 84. 54 . Michael Berry draws a direct line between Lu Xun and Yu Hua: “In 1918 Lu Xun raised his plea to ‘save the children’; Yu Hua’s belated response was to give us blood.” Michael Berry, “Afterword,” in Yu Hua, To Live , 243–244. 55 . Wu Zuxiang, “Young Master Gets His Tonic”, trans. Cyril Birch, in The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature , ed. Joseph S.M. Lau and Howard Goldblatt, 159–173. 56 . Yu Hua, Huo zhe , 240–251. Kugen’s destiny is implied from the outset by his name, kugen 㢺ḍ (bitter root). 57 . Ibid., 241. 58 . Ibid., 251. 59 . Deirdre Sabina Knight, “Capitalist and Enlightenment Values in Chinese Fiction of the 1990s: The Case of Yu Hua’s Blood Merchant,” in Contested Modernities in Chinese Literature , ed. Charles A. Laughlin (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 225. 60 . As, for example, in Michael Berry’s “Afterword” in Yu Hua, To Live , 243. 61 . Deirdre Sabina Knight, “Capitalist and Enlightenment Values,” 225. 62 . Lu Xing’er, “Jintian meiyou taiyang,” 162. 63 . Ibid., 164. 64 . Ibid., 166. 65 . Dong Xi ϰ㽓, Erguang xiangliang 㘇ܝડ҂ (A Resounding Slap in the Face ) (Changchun: Changchun chubanshe, 1998), 84–99. 66 . Lu Xun, “Medicine,” trans. Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang, in Call to Arms , by Lu Xun (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1981), 19–27. 67 . Han Shaogong 䶽ᇥࡳ, “Ba Ba Ba” ⠌⠌⠌ (Ba Ba Ba), in Ba Ba Ba: Han Shaogong zuopin jingxuanji (Taipei: Zheng zhong shuju, 2005), 1–45. 68 . Indeed, Han Shaogong has been described as having a “predilection for writing about people with mental or physical handicaps.” Bonnie McDougall and Kam Louie, The Literature of China in the Twentieth Century (London: C Hurst, 1997), 405. David Wang has commented on the arrival of “a host of crippled and otherwise flawed protagonists” in post-Mao fiction, as discussed in: Rong Cai, The Subject in Crisis in Contemporary Chinese Literature (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2004), 81. 69 . In the English translation referenced here the name is “Young Bing.” Other English translations use Bing and Bingzai, “zai” ጑being a young animal, but also “bastard” or “brat.” 70 . Dong Xi ϰ㽓, “Meiyou yuyan de shenghuo” ≵᳝䇁㿔ⱘ⫳⌏ (Life Without Language), Shouhuo 1 (1996): 52–79. 71 . Ann Anagnost, National Past-times: Narrative, Representation, and Power in Modern China (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), 1–2. 72 . As outlined, for example, in: Mark Leenhouts, Leaving the World to Enter the World: Han Shaogong and Chinese Root Seeking Literature (Leiden: CNWS Publications, 2005). 73 . Han Shaogong, “Ba Ba Ba”, 1. 74 . Ibid., 2. Rong Cai, The Subject in Crisis , 112. Notes 209

75 . Han Shaogong, “Ba Ba Ba”, 2–3. 76 . Ibid., 4–5. 77 . Han Shaogong, “Ba Ba Ba,” trans. Martha Cheung, in Homecoming? And Other Stories , by Han Shaogong (Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1992), 76. 78 . Martha Cheung, “Introduction,” in Homecoming , by Han Shaogong, xv. Opinions vary considerably as to what Bingzai actually represents. See, for example: Zhong Xueping, Masculinity Besieged? Issues of Modernity and Male Subjectivity in Chinese Literature of the Late Twentieth Century (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000), 107–108; and Rong Cai, The Subject in Crisis, 82–83. 79 . The narrator’s voice remains detached, just as Bingzai’s responses remain simple and removed, no matter how bizarre events become. 80 . Martha Cheung, “Introduction,” in Homecoming , by Han Shaogong, xvi. 81 . Ibid., xvii. 82 . Henry Zhao identifies the uncompromisingly critical tone in “Ba Ba Ba” and labels it “a sort of uprooting fiction” for its damning portrayal of the decline of civilization. Henry Zhao, “New Waves in Recent Chinese Fiction,” 13. Others make a direct reference to Bingzai’s deformity as a subversion of interest in the physical and intellectual quality of the national child, an interest Anagnost sums up as “a deep and abiding concern that relates bodily quality to national strength.” Ann Anagnost, National Past- times , 124. 83 . Anne Wedell-Wedellsborg, “Haunted Fiction: Modern Chinese Literature and the Supernatural,” The International Fiction Review 32.1 and 2 (2005): 4. 84 . Han Shaogong, “Ba Ba Ba,” 45. 85 . Zhong Xueping, Masculinity Besieged , 107–108. 86 . The film version Tianshang lianren was released in 2001, the television series Meiyou yuyan de shenghuo in 2009. 87 . Li Kun ᴢ⧼, “Renxing de liangji: ‘Tianshang de lianren’ xiaoshuo wenben dao dianying” Ҏᗻⱘϸᵕ˖ ‘໽ϞⱘᘟҎ’ᇣ䇈᭛ᴀࠄ⬉ᕅ (The extremes of human nature “Tianshang de lianren” from text to screen), Dianying wenxue 2 (2011): 69. 88 . Dong Xi, “Meiyou yuyan de shenghuo,” 61. 89 . Ibid. 90 . Hu Qunhui 㚵㕸᜻, Wo du Dong Xi ៥䇏ϰ㽓 (Reading Dong Xi) (Wuhan: Wuhan University Press, 2007), 166. 91 . The rewriting of the ending at the suggestion of an editor is described by Hu Qunhui in: Ibid., 167, 169–170. 92 . Dong Xi, “Meiyou yuyan de shenghuo,” 68. 93 . Ibid., 79. 94 . Ibid. 95 . Dong Xi ϰ㽓, “Meiyou yuyan de shenghuo” ≵᳝䇁㿔ⱘ⫳⌏ (Life Without Language) [original version], in Meiyou yuyan de shenghuo , by Dong Xi (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1996), 1–34. 96 . Ibid., 34. 97 . Hu Qunhui, Wo du Dong Xi , 169. 98 . Dong Xi, “Meiyou yuyan de shenghuo,” 68. 99 . Zhu Wen ᴅ᭛, Shenme shi laji, shenme shi ai ҔМᰃൗഒ,ҔМᰃ⠅ (What is Trash, What is Love) (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1998). 100 . Ma Jian 偀ᓎ, Lamianzhe ᢝ䴶㗙 (The Noodle Maker) (Taipei: Yuanliu chuban shiye gufen youxian gongsi, 1994). 210 Notes

101 . The scene is established in the first two chapters of the novel. Ma Jian, Lamianzhe , 3–20. 102 . Ma Jian, Lamianzhe , 170–178. 103 . Ibid., 175. 104 . Ibid., 171. 105 . The narrator explains: “Had it not been for the family planning regulations, the couple would have been free to conceive one child after another until a son turned up, but as things stood, the accountant decided that his only hope lay in getting rid of his retarded daughter.” Ma Jian, The Noodle Maker , trans. Flora Drew (London: Vintage, 2005), 142. 106 . Interpretations and extensions of the idea of “quality” are illustrated, for example, in the “jokes” which Ann Anagnost reports as common in the 1990s suggesting, among other things, the destruction of half of the popu- lation, and a greater focus on the “survival of the fittest.” Ann Anagnost, National Past- times , 121. 107 . The word used repeatedly in the text is chizi ⯈ᄤ (idiot). Ma Jian, Lamianzhe , 171. 108 . Ibid., 178. 109 . Ibid., 176. 110 . For example: “Knowing that she could say nothing in reply, he felt free to use the foulest language in her presence.” Ma Jian, The Noodle Maker, trans. Flora Drew, 146. 111 . Ibid. 112 . Ibid., 147. The translated “speech” from which this excerpt is taken is, in fact, an abridged version of the Chinese original, in which, among other things, the daughter’s voice is more negative about herself. Ma Jian, Lamianzhe , 177. 113 . As Xiao Ding proclaims: “I want to connect with someone, to really connect. I feel I no longer have any relationship with society, with other people. I don’t have any real ‘connection’. I want to feel that I have some use.” Zhu Wen, Shenme shi laji , 286. 114 . Ban Wang, “History in a Mythical Key: Temporality, Memory, and Tradition in Wang Anyi’s fiction,” Journal of Contemporary China 12.37 (November 2003): 607. 115 . As, for example, when he refuses to indulge a friend who is agonizing over how to choose between his wife and his mistress; and when he accuses another friend in a matter-of-fact way of arranging a search party for a missing girl just to get the girl’s father out of the way and make it easier to carry on an affair with the girl’s mother. Zhu Wen, Shenme shi laji , 74–75, 252–253. 116 . Ibid., 258. 117 . As outlined in Elizabeth Wright, Psychoanalytic Criticism , 10–11. 118 . One husband reports, for example, that his wife has had three terminations. Zhu Wen, Shenme shi laji , 74. 119 . Ibid., 108–128. The uncomfortable and sometimes farcical quest for a diag- nosis and treatment runs through the middle part of the novel, in particular in chapter 6. 120 . Ann Anagnost, National Past-times , 117–137; and, in particular, for commen- tary on the praise of birth control officers in the national press, 129–132. 121 . Zhu Wen, Shenme shi laji , 254. Notes 211

122 . The term used repeatedly by the narrator and by Xiao Ding, and echoed by others in response, is baichi ⱑ⯈ (idiot). 123 . Zhu Wen, Shenme shi laji , 269. 124 . Ibid., 305. 125 . Ann Anagnost, National Past-times , 124–125. 126 . Zhu Wen, Shenme shi laji , 306. 127 . Ibid., 275. 128 . After several failed attempts to see Xiao Long, which fuel Xiao Ding’s suspi- cion that the parents are hiding the boy from him, he is finally produced. Ibid., 304–309. 129 . Ibid., 309. 130 . Ibid. 131 . The opening description of Xiao Ding is repeated exactly in the closing paragraphs, underlining both the circularity of the narrative and the futility of the quest. Ibid., 3, 320. 132 . Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll: Images of the Child in Contemporary Writing and Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 48. 133 . Ann Anagnost, “Children and National Transcendence in China,” in Constructing China: the Interaction of Culture and Economics , ed. Kenneth G. Lieberthal, Shuen-fu Lin, and Ernest P. Young (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 1997), 197–198. 134 . Ibid., 219. 135 . Ala A. Alryyes, Original Subjects: The Child, the Novel, and the Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 1–2. 136 . Zhu Wen, “I Love Dollars,” in I Love Dollars and Other Stories of China , by Zhu Wen, trans. Julia Lovell (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 33.

