Milton As a Model of Revolutionary Spirit and Liberty in China

Milton as a Model of Revolutionary Spirit and Liberty in China A paper presented in the 8th International Milton Symposium, “Milton, Rights and Liberties,” 7 – 11 June 2005, Grenoble, France by Chia-Yin Huang Institute of Foreign Languages & Literatures National Taiwan University 1, Roosevelt Road Sec. 4, Taipei 106, TAIWAN [email protected]

Abstract: Despite the abundant compilations and studies on Milton’s influence in the English world, attention to Milton’s reception in non-European cultures has been lacking. As a part of a doctoral dissertation, this paper investigates the images of John Milton in China in the

1920s and 30s. As the Chinese intellectuals’ interests in foreign literatures grew rapidly during the New Literary Movement beginning in 1917, passing references, brief introductions, biographical presentations, and general commentaries on Milton began to emerge in journal articles and books concerning literary history, criticism, and poetics. Through these various portrayals and readings, Milton became a model of revolutionary spirit who always took the well-beings of his country close to hear, served the causes of freedom with his pen, and fought for liberty at many fronts. Often Milton’s idea of liberty was taken out of its Christian and puritan contexts and interpreted as a universal value in terms of 19th-century liberalism.

This paper evaluates the shaping of Milton’s image as a model of revolutionary spirit and liberty. It will argue that Chinese interpretations of Milton are framed by the Chinese elites’ search for liberation from traditional constraints (both political and literary) and by their liberal thinking under the influences of 19th-century liberalism.

Key Words: John Milton, reception in China, liberty, liberalism

Huang 2

Milton as a Model of Revolutionary Spirit and Liberty in China

Introduction

John Milton, as a canonical figure in English literature, has enjoyed a long-standing reputation not only for his polemical writings but, more importantly, for his literary

achievements. His position in the history of England and influences on the English literary

tradition have been continually venerated and debated over the centuries.1 A large store of commentaries and researches centers on Milton’s life, political ideas, religious persuasions, and poetics in his domestic cultural context. The question of how Milton is read and interpreted in the international context, though not entirely overlooked, draws relatively less attention from Milton scholars. Although there are some studies on translations and receptions of Milton in European countries (e.g. France, Germany, Italy, etc.), studies of

Milton’s images in non-European countries have been wanting.2 A study of Milton in a cross-cultural context will bring new perspectives to Milton scholarship and raises new possibilities to explore Milton’s potential roles in other cultures.

As the Chinese elites’ interests in foreign literatures grew rapidly during the New

Literary Movement beginning in 1917, passing references, brief introductions, biographical presentations, and general commentaries on Milton began to appear in journal articles and books of literary history, criticism, and poetics. Despite Milton’s importance in literary

history, these portrayals of Milton were never restricted to his roles in literature. Instead,

Milton’s political participation has become one of the central themes in the Chinese

portrayals of Milton. In these writings, Milton became a model of revolutionary spirit who

always took the well-beings of his country close to hear, served the causes of freedom with

1 For commentaries and debates on Milton, see Shawcross, 1970 and 1972 and Thorpe, 1950. For Milton’s influences, see Shawcross, 1991. 2 There are a few studies on European translations of Milton’s works, such as Alblas, 185-200; Dorris, 213-25; Tisch, 282-85; Verhoeff, 171-95. Huang 3

his pen, and fought for liberty at many fronts. Often Milton’s idea of liberty was taken out

of its puritan context and interpreted as a universal value in terms of political, personal, and

cultural freedom. This paper evaluates the shaping of Milton’s image as a model of

revolutionary spirit and liberty. It will argue that Chinese interpretations of Milton are

framed by the Chinese elites’ search for liberation from traditional constraints (both political

and literary) and by their liberal thinking under the influences of 19th-century liberalism.

The Reception of Milton in China in the Early 20th Century

The first known presence of Milton was found in Lin Zexu’s Sizhouzhi (A Gazetteer

of Four Continents) (c. 1941), a collection of translated extracts from Hugh Murray’s The

Encyclopedia of Geography (1836). Paradise Lost was probably first introduced in Zhongxi

Tongshu (Sino-Western Almanac), a periodical edited by missionaries in China to introduce

histories and facts of the Western countries and to teach Christian doctrines.3 However, the

presence of Milton in 19th-century Chinese texts was limited to passing references with little

information regarding his character and works.