4 Corrupt Seed: The Tainted Progeny

1 . For a discussion of heredity through Lu Xun’s “The Misanthrope” see: Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales: Evolutionary Thinking and Modern Chinese Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011), 64–65. 2 . Reinhard Kuhn, Corruption in Paradise: The Child in Western Literature (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1982), 44. 3 . Tani E. Barlow, “Gender and Identity in Ding Ling’s Mother ,” in Modern Chinese Women Writers: Critical Appraisals , ed. Michael Duke (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1989), 2. 4 . Zhu Lin ネᵫ, “Wang” 㔥 (The Web), in Zhu Lin wenji, vol. 4, ed. Zhang Jie (Beijing: Huaxia chubanshe, 1998), 406–422. 5 . Richard King, “Images of Sexual Oppression in Zhu Lin’s Snake’s-Pillow Collection,” in Modern Chinese Women Writers: Critical Appraisals, ed. Michael Duke (New York: M.E. Sharpe), 153. 6 . This development is discussed, for example, in: Ibid., 152. 7 . The protagonist is given a nickname in the village where she lives, jieshi 㒧ᅲ (strong/tough), which is rendered in Richard King’s English trans- lation as “Toughie”. Zhu Lin, “The Web,” trans. Richard King, in Snake’s Pillow and Other Stories , by Zhu Lin (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1998), 23–42. 212 Notes

8 . The story is launched with the repeated sound of the gong. Zhu Lin, “Wang,” 406. 9 . Ibid., 413. 10 . Zhu Lin, “The Web,” trans. Richard King, 23–42, 23. 11 . Ibid., 23–24. 12 . Zhu Lin, “Wang,” 419. 13 . Zhu Lin, “The Web,” trans. Richard King, 27–28. 14 . Ibid., 39. 15 . Zhu Lin, “Wang,” 408. 16 . Richard King, “Images of Sexual Oppression,” 170f. 17 . Indeed, the children’s response to the madman is to run away, suggesting that in fact what he read in their expressions as both fear and murderous intent may, in fact, have simply been fear. Lu Xun 剕䖙, “Kuangren riji” ⢖Ҏ᮹䆄 (Diary of a Madman), in Na Han, by Lu Xun (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1976), 13. 18 . Zhu Wen ᴅ᭛, Shenme shi laji, shenme shi ai ҔМᰃൗഒ,ҔМᰃ⠅ (What is Trash, What is Love) (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1998), 32–33. 19 . Ibid. 20 . Ibid., 32. The drink is called “shenli nai” ⼲࡯ཊ (superpower milk). 21 . Ibid., 33. 22 . Ibid. 23 . Ibid. 24 . In Zhu Wen’s narratives, the name Xiao Ding is frequently used for the protagonist, creating a sense that this is a generic everyman, his own iden- tity unimportant. Here, this suggests an intriguing dual anonymity which enhances the sense that the “children” are a culture or society which the “adult” cannot join. On the use of “Xiao Ding” by Zhu Wen, see, for example: Ge Hongbing 㨯㑶݉, “Zhu Wen xiaoshuo lun” ᴅ᭛ᇣ䇈䆎 (On Zhu Wen’s fiction), Dangdai wentan 3 (1997): 19; and Jiang Jing ྰ䴭, “Mingliang yu yinying: lun Zhu Wen de xiaoshuo shijie” ᯢ҂Ϣ䰈ᕅ˖䆎ᴅ᭛ⱘᇣ䇈Ϫ⬠ (Light and shadow: the fictional world of Zhu Wen), Dangdai zuojia pinglun 2 (2005): 134. 25 . Zhu Wen, Shenme shi laji, 33. 26 . Wang Anyi ⥟ᅝᖚ, “Hao Muma, Xie Bobo, Xiao Mei Ayi he Nini” དྚཛྷ, 䇶ԃԃ, ᇣྍ䰓ྼ੠ྂྂ (Hao Muma, Xie Bobo, Aunty Xiaomei and Nini), Shouhuo 1 (1986): 4–55. 27 . The term Ayi , translated here as Aunty, does not denote a family connection but is, rather, the term, still in common use, for a domestic servant, particu- larly one who is responsible for caring for their employer’s children. 28 . Wang Anyi, “ Hao Muma,” 5. 29 . Ibid., 6. 30 . Ibid., 6–7. 31 . Ibid., 16. 32 . Ibid., 35. 33 . In one instance, when Hao Muma is smacking Nini with a ruler for stealing, Xie Bobo tells his wife to be careful not to damage the sofa the child is being pinned down on. Ibid., 26. 34 . The narrative goes so far as to describe Hao Muma’s demeanour, as seen by one of Nini’s teachers, as being like that of a small child. Ibid., 34. Notes 213

35 . Carl Gustav Jung, The Development of Personality , trans. R.F.C. Hull (London: Routledge, 1991), 39. 36 . Wang Anyi’s portrait of Xie Bobo reflects approaches to male and female roles noted in her fiction of this era, namely a belief that mothers are more involved with their children than fathers, and that women are stronger than men but are also often doomed to a miserable fate through the men they love. See, for example: Eva Hung, “Preface,” Love on a Barren Mountain, trans. Eva Hung, by Wang Anyi (Hong Kong: Renditions, 1992), x. 37 . The phrase used here is sishengzi ⾕⫳ᄤ (illegitimate child). 38 . Wang Anyi, “Hao Muma,” 39. 39 . These vacillations between positions are often hard to reconcile and bring to mind a critique of Wang Anyi by Michael Duke that her early 1980s fiction suffers from “overly abrupt changes in moral character.” Michael S. Duke, “Book Review: Wang Anyi’s Lapse of Time ,” World Literature Today 63.3 (Summer 1989): 536. 40 . Wang Anyi, “Hao Muma,” 30. 41 . Ibid., 38. 42 . Ibid., 16. 43 . Ibid. 44 . Ibid., 42. 45 . Carl Gustav Jung, The Development of Personality , 42–43. 46 . Making the reference to birth quite clear, Nini asks “Wo shibushi baba mama sheng de?” “៥ᰃϡᰃ⠌⠌ཛྷཛྷ⫳ⱘ?” (Was I born to my father and mother?). Wang Anyi, “Hao Muma,” 53. 47 . Ibid. 48 . Nini’s sustained lack of voice is particularly interesting coming from Wang Anyi, who was editor of Children magazine in the late 1970s and was known in the early 1980s as a writer for children and for youth (qingnian zuojia ), a label which, as noted above, she herself later argued against. Nini does, however, reflect an idea found elsewhere in Wang Anyi’s works, not least in My Origins, referenced in Chapter 5, that identity is inextricably linked to a sense of family history, of origins. Xu Lanjun argues, for example, that: “Two basic questions pervade Wang’s writings, namely: Who am I? Where did I come from?” Xu Lanjun, “Save the Children: Problem Childhoods and Narrative Politics in Twentieth-century Chinese Literature” (PhD diss., Princeton, 2007), 196. 49 . Wang Anyi, “Hao Muma,” 30. 50 . Ibid., 45. 51 . Ibid., 43. 52 . Nini always eats voraciously, a trait which Wang Anyi uses elsewhere in her fiction in images of the lower classes. This connection is raised, for example, in: Jeffrey Kinkley, “Preface,” in Lapse of Time , by Wang Anyi (Beijing: Panda Books, 1988), pp. vi–vii. 53 . Su Tong 㢣ス, Mi ㉇ ( Rice ) (Jiangsu: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1993), 114. 54 . Su Tong, Rice , trans. Howard Goldblatt (London: Scribner, 2000), 115–116. 55 . Ibid., 148. 56 . As a scared new arrival to the city, even the word “dad” is strange to Five Dragons, who has never had cause to use it. Su Tong, Mi , 6. 214 Notes

57 . Liu Heng ߬ᘦ, “Fuxi Fuxi” ӣ㖆ӣ㖆 (The Obsessed), in Fuxi Fuxi, by Liu Heng (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 1992), 152–256. 58 . Mo Yan 㥿㿔, Feng ru fei tun Єч㙹㞔 (Big Breasts and Wide Hips) (Beijing: Zhongguo gongren chubanshe, 2003). 59 . Liu Heng, “Fuxi Fuxi,” 152–158. 60 . Ibid., 153. 61 . Ibid., 153–154. 62 . By the end of this first journey Tianqing is in love with Judou. Ibid., 154, 158. 63 . This is a process which dominates the first part of the narrative with scenes of public humiliation and private abuse. For example: Ibid., 159–160, 168, 170–171, 180–181. 64 . While it is within his power to arrange a marriage for his nephew, Jinshan chooses to ignore Tianqing’s adulthood, demanding that, as his brother’s “seed,” Tianqing should continue to work for the family until he is no longer needed. Ibid., 184. 65 . Ibid., 198–199, 203. 66 . Ibid., 211, 214. 67 . Ibid., 223–224. 68 . Ibid., 248. Judou’s return to the village with her second son, Tianhuang, marks the end of the English translation. However, in the Chinese original, this is followed by a brief postscript, discussed further below. 69 . Ibid., 198–200. 70 . Ibid., 205–206. 71 . Ibid., 220. 72 . Ibid., 228. 73 . Liu Heng, “The Obsessed,” trans. David Kwan, in The Obsessed , by Liu Heng (Beijing: Panda Books, 1991), 105. 74 . Liu Heng, “Fuxi Fuxi,” 220. 75 . Ibid., 248. 76 . Tianqing partially and Tianbai more completely follow a classic oedipal trajectory, as described, for example, in Elizabeth Wright, Psychoanalytic Criticism, a Reappraisal , 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 1998), 13. 77 . Liu Heng, “Fuxi Fuxi,” 236. 78 . Liu Heng, “The Obsessed,” trans. David Kwan, 107. 79 . Liu Heng, “Fuxi Fuxi,” 248–249. This event is foretold when observers comment that Tianbai, as a descendant of the violent Jinshan, will surely eventually be responsible for a death. 80 . Ibid., 158. 81 . Even the death of Jinshan’s first wife is positioned in history – she is felled by a Japanese bullet. Ibid., 153. 82 . The dominant word in the narrative is zhong ⾡ (seed), and the narrator describes Jinshan as viewing Judou as, among other things, land on which he can cast his seed at will. Ibid., 159. 83 . Ibid., 216. A miu zhong 䈀⾡ (false seed). 84 . Liu Heng, “The Obsessed,” trans. David Kwan, 123–124. 85 . At times, Jintong himself acknowledges his unlikely omnipresence. For example: “There was so much happening that day that I’d have had to grow ten pairs of eyes to see it all and ten mouths to tell it.” Mo Yan, Big Breasts and Wide Hips , trans. Howard Goldblatt (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2004), 319. Notes 215