Attentions to Milton among the Chinese elites increased rapidly in the 20th-century, especially from the opening of the New Literary Movement in 1917. The name of Milton could be found in journal articles and books on topics such as prosody, English poetry, and

the history of English literature. In 1920 and 1923, the dramatist Tien Han wrote two

articles about Milton: one on women’s role in Paradise Lost and the other on Milton’s

political contributions to his nation. Liang Zhinan also produced a memorial essay on

Milton in 1924, venerating him as the great English epic poet equal to Homer and Dante.

Major books on the history of European or English literature, such as Wenxue dagang (An

3 Zhongxi Tongshu is nowhere to be found in the major Chinese libraries in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and China. My source comes from Chinese scholar Yang Xianji’s critique on the story of Adam and Eve both in Genesis and in Paradise Lost. The essay is collected in the 1888 edition of Huangchao jingshi wenbian (Anthology of Qing Statecraft Writings), Vol. 120, under the heading “Foreign Affairs Section 12, Religions no. 2”. In a parenthetical note, Yang Xianji refers to Joseph Etkin’s Zhongxi Tongshu as his source for Paradise Lost. Huang 4

Outline of Literature) (1925), Yingguo wenxue ABC (ABC of English Literature) (1928),

Yingguo wenxue shigang (A Historical Outline of English Literature), usually devoted an entire section or chapter to Milton, detailing his life, character, political contributions, and literary achievements. The writings on prosody, English/European poetry, and poetics often presented Milton as a principal figure in epic poetry, an advocate of blank verse, and an

innovator in English sonnets.

Translations of Milton’s works remained fragmentary until the late 1920s. Tien Han

and Liang Jinan included translations of brief passages from Paradise Lost and other shorter

poems in their essays on Milton. The first extensive translation of Milton’s works was Fu

Donghua’s rendition of the first six books of Paradise Lost in 1930.4 A complete translation of the epic by Ju Weiji appeared in 1934.

In the Chinese world, Milton was generally acknowledged as one of the greatest poets in English literature and in world literature. However, he has not enjoyed a popular readership. Although the Chinese writers in the 1920s and 30s shared a high respect for

Milton and had a general knowledge about Milton’s position in English literature, not many

had strong enthusiasm to study or promote Milton’s works in China. To the Chinese, Satan,

the Divine justice, and human redemption were issues not relevant to the pressing problems

at the time. Gao Changnan, one of the writers on Milton, exclaimed: “Many people feel that

Milton’s works are loaded with theology; these puritan ideas are too remote for us.”(224) At

the time of national crises—when political chaos, social transformation, and literary

reformation demanded concrete, realistic measures, Milton’s puritan worldview seemed less

relevant to the immediate concerns and needs of the Chinese mind. For many Chinese

writers, Milton remained an important but indifferent literary figure in world literature. For

those who attempted to introduce Milton to the Chinese reader, some degree of relevance had

4 According to Fu, he actually completed the translation of the 7th and 8th books. Unfortunately, the manuscript was destroyed in the 128 incident. Huang 5 to be established so as to justify their interests in Milton and to create Milton’s cultural significance in China. Milton’s image as a model of revolutionary spirit and liberty reflected precisely such demand for relevance and cultural significance to the immediate realities in China.

Political Images of Milton: Revolutionary Spirit and Liberty

The Chinese depictions of Milton during the 1920s and 30s usually addressed three aspects of Milton’s life: the personal, the literary, and the political. Although Milton’s religious idiosyncrasy was mentioned and occasionally elaborated to elucidate his three major poems, the importance of Christian ideology to Milton was frequently toned down or overlooked. His literary achievements and political involvement were more thoroughly explored. Instead of stressing only the literary aspect, Milton’s political roles were given unprecedented prominence. The story of his involvement in politics often started with the interruption of his trip in Europe due to the political tumults from England. He was eager to join the revolution and contributed to the well-beings of his nation. He devoted his “left hand” to justify the causes of revolution and to defend the freedom of the English people.

(Tien; Liang; Sun; Zeng; Lin; Zhang; Gao; Jin) In terms of his political roles, Milton was lifted to the level of state leaders, equal to Oliver Cromwell in status and influence. (Tien;

Zeng; Gao) As the secretary for foreign tongues, Milton fended for regicide, liberty, democracy, and the English people against the censures from the continent, making himself renowned all over Europe. (Tien; Liang; Sun; Zeng; Lin; Zhang; Gao; Jin) Because of his dedication to liberty and reformation, he was sometimes described as “a revolutionary” or “a great poet of revolution”. (Gao; Jin)

In these portrayals of Milton’s political images, the word “liberty” or “freedom” was often interpreted, not in Milton’s context of Christian liberty, but in the modern understanding Huang 6

of liberalism, republicanism, and democracy developed in the 19th century. This modern

interpretation of Milton’s “liberty” was also associated with the Chinese writers’ concerns for

the immediate political situations in China and the traditional concept for the ideal image of a

poet-statesman. Such symptoms of cultural appropriation and transformation are reflected

most clearly in the following three texts.