86 . The events of Jintong’s birth are dealt with in the first chapter, culminating in the inanimate newborn boy being slapped to life by a Japanese doctor, part of the army which has just ransacked the village. The baby immedi- ately enters history (as storytelling) as photographs of the Japanese doctor saving his life are used in Japanese newspapers as proof of the “friendship” between Japan and China. Mo Yan, Feng ru fei tun , 34. 87 . The names of the seven preceding sisters, in their repetitiveness, both celebrate and ridicule the importance of the boy child: Laidi ᴹᓳ (brother coming), Zhaodi ᢯ᓳ (brother beckoned), Lingdi 乚ᓳ (brother ushered), Xiangdi ᛇᓳ (brother desired), Pandi Ⳑᓳ (brother longed for), Niandi ᗉᓳ (brother missed), and Qiudi∖ᓳ (brother sought). 88 . Mo Yan, Feng ru fei tun , 11. 89 . Ibid., 46. 90 . As the novel’s title suggests, Jintong’s obsession with breasts and breast milk, which begins with his jealousy over his mother, is a defining feature of his character. 91 . Mo Yan, Feng ru fei tun , 50. 92 . Ibid., 50–51. Malory uses the phrase xiao zazhong ᇣᴖ⾡, which can also mean specifically “hybrid” or “crossbreed.” Used frequently in the original Chinese, zazhong is translated in the English edition as both “bastard” and “hybrid bastard.” When Jintong’s mother asks Malory not to use the term, Malory points out that it is in fact what Jintong is. Zazhong is also the term used by Mo Yan’s narrator in Red Sorghum to describe (and deride) the “hybrid” modern sorghum. 93 . Ibid., 47. 94 . Ibid., 55–56. Malory kills himself after members of the militia invade the church and rape Jintong’s mother. 95 . Ibid., 32–33. 96 . Rong Cai, for example, reduces the role of Jintong’s twin sister to her birth, blindness, and death. Rong Cai, “Problematizing the Foreign Other: Mother, Father and the Bastard in Mo Yan’s ‘Large Breasts and Full Hips’,” Modern China 29.1 (2003): 125. 97 . Mo Yan, Feng ru fei tun , 37. 98 . Ibid., 56. 99 . Ibid., 48. 100 . Ibid., 47. 101 . Jintong will eventually face several rivals in this respect, as his mother becomes surrogate to numerous grandchildren. 102 . Jintong is not Mo Yan’s only blond baby. In “The Yellow Haired Baby” (Jin fa ying’er, 1985), an obviously illegitimate child is strangled by the cuck- olded husband. Mo Yan 㥿㿔, “Jin fa ying’er” 䞥থ၈ܓ (The Yellow Haired Baby), in Mo Yan zuopin qingxuan, by Mo Yan (Wuhan: Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, 2005), 212–260. 103 . Rong Cai, “Problematizing the Foreign Other,” 116–117. 104 . Ibid., 109. 105 . Ibid., 117. 106 . Ibid., 119. 107 . Ibid., 122. Shelley Chan makes a similar connection, arguing that Jintong’s “embarrassing genesis ... derides the traditional value of a pure lineage, as 216 Notes

well as the dignity of ‘Chineseness’.” Shelley Chan, “From Fatherland to Motherland: On Mo Yan’s Red Sorghum and Big Breasts and Full Hips,” World Literature Today 74.3 (Summer 2000): 495–500, 496. 108 . Rong Cai, “Problematizing the Foreign Other,” 122. 109 . Even his name is indicative of his origins, Jintong 䞥ス (golden boy), both an indication of his value within the family and a perpetually present reference to his blond hair. 110 . Rong Cai, “Problematizing the Foreign Other,” 125. 111 . This is used in the text as a term which combines affection and abuse, and is not exclusive to Jintong, who in fact uses it himself to refer to other children. Jintong’s great-aunt, for example, insists on using the term which Malory used, zazhong , which she argues is a term of affection. Mo Yan, Feng ru fei tun , 74. 112 . This is most explicit when he is attacked by village boys intent on teaching a lesson to the “hybrid bastard the red-haired devil left behind.” Ibid., 229. 113 . Ibid., 257–258. 114 . This prompts Jintong to describe both himself and his sister as zazhong . Ibid., 258. 115 . Rong Cai, “Problematizing the Foreign Other,” 125. 116 . Mo Yan, Big Breasts and Wide Hips , trans. Howard Goldblatt, 379. 117 . Qu Huabing ⶓढ݉, “Mo Yan xiaoshuo zhong ertong shijiao de xushi celüe” 㥿㿔ᇣ䇈Ёܓス㾚㾦ⱘভџㄪ⬹ (Narrating the child perspective in the fiction of Mo Yan), Yuwen xuekan 7 (2006): 115. 118 . Shelley Chan, “From Fatherland to Motherland,” 499. 119 . Jung asserts, in a warning which seems directly relevant to Jintong’s perpetual un-development, that: “Though it is a misfortune for a child to have no parents, it is equally dangerous for him to be too closely bound to his family.” Carl Gustav Jung, The Development of Personality , 55. 120 . Jintong’s heightened awareness and distinctly un-childlike response to the world are most clear in the language he uses to narrate his experiences and emotions as a young baby, as, for example, when he recalls his response to being handled by a great-aunt: “Disgusted by her humiliating groping, I strained to crawl over to the corner of the bed.” Mo Yan, Big Breasts and Wide Hips , trans. Howard Goldblatt, 132. 121 . Ibid., 511. 122 . In this approach, the mother/child relationship, in particular the sense Jintong has that his mother’s gaze is loaded both with tears and with expec- tations, mirrors the mother/son dynamic observed by Ping-chen Hsiung in records of late-imperial society, discussed above. Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage: Children and Childhood in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005). 123 . Liu Heng, “Fuxi Fuxi,” 252–255. This final section jumps the narrative forward into the 1980s and sketches briefly the widow Judou between the graves of her husband and lover before focusing on the outcome of the story for the two children, now adults, Tianbai and Tianhuang. 124 . Indeed, despite Tianhuang being born long after Jinshan’s death, and being accepted by society as Tianqing’s son, he is still uncomfortable with his origins. The postscript describes him as a xiao zaizi ᇣ጑ᄤ (little bastard) and attributes his immorality and cynicism directly to his birth. Ibid., 253–254. Notes 217

125 . Mo Yan, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, 478. 126 . Carl Gustav Jung, The Development of Personality , 55. 127 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales , 110. 128 . Charlotte Furth, “From Birth to Birth: The Growing Body in Chinese Medicine,” in Chinese Views of Childhood , ed. Anne Behnke Kinney, 172. 129 . Andrew F. Jones, “The Child as History in Republican China: A Discourse on Development,” Positions 10.3 (2002): 703. 130 . Such images are discussed above, as observed, for example, in studies by Lisa Zunshine and Steven G. Kellman. 131 . Liu Heng, “Fuxi Fuxi,” 254.

5 As Happy as Orphans: The Abandoned Child

1 . Lei Feng’s diary contains repeated reminders that he was orphaned as a child, referring to his young self as, among other things, an “impoverished orphan” ( qiongku gu’er か㢺ᄸܓ) who suffered in the old society before being saved. Lei Feng 䳋䫟, Lei Feng quanji 䳋䫟ܼ䲚 (Lei Feng Collected Works) (Beijing: Huawen chubanshe, 2003),13. 2 . Lei Feng’s writings, for example, include the short story “An Orphan” (1958), in which a child loses his entire family to war, oppression, and famine before being raised up, after 1949, by the new state. Lei Feng 䳋䫟, “Yi ge gu’er” ϔϾᄸܓ (An Orphan), in Lei Feng, Lei Feng quanji (Lei Feng Collected Works) (Beijing: Huawen chubanshe, 2003), 150–165. 3 . Lei Feng, Lei Feng quanji , 13, 21, etc. 4 . Ibid., 67. 5 . Ibid., 70. 6 . For a summary of the orphan in modern Chinese fiction, see: Wang Lijun ⥟咢৯, “Zhongguo xiandai wenxue zhong de ertong xingxiang lun” Ё೑⦄ ҷ᭛ᄺЁⱘܓスᔶ䈵䆎 (On the child image in modern Chinese literature), Zhejiang shehui kexue 5 (May 2008). 7 . “When I was very little, people often told me: ‘You are not your mother and father’s child. You were plucked out of a dustbin, from inside a dustbin on Ruijin Road!’ ” Wang Anyi ⥟ᅝᖚ “Wo de laili” ៥ⱘᴹग़ (My Origins), in Xiao Bao Zhuang , by Wang Anyi (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1986), 100. 8 . One of the children offered to Hao Muma in Wang Anyi’s adoption tale is a boy who has just been found in a rubbish bin. He is rejected by Xie Bobo on the grounds that they have already decided on adopting a girl. Wang Anyi ⥟ᅝᖚ, “Hao Muma, Xie Bobo, Xiao Mei Ayi he Nini” དྚཛྷ,䇶ԃԃ, ᇣྍ䰓ྼ੠ྂྂ (Hao Muma, Xie Bobo, Aunty Xiaomei and Nini), Shouhuo 1 (1986): 10. Mo Yan also uses this motif – the baby plucked from a rubbish bin – in The Republic of Wine . Mo Yan 㥿㿔, Jiu Guo 䜦೑ (The Republic of Wine) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 2008), 276. 9 . Cen Sang ብḥ, “Haohan bu diao lei” ད∝ϡᥝ⊾ (Heroes Don’t Cry), Zuopin 4 (1980): 30–36. 10 . Yu Hua ԭढ, “Wo meiyou ziji de mingzi” ៥≵᳝㞾Ꮕⱘৡᄫ (I Don’t Have My Own Name), in Wo meiyou ziji de mingzi , by Yu Hua (Kunming: Yunnan renmin chubanshe, 2002), 20–38. 218 Notes

11 . Bi Feiyu ↩亲ᅛ, “Buruqi de nüren” ૎чᳳⱘཇҎ (Lactating Woman), in Yanyu de mimi , by Bi Feiyu (Beijing: Kunlun chubanshe, 2002), 121–128. 12 . Yu Hua, Huhan yu xiyu ੐୞Ϣ㒚䲼 (Cries and Drizzle) (Taibei: Yuanliu chuban gongsi, 1992), 136–158. First published as Huhan yu xiyu ੐୞Ϣ㒚䲼 (Cries and Drizzle), this work has also appeared under the title Zai xiyu zhong huhan ೼㒚䲼Ё੐୞ (Crying Out in the Drizzle). The English title I am using here, Cries in the Drizzle, is taken from Allan Barr’s translation, published in 2007. The Chinese edition I reference throughout was published in Taiwan in 1992 under the original title. 13 . Mo Yan 㥿㿔, “Qi ying” ᓗ၈ (Abandoned Baby), in Huaibao xianhua de nüren , by Mo Yan (Taibei: Hongfan shudian chubanshe, 1993), 31–59. Lingshan ♉ቅ (Soul Mountain) (Taipei: Lianjing ,عGao Xingjian 催㸠 . 14 chubanshe, 1990), 482–489. 15 . Li Xintian ᴢᖗ⬄, “Yejian sao jie de haizi” ໰䯈ᠿ㸫ⱘᄽᄤ (The Child who Sweeps the Streets at Night), Renmin Wenxue 3 (1980): 105–110. Li Xintian has written many stories about and for children. The Child who Sweeps the Streets at Night, published in Renmin Wenxue, has also appeared in antholo- gies of children’s fiction. 16 . Yu Hua, Huhan yu xiyu , 247–279. 17 . Wang Shuo ⥟᳨, “Dongwu xiongmeng” ࡼ⠽ߊ⣯ (Animal Ferocity), in Dongwu xiongmeng: ‘Shouhuo’ 50 nian jingxuan xilie 7, ed. Li Xiaolin, Xiao Yuanmin, and Cheng Yongxin (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chubanshe, 2009), 1–70. 18 . Dong Xi ϰ㽓, Erguang xiangliang 㘇ܝડ҂ (A Resounding Slap in the Face) (Changchun: Changchun chubanshe, 1998). 19 . Lisa Zunshine, Bastards and Foundlings: Illegitimacy in Eighteenth-Century England (Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2005), 15. 20 . This is a phrase used by Steven Kellman, as discussed in Chapter 1. Steven G. Kellman, “The Fiction of Self-Begetting,” MLN 91.6 Comparative Literature (December 1976): 1244. 21 . See, for example, Leung Laifong, Morning Sun: Interviews with Chinese Writers of the Lost Generation (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), xxvii–xxxii. 22 . Kam Louie describes the returned zhiqing as being treated like the unwel- come reminders of an ideologically fanatical past, products of a “vanquished ideology.” Kam Louie, Between Fact and Fiction: Essays on Post- Mao Chinese Literature and Society (Sydney: Wild Peony Pty Ltd, 1989), 94–95. 23 . Wang Lijun, “Ertong xingxiang lun,” 116. 24 . Ibid. 25 . The exceptions include the father’s attempts to abandon his daughter in The Noodle Maker and Seventh Sister’s story in Big Breasts and Wide Hips . 26 . These recent and current social problems are gradually being given a higher profile in fiction and non-fiction writing. Mo Yan’s novel Wa (Frog, 2009), for example, which was awarded the Mao Dun Literature Prize in 2011, centres on the implementation and consequences of the one-child policy. Xinran’s investigative work Message from an Unknown Chinese Mother , published in English translation in 2011, gives contemporary accounts of the giving up of girls for adoption, alongside infanticide and abandonment, and the severe consequences for mothers. 27 . It is interesting to note that, in the only narrative considered here to deal directly with giving up an “unsatisfactory” child in order to have another, Notes 219

The Noodle Maker , the mother is in favour of abandonment and it is the father who agonizes over and is unable to give up his daughter. Similarly, in Mo Yan’s “Abandoned Baby,” it is the male protagonist who insists, against protests from his wife and his mother, that he should look after the baby he finds abandoned in a field. 28 . The true orphan also appears to be uncommon in other eras and genres, as evidenced, for example, in Xu Lanjun’s discussion of “orphan narratives” in films of the 1920s–1940s, which includes several stories in which a child still had one parent or at least “some form of family.” Xu Lanjun, “Save the Children: Problem Childhoods and Narrative Politics in Twentieth-century Chinese Literature” (PhD diss., Princeton, 2007), 137. 29 . Cen Sang, “Haohan bu diao lei,” 35. 30 . Ibid., 31. 31 . Ibid. 32 . Ibid., 32. 33 . Ibid., 33. 34 . Ibid., 34. 35 . Ibid., 31, 36. 36 . Ibid., 31. 37 . Yu Hua, “Wo meiyou ziji de mingzi,” 24. 38 . Ibid. 39 . Ibid., 21. 40 . Ibid., 23. 41 . Ibid., 25. 42 . Ibid., 38. 43 . Yibing Huang, Contemporary Chinese Literature: From the Cultural Revolution to the Future (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 2–5. 44 . This trend is discussed in Chapter 1 through the cultural commentary of Sheldon Hsiao-Peng Lu, Ben Xu, and others. 45 . This is a well-recognized phenomenon. Ban Wang, for example, observes: “China’s quickening pace since the early 1990s to integrate into the global market is accompanied by the ruptures in its social fabrics.” Ban Wang, “History in a Mythical Key: Temporality, Memory, and Tradition in Wang Anyi’s Fiction,” Journal of Contemporary China 12.37 (November 2003): 611. 46 . Bi Feiyu, “Buruqi de nüren,”124. 47 . Ibid. 48 . Ibid., 125. 49 . Ibid., 127. 50 . Ibid. 51 . Ibid., 128. 52 . Ibid., 123. 53 . Ibid. 54 . Ibid. 55 . Ibid., 126. 56 . Ibid., 128. 57 . Yu Hua, Huhan yu xiyu, 136–137. 58 . Ibid., 141. 59 . Yu Hua, Cries in the Drizzle , trans. Allan H. Barr (New York: Anchor Books, 2007), 135–136. 60 . Ibid., 140. 220 Notes

61 . A useful summary of Lacan’s theory can be found in: Irena R. Makaryk, ed., Encyclopaedia of Contemporary Literary Theory (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 167. 62 . This theme is referenced above, as discussed in David Der-wei Wang, “Impersonating China,” Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Review 25 (2003). 63 . This idealized imagining of the maternal is far from universal in Chinese fiction, as is clear, for example, in the catastrophic consequences of a surfeit of maternal attention in Big Breasts and Wide Hips, discussed in Chapter 4, and in the bloody outcome of over-intensive mothering in Ding Xiaoqi’s “I Want to Make Paper Cuts,” discussed in Chapter 6. 64 . Mo Yan, “Qi ying,” 37. 65 . Ibid., 38–39. 66 . Ibid., 36–37. 67 . Mo Yan, “Abandoned Child,” trans. Howard Goldblatt in Mo Yan, Shifu, You’ll Do Anything for a Laugh (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2001), 178. 68 . Mo Yan, “Qi ying,” 51. 69 . Ibid., 41. 70 . Ibid., 43. 71 . Ibid., 43–45. 72 . Mo Yan, “Abandoned Child,” trans. Howard Goldblatt, 186. 73 . Mo Yan, “Qi ying,” 58–59. 74 . Mo Yan, “Abandoned Child,” trans. Howard Goldblatt, 178–179. 75 . Ibid., 169. 76 . Ibid., 174. 77 . The narrator proclaims, for example: “Anytime I bled for someone, the person who’d drunk my blood would curse me, ‘Your blood is rancid! Get the hell out of here!’ I wondered if this abandoned child I’d rescued might also curse me for having rancid blood.” Ibid., 188. 78 . Ibid., 194. 79 . He concludes: “My heart was deeply scarred, pierced all the way through. And whenever I offered it to someone, fully marinated in soy sauce, all they ever did was piss on it.” Ibid. 80 . Mo Yan, “Qi ying,” 57. 81 . Mo Yan, “Abandoned Child,” trans. Howard Goldblatt, 202. 82 . Gao Xingjian, Lingshan , 482–489. 83 . The time between finding and reabandoning the child is unspecified, but it is narrated as a short break in the journey, minutes or hours at most. In the Chinese text, the entire encounter takes less than four pages. 84 . Gao Xingjian, Soul Mountain , trans. Mabel Lee (London: Harper Perennial, 2004), 469. 85 . Ibid. 86 . Elizabeth Wright, Psychoanalytic Criticism, a Reappraisal, 2nd edn (New York: Routledge, 1998), 72. 87 . Ibid., 71–76. Elizabeth Wright establishes the grounds for such conflict through Melanie Klein. 88 . Ibid., 72. The objects of Klein’s attention are children. 89 . “You run off, in broad daylight, like a fugitive criminal.” Gao Xingjian, Soul Mountain , trans. Mabel Lee, 470. 90 . Gao Xingjian, Lingshan , 489. Notes 221

91 . Ibid. 92 . Li Xintian, “Yejian sao jie de haizi,” 105. 93 . Ibid., 106. 94 . Ibid., 110. 95 . Ibid., 108. 96 . Wang Wenling ⥟᭛⦆, “Zhengzhi pipan gongju yu hao ertong: 80 niandai chuqi xiaoshuo chuangzuo de ertong xingxiang” ᬓ⊏ᡍ߸Ꮉ݋Ϣདܓス: 80 ᑈҷ߱ᳳᇣ䇈߯԰Ёⱘܓスᔶ䈵 (Tools of political criticism and the good child: the child image in the creation of early 80s fiction), Xiandai yuwen ( wenxue yanjiu ban) (September 2007): 127. 97 . Yu Hua, Huhan yu xiyu , 247–279. 98 . Guoqing means National Day, the anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China. 99 . Yu Hua, Cries in the Drizzle , trans. Allan H. Barr, 252. 100 . Ibid., 256. 101 . Lau Kin-chi cites Chinese critic Guo Baoliang. Lau Kin-chi, Gendered Subaltern as Perspective in Reading Mo Yan, Wang Shuo and Zhang Jie (PhD diss., University of Hong Kong, 1999), 74–75. 102 . Ibid., 73. Yao Yusheng also makes the point that the Cultural Revolution is represented as “an unparalleled opportunity for Chinese youth to develop their individuality.” Yao Yusheng, “The Elite Class Background of Wang Shuo and his Hooligan Characters,” Modern China 30.4 (Oct. 2004): 431–469, 438. 103 . The child liberated from a stifling patriarchy is one of the tropes identified in May Fourth fiction in, for example: Wang Lijun, “Ertong xingxiang lun,” 113–114. 104 . Wang Shuo, “Dongwu xiongmeng,” 10. 105 . Yao Yusheng, “The Elite Class Background of Wang Shuo,” 443. 106 . Yao Yusheng provides a detailed discussion of the use of privileged youth, as opposed to the common man, in Wang Shuo’s fiction. Ibid., 431–469, 442. 107 . The narrator notes that his “mother and father” moved him to a new school; however, apart from these brief mentions, the mother remains hidden in the text and it is the father with whom the narrator has all his reported discussions and altercations. The exclusion of the female in Wang Shuo’s fiction has been widely observed and is evident here. 108 . Yao Yusheng, “The Elite Class Background of Wang Shuo,” 444. 109 . In another, more sustained examination of the father and son by Wang Shuo, I Am Your Father (Wo shi ni baba, 1992), the narrative takes a similar approach but with a greater focus on the father and his attempts to define his position in relation to his son through a series of miscalculated actions, largely excessively authoritarian. 110 . Wang Shuo, “Dongwu xiongmeng,” 19. 111 . Ibid., 45. 112 . Ibid., 46. 113 . This reading reflects the analysis by Geremie Barmé of the generation repre- sented by Wang Shuo as “not disillusioned but dismissive.” Geremie Barmé, “Wang Shuo and Liumang (‘Hooligan’) Culture,” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 28 (July 1992): 24. 114 . Kam Louie, Between Fact and Fiction , 19–20. 222 Notes

115 . Hu Qunhui uses the term wu fu shidai ᮴⠊ᯊҷ (fatherless era), and also refers to this phenomenon as wu fu zainan ᮴⠊♒䲒 (the catastrophe of fatherlessness). Hu Qunhui 㚵㕸᜻, Wo du Dong Xi ៥䇏ϰ㽓 (Reading Dong Xi) (Wuhan: Wuhan University Press, 2007), 14–15. 116 . Hong Zhigang ⋾⊏㒆, “Kunan jiyi de xianshi huifang” 㢺䲒䆄ᖚⱘ⦄ᯊಲ䆓 (The present-day recalling of memories of suffering), in Erguang xiangliang , by Dong Xi, 323. 117 . Dong Xi, Erguang xiangliang , 4. For a discussion of mother and son’s responses to the dual loss, see Hu Qunhui, Wo du Dong Xi, 3–4. 118 . Dong Xi, Erguang xiangliang , 7. 119 . Ibid., 17. 120 . Hu Qunhui, Wo du Dong Xi , 3. 121 . Ibid. 122 . Dong Xi, Erguang xiangliang , 66–71. 123 . Hu Qunhui, Wo du Dong Xi , 14. 124 . Dong Xi, Erguang xiangliang, 234, 272. The phrase repeated by different characters is shei you qian, shei shi daye. Daye (໻⠋) means uncle, specifically the older brother of one’s father. Here it means boss, the man in charge, but, given the familial connotation of seniority (in age), also suggests seniority within the hierarchy (of men) and, therefore, deserving of deference within the social order. 125 . Ibid., 318. Hu Qunhui points to this transaction as demonstrating the redef- inition of the concept of “father” during the course of the narrated time. Hu Qunhui, Wo du Dong Xi , 23–24. 126 . Dong Xi, Erguang xiangliang , 26. 127 . Hu Qunhui, Wo du Dong Xi , 8–9. 128 . Hu Qunhui suggests that it may be the end of the Mao era that allows the father to reveal his true personality. Ibid., 5–6. 129 . Dong Xi, Erguang xiangliang , 274. 130 . Xudong Zhang, “On Some Motifs in the Chinese ‘Cultural Fever’ of the Late 1980s: Social Change, Ideology, and Theory,” Social Text 39 (Summer, 1994): 129. 131 . Hong Zhigang, “Kunan jiyi de xianshi huifang,” 324.