Tien Han, “Milton and China.”

In 1923, Tien Han wrote an essay entitled “Mierdun yu Zhongguo (Milton and China),”

attempting to establish cultural relevance between Milton and China. In the beginning, Tien quoted Wordsworth’s sonnet “London” (1802), in which the poet invoked the spirit of Milton

to save England out of political corruption and chaos. He created an analogy between the

political scene in Wordsworth’s England and that in the early 20th-century China, stressing the severity of corruption and turmoil in both cases. Drawing on the precedence of

Wordsworth’s invocation, Tien suggested Milton’s potential contribution as an inspiration to

China for political and social reforms:

A. When the storm overwhelms everything, strong weeds are desired. When

the nation suffered civil unrest, loyal men are wanted. It is only natural that

Wordsworth conjured Milton, because England was mired in corruption.

Now allow me to recount concisely Milton’s life and the relation of the man

to his time. I hope that Milton’s spirit, which has exerted great

remedial influences on England, might also cure today’s China. (2)

[emphasis added]

Tien’s delineation foregrounded Milton’s participations in the political scene and left Huang 7 his literary career in the background. Although starting out with a literary ambition, hoping to compose a grand English heroic verse, Milton devoted himself to political writings when the time and the nation called for his contribution. In defense of “liberty” against the tyranny of the monarchy, he wrote abundantly in prose,

B. . . . to promote his idea of the three liberties, namely, religious liberty,

domestic liberty, and individual liberty. Domestic liberty also includes

the freedom of marriage, of education, and of expression. The three

liberties are the foundation to ensure one’s happiness as a member of the

society. In the subsequent decade, apart from a few sonnets, Milton

dedicated his pen solely to the struggle of political, religious liberty and

justice. At the time, he gave up his ambition in writing a great national

epic, since his aspiration for literary creativity has yielded to his concern for

the troubled time! (3) [emphasis added]

As Milton became the Secretary for Foreign Tongues, he assisted Cromwell in the government in expanding the power and reputation of England overseas. In response to the attacks on regicide from the continent, Milton wrote Eikonoklastes to accuse Charles I for

“violating the constitution” and to defend “the appropriate measures of the Parliament,” engaging in vehement controversies with hi rivals:

C. Writing to answer Salmasius's long polemics with Defensio pro populo

Anglicano, he not only silenced and intimidated his enemies but also

sacrificed his own eyes for it. Ah! How dedicated he was to his beliefs,

how devoted to democracy! (5) [emphasis added] Huang 8

Being blind did not thwart him from public affairs. He continued to write profusely for his

nation and the people, producing works such as History of Britain, Ready and Easy Way to

Establish a Free Commonwealth, and so forth. His reputation was widespread all over

Europe: “The nations on the continent considered the thinker Milton and the practitioner

Cromwell as the two representatives of the English people.”(5) After Cromwell’s death and the restoration, Milton was deeply disappointed. He withdrew from the public scene and returned to serve the Muse. Only after retiring from the political scene did he climb the summit of literature with his grand epic.

In Tien’s construction, Milton was an unselfish poet who places the nation and the people before himself. In peaceful time, he prepared himself to be a national poet and to create narrative poetry that reflected the spirit of the nation. In troubled time, he willingly sacrificed his personal goals and devoted himself to defend freedom and justice for the people.

He considered liberty the foundation of human society, the basis of all happiness. Only when religious liberty, domestic liberty, and individual liberty were protected could one live happily and freely as a member of the society. Because of this conviction, Milton supported the republican cause and opposed the monarchy. Despite his personal aspiration for poetry, he contributed his linguistic and literary talents to fight for liberty, to speak for the people, and to defend the revolution. Never once was he intimidated by the enemies, discouraged by criticism, or silenced under threat. Regardless of the circumstances, he remained true to his principles, to poetry, and to the nation.

Zhang Changgong, “Milton and Du Fu.”