6 My Self Reclaimed: The Storytellers

1 . Mieke Bal, Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, 3rd edn (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009), 17–18. 2 . Yu Hua ԭढ, “Pengyou” ᳟ট (Friends), in Huanghunli de nanhai , by Yu Hua (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 2008), 147–161. 3 . Deng Yiguang 䙧ϔܝ, “Ta shi tamen de qizi” ཌྷᰃҪӀⱘྏᄤ (She is Their Wife), in Ta shi tamen de qizi , by Deng Yiguang (Wuhan: Wuhan chubanshe, 2006), 329–372. 4 . Chen Cun 䰜ᴥ, “Liang dai ren” ϸҷҎ (Two Generations), in Qizi he ta de wu mu meng , by Chen Cun (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 2009), 163–184. 5 . Yu Hua ԭढ, “Lanwei” 䯥ሒ (Appendix), in Huanghunli de nanhai , by Yu Hua (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 2008), 54–61. 6 . Zhang Jie ᓴ⋕, “Wo bushi ge hao haizi” ៥ϡᰃϾདᄽᄤ(I Was Not a Good Child), Shiyue 1 (1980): 158–163. Notes 223

7 . Mo Yan 㥿㿔, “Tie hai” 䪕ᄽ (Iron Child), in Cangying: Menya , by Mo Yan (Taibei: Maitian chuban, 2005), 267–280. 8 . Ding Xiaoqi ϕᇣ⧺, “Wo yao jian shougong” ៥㽕࠾᠟Ꮉ (I Want to Make Paper Cuts), Zhongguo zuojia 5 (1988): 136–142. 9 . Chi Zijian 䖳ᄤᓎ, “Beiji cun tonghua” ࣫ᵕᴥス䆱 (Beiji Village Fairytale), in Geli gehai de xiyu huanghun , by Chi Zijian (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 2003), 1–34. 10 . Wang Wenling ⥟᭛⦆, “Zhengzhi pipan gongju yu hao ertong: 80 niandai chuqi xiaoshuo chuangzuo zhong de ertong xingxiang” ᬓ⊏ᡍ߸Ꮉ݋Ϣདܓス: 80 ᑈҷ߱ᳳᇣ䇈߯԰Ёⱘܓスᔶ䈵 (Tools of political criticism and the good child: the child image in the creation of early 80s fiction), Xiandai yuwen ( wenxue yanjiu ban) (September 2007): 126–127, 11 . Richard King, “Introduction,” in Living with Their Past: Post-Urban Youth Fiction , by Zhang Kangkang, ed. Richard King (Hong Kong: Renditions Paperbacks, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2003), 10. 12 . Richard King discusses this impulse in Zhang Kangkang’s writing. Ibid., 11–12. 13 . Laura C. Berry, The Child, the State, and the Victorian Novel (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999), 16–17. 14 . Ibid. 15 . Yu Hua, “Pengyou,” 147. 16 . Ibid., 148. 17 . Ibid., 149. 18 . Ibid., 151. 19 . Ibid., 155. 20 . The narrator is drawn away from Kunshan to Shigang even before the fight, and his admiration is secured by Shigang’s surprise victory. Ibid., 155, 159. 21 . Ibid., 151–152. 22 . Ibid., 152. 23 . Ibid., 159. 24 . Ibid., 159–160. 25 . Ibid., 148. 26 . Ibid., 160–161. 27 . Ibid., 161. 28 . Deng Yiguang, “Ta shi tamen de qizi,” 331. 29 . Ibid. 30 . Ibid., 341 31 . Ibid., 337, 338. 32 . Ibid., 331. 33 . Ibid., 332. 34 . Ibid., 337 – 338. 35 . Datou describes the wives as “like a gaggle of fat geese.” Ibid., 341. 36 . Ibid., 359. 37 . Ibid., 361. 38 . Ibid., 369. 39 . According to Datou, who only sees the proceedings through the hospital window, Li’s doctors discover that “his liver was sick, his lungs were sick, his heart was sick, in short, every single organ in his body was sick.” The repeti- tion underlines Datou’s excited and exaggerated view, as does his description 224 Notes

of the hospital scene in which Li lies as white as paper on the hospital sheets and Yan, the devoted wife, never sleeps but maintains a constant vigil at the bedside. Ibid., 366–367. 40 . Ibid., 329. 41 . Ibid., 336. 42 . Ibid., 338. 43 . Ibid., 346. 44 . Ibid., 340. 45 . Ibid., 357. 46 . The word Datou hears the adults use and which he decides to adopt is jiashu ᆊሲ (family member/dependent). Ibid., 332. 47 . Ibid., 355. 48 . Ibid., 356. 49 . Ibid. 50 . Ibid., 371. 51 . Ibid., 355. 52 . Ibid., 357. 53 . Ibid., 372. 54 . Chen Cun’s first published short story, “Two Generations,” appeared in 1979 and is therefore earlier than the other fiction considered here. I include it in this context, however, as the early work of a writer whose career became established in the 1980s. In addition, as a narrative of childhood recalled, it fits within this context, and as a representation of a child who becomes disil- lusioned with, and struggles against, the adult, within this study of malcon- tents in particular. 55 . Chen Cun, “Liang dai ren,” 163. 56 . Ibid., 163. 57 . Ibid., 163–164. 58 . Ibid., 164. 59 . Ibid., 165–166. 60 . Ibid., 176. 61 . Wang Wenling, “Zhengzhi pipan gongju,” 127. 62 . Chen Cun, “Liang dai ren,” 184. 63 . Zhang Jie, “Wo bushi ge hao haizi,” 158. 64 . Ibid., 159. 65 . Ibid. 66 . Ibid., 163. 67 . Ibid., 161. 68 . Ibid. 69 . Ibid. 70 . Ibid., 163. 71 . Ibid., 159–160. 72 . Ibid., 161. 73 . Ibid. 74 . Ibid., 163. 75 . Ibid. 76 . Ibid. 77 . Yu Hua, “Lanwei,” 54–61. 78 . Ibid., 56. Notes 225

79 . Ibid. 80 . Ibid., 56–57. 81 . Ibid. 82 . Ibid. 83 . Ibid., 58–59. 84 . Ibid., 60. 85 . Ibid. 86 . Ibid., 61. 87 . Ibid. 88 . Mo Yan, “Tie hai.” The preoccupation of parents with constructing the new China, and the consequent neglect of the child raised communally or left to its own devices, represented so darkly here, recalls and subverts the heroic self-sacrifice of adult (and child) in Mao-era narratives such as Hao Ran’s Bright Sunny Skies , where the loss of the child “Little Pebble” goes unnoticed at first because parents bringing in the harvest are unable to keep close watch on their children. Hao Ran, “‘Xiao shitou’ diao le yihou” ‘ᇣ⷇༈’϶њҹৢ (‘Little Pebble’ is Missing) (Hong Kong: Chaoyang Publishing Co., 1973), 2. 89 . Mo Yan, “Iron Child,” trans. Howard Goldblatt, in Shifu, You’ll Do Anything for a Laugh (New York: Arcade Publishing, 2001), 169–203, 111. 90 . Mo Yan, “Tie hai,” 268. 91 . Ibid., 271–272. 92 . Ibid., 268. 93 . Ibid., 271. 94 . Ibid. 95 . Ibid. 96 . Ibid., 280. 97 . Ibid., 271. 98 . Ibid., 272–273. 99 . Mo Yan, “Iron Child,” trans. Howard Goldblatt, 117. 100 . Ibid. 101 . Ibid., 120. 102 . Ibid., 125. 103 . Mo Yan, “Ji’e he gudu shi wo chuangzuo de caifu” 伹体੠ᄸ⣀ᰃ៥߯԰ⱘ䋶ᆠ (Hunger and loneliness are my creative wealth), in Cangying: Menya , by Mo Yan (Taibei: Maitian chuban, 2005), 5. This speech has appeared as the introduction to a number of collections of Mo Yan’s works. 104 . Mo Yan, Cangying: Menya , 4–5. 105 . Mo Yan, “Tie hai,” 275–278. 106 . Ibid., 278. 107 . Ibid., 279–280. 108 . Ding Xiaoqi, “Wo yao jian shougong,” 136–142. 109 . Ibid., 136. 110 . Ibid. 111 . Ibid. 112 . The narrative closes with just such a scene. Ibid., 142. 113 . For example, Ibid., 137, 142. 114 . Ibid., 137. 115 . Ibid., 139. 116 . Ibid., 137. 226 Notes

117 . Ibid. 118 . Ann Anagnost’s use of transubstantiation to describe the intensive educa- tion of children in the late twentieth century is introduced in Chapter 2. 119 . Ding Xiaoqi, “Wo yao jian shougong,” 138. 120 . Ibid., 140–141. 121 . Ibid., 137. 122 . Ibid., 137–138. 123 . Ibid., 137. 124 . He Weiqing ԩि䴦, Xiaoshuo ertong: 1980-2000 Zhongguo xiaoshuo de ertong shiye ᇣ䇈ܓス: 1980–2000 Ё೑ᇣ䇈ⱘܓス㾚䞢 (Children in fiction: the child viewpoint in Chinese fiction from 1980 to 2000) (Qingdao: Zhongguo haiyang daxue chubanshe, 2005), 103–104. 125 . Chi Zijian, “Beiji cun tonghua,” 5. 126 . This would place the narrated time in the early 1970s if the 1984 publication year is considered the narrating time and narrated “present day.” Ibid., 1. 127 . Ibid. 128 . Ibid., 2. 129 . Ibid., 1. 130 . Ibid., 2. 131 . Ibid. 132 . Ibid. 133 . Ibid., 13–14. 134 . Ibid. 135 . Ibid., 11–12. 136 . Ibid., 18. 137 . Ibid., 33–34. 138 . See, for example, Li Weizhi ᴢ㓈ᱎ, “Yu Hua xiaoshuo zhong de ertong xing- xiang fenxi” ԭढᇣ䇈Ёⱘܓスᔶ䈵ߚᵤ (Analysis of the child image in the fiction of Yu Hua), Dongbei shifan daxue jiaoyu kexue xueyuan yuwen xuekan 9 (2005): 84–86; and, arguing for the significance of childhood experience for writers, Shen Xingpei and Jiang Yu ≜ᴣ෍, ྰ⨰, “Tongxin de toushi: lun Yu Hua xiaoshuo de ertong shijiao xushi celüe” スᖗⱘ䗣㾚: 䆎ԭढᇣ䇈ⱘܓス 㾚㾦ভџㄪ⬹(Childlike perspective: on the child’s point of view as narra- tive strategy in Yu Hua’s fiction), Nanjing shifan daxue wenxueyuan xuebao 9 (September 2004), 74. 139 . Li Weizhi describes Yu Hua’s unflinching, objective, and “masterful” approach to descriptions of violence. Li Weizhi, “Yu Hua xiaoshuo zhong de ertong xingxiang fenxi,” 84. 140 . Yu Hua, Cries in the Drizzle, trans. Allan H. Barr (New York: Anchor Books, 2007), 3. 141 . Yu Hua, Huhan yu xiyu ੐୞Ϣ㒚䲼 (Cries and Drizzle) (Taibei: Yuanliu chuban gongsi, 1992), 10. 142 . Ibid., 11. 143 . Ibid., 13. 144 . Ibid., 79–80. 145 . Yu Hua, Cries in the Drizzle , trans. Allan H. Barr, 141. 146 . Ibid. 147 . Ibid. 148 . Yu Hua, Huhan yu xiyu , 331–332. Notes 227

149 . Ibid., 136–158. 150 . Yu Hua, Cries in the Drizzle , trans. Allan H. Barr, 89. 151 . Yu Hua, Huhan yu xiyu , 102. 152 . Ibid., 102–103. 153 . Fang Fang ᮍᮍ, “Fengjing” 亢᱃ (Scenery), in Xingyun liu shui, by Fang Fang (Wuhan: Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, 1992), 81–150. 154 . The narrator concludes the story with the words: “But I am nothing like seventh brother, I don’t say anything. All I do is watch the exquisite and ever-changing scenery, silently and forever.” Fang Fang, “Fengjing,” 150. 155 . Mieke Bal, Narratology , 21. 156 . Lin Jinlan and Cao Wenxuan ᵫ᭸╰, ᳍᭛䔽 “Xuyan” ᑣ㿔 (Introduction), in Luori hong men: xiaoshuo juan, ed. Lin Jinlan and Cao Wenxuan (Beijing: Dazhong wenyi chubanshe, 2000), 10. 157 . Philip Thody, Twentieth-Century Literature: Critical Issues and Themes (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1996), 49, 68–69. 158 . In one extreme example, the narrator of “Two Generations” is so self-critical that, when his mother is murdered, he imagines himself to be the young man who killed her.

Conclusion

1 . “ϔҷϡབϔҷ” (yidai buru yidai) is the repeated lament of the great-grand- mother in Lu Xun’s “Storm in a Teacup” who measures family decline (and her discontent with the present) through the decreasing birth weight of successive generations. Lu Xun, “Fengbo” 亢⊶ (Storm in a Teacup [1920]), in Na Han , by Lu Xun (Beijing: Beijing renmin chubanshe, 1979), 48–56. 2 . Yibing Huang, Contemporary Chinese Literature: From the Cultural Revolution to the Future (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 77. 3 . Yu Hua, Cries in the Drizzle , trans. Allan H. Barr (New York: Anchor Books, 2007), 281–282. 4 . He Weiqing ԩि䴦, Xiaoshuo ertong: 1980–2000 Zhongguo xiaoshuo de ertong shiye ᇣ䇈ܓス: 1980–2000 Ё೑ᇣ䇈ⱘܓス㾚䞢 (Children in fiction: the child viewpoint in Chinese fiction from 1980 to 2000) (Qingdao: Zhongguo haiyang daxue chubanshe, 2005), 63–64. 5 . Helmut Martin and Jeffrey Kinkley, eds, Modern Chinese Writers: Self-Portrayals (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1992), 151. 6 . Philip Thody, Twentieth-Century Literature: Critical Issues and Themes (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1996), 68–69. 7 . Qian Liqun 䪅⧚㕸, “ ‘Fu fu zi zi’ li de wenhua” ‘⠊⠊ᄤᄤ’䞠ⱘ᭛࣪ (Father/ son culture), in Ershi shiji Zhongguo wenxue san ren tan: man shuo wenhua , ed. Qian Liqun, Huang Ziping, and Chen Pingyuan (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 2004), 167. 8 . This is the suggestion found, for example, in Richard King’s discussion of Zhang Kangkang. Richard King, “Introduction,” in Living with Their Past: Post-Urban Youth Fiction , by Zhang Kangkang, ed. Richard King (Hong Kong: Renditions Paperbacks, The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2003), 11–12. 9 . Geremie Barmé, “Wang Shuo and Liumang (‘Hooligan’) Culture,” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 28 (July 1992): 52. 228 Notes

10 . Wang Shuo, Wo shi ni baba ៥ᰃԴ⠌⠌ (I Am Your Father), Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1992. 11 . Wang Wenling ⥟᭛⦆, “Zhengzhi pipan gongju yu hao ertong: 80 niandai chuqi xiaoshuo chuangzuo zhong de ertong xingxiang” ᬓ⊏ᡍ߸Ꮉ݋Ϣད ܓス: 80 ᑈҷ߱ᳳᇣ䇈߯԰Ёⱘܓスᔶ䈵 (Tools of political criticism and the good child: the child image in the creation of early 80s fiction), Xiandai yuwen ( wenxue yanjiu ban) (September 2007). 12 . Carl Gustav Jung, The Development of Personality , trans. R.F.C. Hull (London: Routledge, 1991), 169. 13 . Jacques Lacan, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-analysis , trans. Alan Sheridan, ed. Jacques-Alain Miller (London: The Hogarth Press, 1977), 84–85. 14 . As Lacan defines it, the gaze depends on the awareness of the subject of the gaze; it is “a gaze imagined by me in the field of the Other.” Jacques Lacan, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-analysis , 84–85. 15 . Maeda Shigeki, “Between Karmic Retribution and Entwining Infusion: Is the Karma of the Parent Visited Upon the Child?” In Daoism in History: Essays in Honour of Liu Ts ’un- yan , ed. Benjamin Penny (London: Routledge, 2006), 101–120. 16 . Carl Gustav Jung, The Development of Personality , 45–46. 17 . Ibid., 42–43. 18 . Gan Yang, “A Critique of Chinese Conservatism in the 1990s,” Social Text 55 (Summer 1998): 47. 19 . Ellen Pifer, Demon or Doll: Images of the Child in Contemporary Writing and Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 16. 20 . Andrew F. Jones, Developmental Fairy Tales: Evolutionary Thinking and Modern Chinese Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011), 21. Bibliography

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“Abandoned Baby” (Mo Yan), on What Maisie Knew (Henry 119–20, 130–3, 135, 147, 179, James), 25–6, 181 219n27 Barmé, Geremie, 182, 221n113 “Abandoned Child” (Xiao Hong), 55–6 bastard child image, see illegitimacy abandoned child image, the “Beiji Village Fairytale” (Chi Zijian), in late-twentieth-century Chinese 119, 149, 169–72, 175–6, fiction, 118–21, 145–7: absent 180, 186 father figures and, 136–45; and Bi Feiyu, 6–7, 119, 126 desire for the mother, 126–30; “Lactating Woman”, 119, 126–30, fatherhood and, 130–6; and 146–7, 179 identity, 121–6 Big Breasts and Wide Hips (Mo Yan), see also abandonment; orphans 29, 106, 109–16, 119, 178, 181–2, abandonment 184–5, 193n76, 220n63 of children, 23, 48–9, 218n26 Bing Xin, 13, 19, 28, 54, 202n138, of child in fiction, 6, 14, 19–20, 203n162, 204n163 22–3, 55, 86–7, 99, 102, 118–47, “Parting”, 57 163, 166, 170, 172, 179, 218n27 The Book of Rites, 188n8 zhiqing generation’s sense of, 48, 120 Buddhism, 12, 39, 51 see also economic migration, children of; foundlings; orphans Cai, Rong, 112, 192n71 abortion, see pregnancy, cannibalism termination of the consumed/consuming child, adoption, 55, 99, 100, 102–4, 132, 53, 74–7, 79–80, 89, 116 172, 218n26 as cultural metaphor, 18, 53, 116 Anagnost, Ann, 48, 50–2, 88, 90, 167, in fiction, 53, 74–7, 79–81, 89, 209n82, 210n106 202n129 on “transubstantiation”, 51, 167 filial piety and, 36 “Animal Ferocity” (Wang Shuo), 4, Cao Wenxuan, 15–16, 30, 175 19, 119, 139–43, 146–7, 179, 183 Cen Sang, 6 “Appendix” (Yu Hua), 148, 157, “Heroes Don’t Cry”, 119–23, 126, 161–3, 179 178, 181 arrested infant, the, 6 Chen Cun, 6, 148 in late-twentieth-century Chinese “Two Generations”, 148, 157–9, fiction, 6, 67–92, 123, 148, 184–5 162, 169, 175–6, 178–9, 182 see also infant/infantile; mute child Chen Duxiu, 42 image, the Chen Kaige, 192n62 Chi Zijian, 6, 19, 149, 169, 186 “Ba Ba Ba” (Han Shaogong), 80–2, 85, “Beiji Village Fairytale”, 149, 90, 93, 119, 125, 181 169–72, 175–6, 180, 186 Ba Jin, 23, 199n68, 203n162 child image, history and criticism of “The Second Mother”, 22–3 child voice and, 24–32: and Bal, Mieke, 25–7, 148, 175, 181 remembered child-self, 27–8