In 1930, an article “Mierdun yu Du Fu (Milton and Du Fu)” by Zhang Changgong appeared in Chenxing yuekan (Morning Star Monthly), suggesting similarities and Huang 9

congeniality between Milton and the famous Chinese patriot-poet Du Fu.5 In the section comparing the political ideas of Milton and the Chinese poet Du Fu (712-770), Zhang labeled

Milton with the phrase ziyiozhuyi (liberalism):

D. Milton’s basic principle was liberalism. His goal was to make liberalism

applicable to religion, politics, education, and ideas. (19) [emphasis added]

Through his characterization, Milton pursued liberty for the people in all trades: peasants, scholars, teachers, jurors, collectors, etc. For Milton, liberty involved freedom of religious belief, freedom of education, rights of personal property, and freedom of ideas, imagination, literature, and so forth. (19-20)

Moreover, Milton’s “liberalism” involved a deeper concern for national unity:

E. His sole purpose was for the nation to grow. . . . His prospect was that the

nation could act with honor and justice, worship God, walk in the path of

Truth, and become a great united group with concerted life. (19)

Compared with Du Fu’s loyalty to the Chinese emperor, Milton’s devotion to the good of his nation became the ultimate goal of his liberalism:

F. . . . Du Fu’s wish was to restore order; Milton’s mind was devoted to the

advancement of liberty. Du Fu’s hero was the Emperor while Milton’s

was the Nation. Du Fu dedicated his loyalty to the Emperor; Milton

5 This is a partial summary or adaptation of Japanese writer Iichiro Tokutomi’s work Toho to miruton (Du Fu and Milton) (1917). In the “translator’s note”, Zhang claimed that he only attempted to introduce a few passages to the reader. Without the Japanese text, It was not clear whether Zhang followed Tokutomi’s words closely or adapted the text for his own presentation. Huang 10

dedicated his ideal of liberty to the Nation. (20) [emphasis added]

Stressing the poets’ sense of public duty, Zhang praised their inclination to

incorporate political themes in literature. The political concern was the very factor that

distinguished Milton and Du Fu from other poets:

G. If the poets can engaged politics in their works, the territory of poetry will be

expanded. Politics is an important part of human life. Engaging political

themes in literature means that one has gotten the gist of life. The

“inspiration” of a political poet is different from that of a non-political poet;

it is more solid and more realistic. . . . Du Fu’s role as a political poet was

one of the reasons that he occupied a special position in poetry—for his

special gift could be better developed. So was the case of Milton. (20)

Since politics played an important part in life and the subjects of poetry always concerns life,

there was no reason to exclude political materials from poetry. Zhang cited the sonnet “On the Lord Gen. Fairfax at the siege of Colchester” as an example of Milton’s political consciousness in poetry. Zhang pointed out the political undertones of Milton’s three major works, although no direct descriptions of the actual events in England were found.

Instead of qualifying Milton’s ideas of liberty in the 17th-century political and

religious struggles, Zhang transformed Milton into a liberal in the modern sense by the

labeling of “liberalism” upon him. So Milton advocated liberty at all fronts and fought for

the rights and freedom of people from all social strata. Liberty was drawn out of Milton’s

puritan context and became a universal value that the poet would devote his life to for the

well-being of his nation. Huang 11

Similar to Tien’s portrayal of Milton, two aspects of the poet’s character were

highlighted, namely, liberalism and nationalism. Milton is not simply a poet whose

historical imprint depends solely on his art. He became the epitome of the ideal

poet-statesman for many Chinese elites. He is not simply a gifted artist with all the talents, passion, and integrity required for literary achievements. He stands out among other poets because he possesses strong convictions in liberty, one of the fundamental values for a good society, and a deep sense of duty to his nation. He engages politics in his works. He devoted his literary talents for the advancement of liberty and the greater good of his nation.

What more can one asked from a poet with such uncompromising virtue, incomparable art, and self-sacrificing spirit?

Jin Donglei, “The Great Poet of Revolution.”

In Jin Donglei’s Yingguo wenxue shigang (A Historical Outline of English Literature),

Milton was introduced as “The Great Poet of Revolution” in the section heading. Compared

with Tien’s and Zhang’s portrayals, Jin paid relatively more attention to Milton’s literary

achievements. However, Jin’s depiction of Milton was undoubtedly conditioned by his

understanding of the political context in the so-called “puritan movement” in the preceding

section.

Under the heading “Social Background,” Jin characterized the “puritan movement” as

a reaction against moral corruption in the Renaissance. The movement was defined as a

revival of virtues—virtues that included personal moral perfection and the perfection of socio-political structures. Liberty was the ultimate goal in these pursuits of perfection.