243 244 Index child-image, history and criticism of Mao-era approaches to, 44–8 – continued May Fourth ideas of, 40–4 child as “father to the man” in and national development, Romantic culture, 150 3–4, 40–1 father and, 16–21 reform-era approaches to, 48–52 innocence, corruption and, 10–16 see also growing up and late-twentieth-century Chinese child voice, see child image, history culture, 32–4 and criticism of; child focalizor; and Mao-era fiction, 58–61 child narrator mother and, 21–4 “The Child Who Sweeps the Streets at and post-Mao fiction, 63; Night” (Li Xintian), 119–20, 122, see individual works 136–9, 146, 181 and Republican-era fiction, 52–8 childlessness, 70, 87–8, 99–100, 153–5 see also childhood children’s literature, 15, 41–2, 57–9 child focalizor, 25–7, 150–2, 157, Class Origin, 46–7, 51 162, 164, 166, 172–3, 175 Confucius and Confucianism, 3, 5, child heroes, 45, 50, 59–61 12, 15, 19, 36–9, 41, 50–1, 53–4, child killers, 75, 90, 106; see also 60–1, 117, 188n8, 196n13 matricide; parental death neo-Confucianism, 198n49 child narrator, 6, 10, 24–5, 28, 57, corrupted child image, the 119, 145, 148–9, 166, 168, in late-twentieth-century Chinese 186, 203n163 fiction, 93–4, 115–17: and child voice and, 6, 10, 24–30, 57, corrupting society, 95–9; and 68, 113–14, 148–9, 154, 168, 186 illegitimacy, 106–15; and self-narrated childhood, adult unknown origins, 99–106 narrator and, 7, 24–30, 57, see also child image, history and 109–10, 113–14, 149, 150–77; criticism of; childhood; heredity see also pseudo-autobiography Cries in the Drizzle (Yu Hua), 75, 119, see also child focalizor; focalization; 126, 129–30, 138–9, 143, 146, storytellers 149, 169, 171–6, 180, 182, 186 child subaltern, 14, 22, 68, 91 Cui Shuqin, 19 childbirth Cultural Revolution, 4, 29, 32–3, 44, death and, 21, 69, 71, 76–7, 46–9, 58–62, 149 109–10, 123–4 in fiction, 102, 104, 121–3, 126, see also pregnancy 137, 140, 144–5, 147, 149, 157–9, childhood, 4–5, 35–52 178–9, 204n185 adult identity and, 5, 8, 12, 17, see also Red Guards; zhiqing 30–2, 37, 39–40, 60–1, 150, 175–6, 186–7 Dai Jinhua, on “a culture of son as age, 4 killers”, 18 attributes of, 4–5, 37 Daoism, 12, 15, 39–40, 51 and innocence, 10–16, 39–40, Daruvala, Susan, 41 53–4, 90, 93, 180 Deng Yiguang, 6, 148, 152, 186 in twentieth-century society and “She is Their Wife”, 148, 152–7, culture, 35–52 168, 172, 176, 180, 186 as lack of language, 4–5; see infant/ Denton, Kirk, 14, 68 infantile; mute child image, the “Diary of a Madman” (Lu Xun), 3, late-imperial ideas of, 36–40 40, 53, 97, 125 loss of, 24, 39–41 Dickens, Charles, 10 Index 245

Ding Ling, “Miss Sophia’s Diary”, paternal roles, traditional, 5, 36–7 206n10 and parental failure, 17, 19, 37, 62, Ding Xiaoqi, 74, 149 91–2, 112, 130, 146, 158, 183–4 “I Want to Make Paper Cuts”, 149, as protector, 36, 86, 131–3, 183 163, 166–9, 175, 179–80, 183 and the rejection of fatherhood in Dong Xi, 5, 19, 29, 71, 74, 79–80, late-twentieth-century Chinese 82–3, 85, 90, 93, 119, 125, 143, fiction, 70–1, 79, 93, 101, 119, 184 145–6, 181 “son killers”, a culture of, 18–19 A Resounding Slap in the Face, 5, and themes in late-twentieth- 29, 74, 78–9, 119, 143–7, century Chinese fiction, 5, 70–1, 179–80, 183 75, 79, 81, 86, 93, 101, 106, “Life Without Language”, 80, 109, 119, 130–47, 150, 157–63, 82–5, 89–90, 125, 181, 186 167–8, 173, 179–80, 183–4; see Dream of the Red Chamber (Cao also abandoned child image, the; Xueqin), 202n124 illegitimacy; parental death see also Oedipus complex East of Eden (John Steinbeck), Feng Jicai, The Three-Inch Golden 11–12, 16 Lotus, 193n88 economic migration, children of, 23, film 34, 118, 127–8, 179 adaptations, 19, 82, 106 education child tropes in, 9, 19, 63, in late-imperial China, 36–7 189n1, 219n28 Republican-era approaches to, focalization, 25–7, 150–2, 157, 159, 40–2: of girls, 43 162, 164, 166, 172–3, 175 Mao-era concepts of, 45–7: see also child focalizor literature and, 45, 59 foot binding, 193n88 late-twentieth-century concepts foundlings, 20, 94, 99–105, 115, of, 49–51: “education for 117, 132–3, 184 quality”, 49 see also abandoned child image, the; abandonment; orphans family planning, 200n95 “Fragment from a Lost Diary” (Yang early Mao-era, 44–5 Gang), 56, 71 see also one-child policy Freud, Sigmund, 17, 24 Fang Fang, “Scenery”, 174–5 see also Oedipus complex Farquhar, Mary, 57–9 “Friends” (Yu Hua), 148, 150–2, 154, father figure, the, 11–12, 16–21, 32–4 157, 168, 176, 186 absent, 19, 20, 79, 119, 143, 146–7: Frog (Mo Yan), 218n26 loss of, 5; see also abandoned child image, the; orphans Gan, Yang, 33, 185 and the disillusioned child in Gao Shaoyue, 13, 41, 203n160 late-twentieth-century Chinese Gao Xingjian, 7, 71, 93, 119, 130, fiction, 139–43, 147, 134, 147 157–63, 179–80 Nobel Prize, 189n18 fatherless generation, 5, 6, 19, Soul Mountain, 93, 119, 130, 120, 139–44 134–6, 147 Jungian themes and, 17, 184 Gao Yubao, “The Cock Crows at May Fourth era discourse and, Midnight”, 45 13–14, 16, 41–3, 150: “discovery “The Girl Umeko” (Xie Bingying), of the child” and, 14 55, 71 246 Index growing up “karma”, “inherited burden” and, and adult roles, 4, 17 39, 91, 183 age and, 4 see also Jung, Carl Gustav, “the as awareness, 171, 180, 182 dead hand of heredity”; Lu Xun, chengren, 37, 51, 127 heredity, and as loss, 4, 39–40, 42, 51, 138, 180–1 “Heroes Don’t Cry” (Cen Sang), as national allegory, 31, 186 119–23, 126, 178, 181 personal autonomy and, 5, 17, history, in narratives of 71, 186 childhood, 19, 22, 26–7, as “political maturation”, 158–9 30, 32, 145, 149, 153, 155–6, transformation and, 31, 37, 51: 172, 176–7, 180–1, 186: and transubstantiation, 51, 167 pseudo-autobiography, 27–9, see also childhood; Jung, Carl 171, 180 Gustav Hsiung, Ping-chen, 38–9, 116, Greenhalgh, Susan, 48–9 216n122 Gu Cheng, 68 Hu Qunhui, on Dong Xi, 83–5, 143 Ha Jin, 7, 69, 74, 90 Hu Shi, 40 Waiting, 69–71, 74, 90–1, 93 Huang, Yibing, 30, 32, 126 Han Dong, Striking Root, 204n185 Han Shaogong, 6, 12, 94, 181 I Am Your Father (Wang Shuo), 182, “Ba Ba Ba”, 80–2, 85, 90, 93, 119, 221n109 125, 181 “I Don’t Have My Own Name” “Hands” (Xiao Hong), 56–7 (Yu Hua), 89, 119, 121, “Hao Muma, Xie Bobo, 123–6, 146 Aunty Xiaomei and Nini” “I Love Dollars” (Zhu Wen), 92 (Wang Anyi), 71, 99–106, “I Want to Make Paper Cuts” (Ding 115–17, 119, 184 Xiaoqi), 149, 163, 166–9, 175, Hao Ran, 59–61 179–80, 183 Bright Sunny Skies, 59, 225n88 “I Was Not a Good Child” (Zhang The Golden Road, 60–1 Jie), 148, 157, 159–62, 169, Hardy, Thomas,Tess of the 175–6, 183 D’Urbervilles, 67 illegitimacy, 20–1, 23, 67, 117, 119, He Weiqing, 9, 28, 53, 168, 120, 132, 184–5 181, 189n19 in late-twentieth-century Chinese heredity fiction, 94, 102, 106–17, 132, and the corrupt child in late- 184–5 twentieth-century Chinese In the Heat of the Sun, 19 fiction, 93–117, 149 infant/infantile, 4–6, 17, 68, 113, class and, 61, 104–5, 116, 184: 115–16, 135, 185–6; see also Class Origin, 46–7, 51 arrested infant, the; mute child “cultural transmission” and, image, the 11–13, 42, 94, 97, 115–6, 179, infanticide, 48–9, 218n26; in 183, 185 fiction, 132 human nature and, 11–13, 15, 37, “Iron Child” (Mo Yan), 149, 163–6, 41–2, 75, 93–4, 102, 106, 116, 168, 176, 178, 180 184–5 illegitimacy, adulterated origins James, Henry, What Maisie Knew, and, see illegitimacy 25–6, 181 Index 247

Jones, Andrew F., 3, 9, 12–13, 31–2, Louie, Kam, 120, 143 40, 42, 50, 91, 117, 186: on Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-Peng, 33–4 “cultural transmission”, 12–13, Lu Xing’er, 74, 79 42, 91, 116 “There is No Sun Today”, 74, see also heredity, “cultural 78–80, 89, 179 transmission” and Lu Xun, 3, 5, 10, 12–13, 28, 40–3, Ju Dou, 106 53–4, 57, 63, 74, 77, 79, 81, 93, Judge, Joan, 43 97–8, 117, 125 Jung, Carl Gustav, 3, 24, 183 cannibalism and, 53, 74, 79, 81 child development and, 17, 113, and the child image, 3, 10, 13, 116, 186 28, 42, 53–4, 57, 74, 79, 81, “the dead hand of heredity”, 93, 97, 117 103, 185 children’s literature, 203n162 parental influence on the child “Diary of a Madman”, 3, 40, 53, and, 17, 101, 103, 113, 116, 185, 97, 125 201n109 “Fatherhood Today”, 43 on the “primordial image of the heredity and, 12–13, 42, 53–4, 93, Father”, 184 117: in “The Misanthrope”, 53–4, 93, 211n1 Kinney, Anne Behnke, 38, 50 “Kong Yi Ji”, 53 Klein, Melanie “Medicine”, 79 the “part-object”, 135 “The Misanthrope”, 53–4, 93, 95 Knight, Deirdre Sabina, 78 “My Old Home”, 57 Kuhn, Reinhard, 11, 93–4 “New Year’s Sacrifice”, 193n79 “Storm in a Teacup”, 178 Lacan, Jacques, 21, 24, 130, 183 gaze, 183 Ma Jian, 7, 85, 90, 120 post-mirror stage child, 21, 130 The Noodle Maker, 85–7, 90–1, “Lactating Woman” (Bi Feiyu), 119, 120–1, 179, 181, 186 126–30, 146–7, 179 Maeda Shigeki, “karma”, “inherited Lao She, 203n162 burden” and, 39, 91, 183 Lei Feng, 49, 118–19, 145 Mao Dun, 203n162 Leung, Laifong, 48 “Spring Silkworms”, 54 Li Xintian, 6 Mao-era “The Child Who Sweeps the children and childhood, concepts Streets at Night”, 119–20, 122, of, 44–7 136–8, 139, 146, 181 zhiqing, 47–8 Li Zhi, 41 child image in literature of, 15, 52, see also Zhou Zuoren 58–61, 118, 181, 225n88 “Life Without Language” (Dong Xi), Mao Zedong, 5, 29, 46–7, 50, 59–60, 80, 82–5, 89–90, 125, 181, 186 83, 104, 118, 143 Lin Jinlan, 15, 30, 175 matricide, 166–8 little emperors, 48 “mature child”, the, 29, 138, 149 Little Red Pioneers, see Young May Fourth era Pioneers child and childhood, concepts of, Liu Heng, 20–21, 106 3–4, 6, 9, 12–15, 24, 31, 33, 40–4, “The Obsessed”, 106–9, 114–17, 119 53–4, 56–8, 62, 116, 130, 150, Liu Xinwu, 62, 143 178, 180–2 “Class Counsellor”, 62–3 children’s fiction and, 57–8 248 Index

May Fourth era – continued maternal roles, traditional, 5, 36, 38 “discovery of the child” in, 13–14, Oedipus complex and, 16–17, 108 28, 53, 178 post-mirror stage child and, 21 fatherhood, see father figure, the, son’s obligation towards, in May Fourth era discourse and late-imperial China, 38–9 see also, Lu Xun; Zhou Zuoren and themes in late- “Medicine” (Lu Xun), 79 twentieth-century Chinese Mencius, 37 fiction, 70–4, 76, 79, 81, 84–6, “The Misanthrope” (Lu Xun), 53–4, 88, 97, 100–2, 108–9, 110–16, 93, 95 126, 132, 136–8, 143–4, 166–9, “Miss Sophia’s Diary” (Ding Ling), 170, 182–3; see also abandoned 206n10 child, the; childbirth; matricide; Mo Yan, 6, 9, 20–1, 29, 31, 71, parental death; pregnancy 77, 79, 93, 106, 109, 119–20, mute child image, the, 4–5, 15, 24, 126, 133, 135, 149, 179: 54, 67–8, 80–7, 89–90, 125, 134, childhood, 165–6; 185, 186, 205n6 Nobel Prize, 189n18 see also infant/infantile “Abandoned Baby”, 119–20, 130–3, 135, 147, 179, Nobel Prize in Literature, 189n18 219n27 New Era, the, 5, 195n147 Big Breasts and Wide Hips, 29, see also Post New Era, the 106, 109–16, 119, 178, New Woman, the, 43 181–2, 184–5, 193n76, and the “girl student”, 43–4 220n63 The Noodle Maker (Ma Jian), 85–7, Frog, 218n26 90–1, 120–1, 179, 181, 186 “Iron Child”, 149, 163–6, 168, 176, 178, 180 “The Obsessed” (Liu Heng), 106–9, Red Sorghum, 21, 29, 31, 215n92 114–17, 119 The Republic of Wine, 21, 77, Oedipus complex, 16–17 217n8 anti-oedipal trajectory, 17, 19, 120, “The Yellow Haired Baby”, 143, 146, 180 215n102 “On the Road at Eighteen” mother, the (Yu Hua), 4 as absence, 18, 22, 118: and desire one-child policy for mother in late-twentieth- in fiction, 23, 34–5, 50, 86, 121, century Chinese fiction, 131–2, 179, 218n26 126–130, 146–7; and “yearnings origins, introduction, and for mother” in May Fourth influence of, 23, 35, 48–51, 121, narratives, 23, 130; see also 201n114 abandoned child, the see also family planning; bastard child and, 20–2; see also population quality; population illegitimacy quantity Chinese nation and, 22–3, 63, “One Kind of Reality” (Yu Hua), 109, 112, 114, 116, 182: in 74–6, 91 May Fourth nation-saving orphans, 6, 20, 22–3, 32, 34, discourse, 43, 56 72, 89, 105–6, 117–26, in Mao-era narratives, 59 127, 140–1, 146–7 marginalization, in literature, of economic migration, 34, 127 22–4, 121 “of history”, 32, 126 Index 249 orphans – continued see also childbirth; illegitimacy; and themes in late-twentieth- one-child policy century Chinese fiction, 6, 72, “The Pregnant Woman and 89, 105, 106, 117–26, 127, the Cow” (Tie Ning), 72–4, 140–1, 146–7 90, 181 see also abandoned child image, the; pseudo-autobiography, 27–9, abandonment; Lei Feng 171, 180 parental death, 17: of mother, Qian Liqun, 42–3, 182 21–2, 69, 71, 76, 123–4, 166, 182–3; of father, 17, Red Guards, 44, 47, 121–3 75, 108–9, 110–11, 114–15, Red Sorghum (Mo Yan), 21, 29, 31, 123, 136, 143–4 215n92 see also childbirth; matricide; rediscovery of the child, pregnancy late-twentieth-century fiction Pifer, Ellen, 6, 10, 12, 68, 185, and, 178, 182, 186 188n3, 191n45 The Republic of Wine (Mo Yan), 21, population quality, 35, 43, 45, 49, 77, 217n8 50–2, 85–6, 88–90 A Resounding Slap in the Face child image and, 85–6, 88–90, (Dong Xi), 5, 29, 74, 209n82 78–9, 119, 143–5, early-twentieth-century ideas of 146, 147, 179–80, 183 motherhood and, 43 Rice (Su Tong), 71–2, 74, 105–6, and education, 45–6, 49–51 116–17, 181 see also one-child policy; population Ricoeur, Paul, 11 quantity Roots-Seeking movement, 31, 80, population quantity, 35, 44–5, 48–50, 201n121 74, 88 The Rose Door (Tie Ning), 207n37 overpopulation, 35, 88 Russian literature, 9; pseudo- see also family planning; one-child autobiography and, 27 policy; population quality Post New Era, the, 5, 195n147 Saari, Jon L., 189n20 see also New Era, the Scar Literature, 61–2, 97, 118 “A Posthumous Son” (Ye Shaojun), see also Liu Xinwu 54–5, 206n10 “Scenery” (Fang Fang), 174–5 pregnancy “self-begetting novel”, 19 as an affliction, 21, 55–6, 69–72, “She is Their Wife” (Deng Yiguang), 78–9: and hope, 73–4, 181 148, 152–7, 168, 172, 176, childbirth, death and, 21, 69, 76–7, 180, 186 109–10, 123–4 Shen Congwen, 13–14; “Xiaoxiao”, “fetal instruction”, 38 199n69 male promiscuity and, 115 “Sinking” (Yu Dafu), 23 reproduction, and the role of Soul Mountain (Gao Xingjian), 93, 119, women in society, 36, 38, 43, 130, 134–6, 147 70–2, 79, 107, 110, 155; see also “son killing” culture, 18–19 childlessness Steinbeck, John, East of Eden, miscarriage, 72, 74, 79 11–12, 16 termination of, 23, 48, 55–6, 70, step-parents, 18–19, 136–8, 74, 78–9, 87–9, 144 144, 181 250 Index storytellers, 68, 148–77 Wang Wenling, 4, 28–9, 122, as child image in narrative: 138, 158–9; see also “mature malcontents, 157–63; rebels, child”, the 163–8; survivors, 168–74; Wang Yangming, 198n49 watchers, 150–7 “Waves”, Su Qing, 44 Mieke Bal on, 148 “The Web” (Zhu Lin), 95–9, 116, 125, see also child narrator; child 179, 181 focalizor; pseudo-autobiography What is Trash, What is Love (Zhu Su Qing, “Waves”, 44 Wen), 85, 87–90, 97–9, 179 Su Tong, 71, 105 What Maisie Knew (Henry James), Rice, 71–2, 74, 105–6, 116–17, 181 25–6, 181 suicide, 80, 109, 112, 121, 156 Woronov, T.E., 45–6 Wright, Elizabeth, 17, 19, 135 Tess of the D’Urbervilles Wu Zuxiang, 77, 79 (Thomas Hardy), 67 “Firewood”, 57 “There is No Sun Today” (Lu Xing’er), “Young Master Gets His Tonic”, 77 74, 78–80, 89, 179 Thody, Philip, on the wicked child, Xiao Hong, 55–7, 71 11, 15, 175, 181 “Abandoned Child”, 55–6 The Three-Inch Golden Lotus (Feng “Hands”, 56–7 Jicai), 193n88 “Xiaoxiao” (Shen Congwen), Tie Ning, 6, 72–4, 189n1, 207n37 199n69 “The Pregnant Woman and the Xie Bingying, “The Girl Umeko”, Cow”, 72–4, 90, 181 55, 71 The Rose Door, 207n37 Xinran, 199n82, 200n96, 218n26 To Live (Yu Hua), 74–8, 80, 119, 178 Xu, Ben, 33 trace, 11 Xu Lanjun, 9, 202n138, 207n37, “transubstantiation”, 51, 167 213n48, 219n28 “Two Generations” (Chen Cun), 148, Xunzi, 37, 197n26 157–9, 162, 169, 175–9, 182 Yang Gang, “Fragment from a Lost Waiting (Ha Jin), 69–71, 74, 90–1, 93 Diary”, 56, 71 Wang Anyi, 6, 20, 118–19, 71, 74, 117, Yao Yusheng, 141 118–19, 184, 204n163, 217n7 Ye Shaojun, “A Posthumous Son”, “Hao Muma, Xie Bobo, Aunty 54–5, 206n10 Xiaomei and Nini”, 71, 99–105, Ye Shengtao, 13, 54, 203n162 106, 115–17, 119, 184 Yellow Earth, peasant boy in, 63 “My Origins”, 213n48, 217n7 “The Yellow Haired Baby” (Mo Yan), Wang, Ban, 30–1, 87, 219n45 215n102 Wang, David Der-wei, 22–3, 208n68 “Young Master Gets His Tonic” on “The Second Mother” (Wu Zuxiang), 77 (Ba Jin), 22–3 Young Pioneers, 45–6, 97, 99 Wang Lijun, 13–14, 19, 120 Yu Dafu, 23, 199n68 Wang Shuo, 4, 19, 34, 119, 139–40, “Sinking”, 23 143, 146, 182, 195n147 Yu Hua, 4, 9, 12, 19, 29, 74–5, “Animal Ferocity”, 4, 19, 119, 77–80, 90–1, 94, 119, 121, 139–43, 146–7, 179, 183 126, 138–9, 148, 150, 161, I Am Your Father, 182, 169, 171, 179, 186 221n109 “Appendix”, 148, 157, 161–3, 179 Index 251

Yu Hua – continued Zhang, Xudong, 146 Cries in the Drizzle, 75, 119, 126, Zhang Yimou, 192n62 129–30, 138–9, 143, 146, 149, zhiqing, 47–8, 120, 149, 182 169, 171–6, 180, 182, 186 Zhou Enlai, 50, 143 “Friends”, 148, 150–2, 154, 157, Zhou Zuoren 168, 176, 186 and children’s literature, 41–2, “I Don’t Have My Own Name”, 89, 203n162 119, 121, 123–6, 146 and the nature of the child, 12, “On the Road at Eighteen”, 4 40–2, 51 “One Kind of Reality”, 74–6, 91 Zhu De, 143 To Live, 74–8, 80, 119, 178 Zhu Lin, 95, 97–9, 125 Yu Luoke, 46–7 “The Web”, 95–9, 116, 125, 179, 181 Zhang Ailing, 14 Zhu Wen, 7, 12, 71, 74, 85, 87, 90, Zhang Jie, 6, 148, 159, 183 92–3, 97, 181 “I Was Not a Good Child”, 148, “I Love Dollars”, 92 157, 159–61, 162, 169, 175–6, 183 What is Trash, What is Love, 85, Zhang Kangkang, 149 87–90, 97–9, 179