The puritans sought personal freedom through moral perfection and pursued collective liberty through political reformation:

Huang 12

H. . . . The English puritan movement was the reaction against [moral

corruptions in the Renaissance], declaring the revival of virtues in two

senses: “regeneration” and “new life”. “Regeneration” centered on the

individual person. One should cultivate oneself to reach moral perfection,

like saints or sages who acted freely and properly without faults. “New

life” concerns the society, the state, and the people. Politics and religion

should reach the status of total freedom and equality, so the world became an

open place where people lived peacefully and happily. Personally the

puritans followed the true meaning of religion, . . . . Politically they

demanded republican government, democracy, and freedom in everyday

life and religion. Since the advent of this movement, people were happy

to follow them. The puritans became an irrepressible power in England.

(151) [emphasis added]

Under Jin’s depiction, the word “puritan” no longer referred to a wide spectrum of

English Protestants; instead, it referred to an integrated group of people with clear political objectives. In this movement, an explicit opposition was established between “wangshi”

(the royalty) and “renmin” (the people). James I and Charles I were described as

self-serving despots who oppressed the parliament and the people. The puritans, on the

other hand, stood by the people’s side and revolted against the oppressive monarchy. Their

“elected” leader Oliver Cromwell led the “gemingjun” (troops of revolution) and defeated the

“huangjun” (royal troops). Charles I was finally captured and subjected to public trials. In

this simplified picture of the English revolution, the puritans stood out as radical advocates of

democracy and republicanism:

Huang 13

I. . . . The puritans demanded absolute freedom of belief, without assigning a

national religion; they called for the practice of democracy, the establishment

of a republican government, and the change to the “English

Commonwealth”. The royalists, however, insisted on making the

Presbyterian Church the national church, restoring the king to the throne, and

establishing a constitutional monarchy. (152)

This rather “modern” interpretation of the English revolution placed Milton at the center stage along with Cromwell, making them equal leaders in the republican rule:

J. When Cromwell directed the government, the great writer John Milton was

the Secretary in Chief. With these two great figures, a man of arms and a

man of letters, who led the puritans and the people to implement the

republican policies and to enforce new laws, the English political scene

could now be stable.. . . . (152)

In Jin’s depiction, Milton was no longer a puritan poet who was basically marginal in political arena despite his engagements in political and religious controversies. He became a spiritual leader who fought for the revolutionary cause with his pen and a vanguard of the republican government, writing vehemently to justify their pursuit of liberty. This image was further established in this passage on Milton “the Poet of Revolution”:

K. . . . when the troops of English people revolted, he returned to his country,

teaching in a private school and writing to support the people’s forces.

After the execution of Charles I, he became a member of the parliament and Huang 14

the Chief Secretary for Latin. . . . he wrote numerous essays to advocate

liberty in religion, education and politics. At thirty-three, in response to

Eikon Basilike, the work written by an antidemocratic scholar (the work

venerated the sacredness of the monarch), he wrote numerous tracts to

defend the new government, criticizing Charles I for violation of the

constitution and inadequate measures with the parliament. Due to overuse

of his eyes, he finally turned blind. While he was writing these works,

some friends and relatives advised him not to work so hard. He answered

steadfastly, “I am willing to sacrifice my eyes for liberty.” What a

commitment to democracy! (155-56) [emphasis added]

With such an embellishment on Milton’s roles in the government and in politics, Milton

became a political heavyweight in the English revolution. He stood on the side of the

people and support “minjun” (the people’s forces) with his writings. Not only did he

represent the people’s rights (being a member of the parliament); he also became the prime

government speaker who contested the arguments of the “fanmingzhu zhengzhi”

(antidemocratic) enemies and defended liberty and “mingzhu zhengzhi” (the democratic rule).

Through Jin’s reconstruction, “liberty” was placed at the forefront of the event. It

became a common cause shared by Oliver Cromwell, his troops, the puritans, the English

people, and Milton. The highly diversified voices and ideologies in the revolution were

conflated into one single demand for freedom and democracy for the people. Milton’s

“Christian liberty” with his idiosyncratic puritan views, expressed in his prose and poetry (e.g.

On Christine Doctrine and Paradise Lost), was ignored.6 “Liberty” was defined by the

6 For Milton, liberty was grounded on God’s grace to man. When God created man, he made man sufficient to choose good and evil. Even though God knew that Adam would fall, his foreknowledge did not change the fact that man was solely responsible for his fall.(On Christian Doctrine; Paradise Lost) This freedom of choice was the foundation of Christian liberty. From this freedom derived Milton’s vindication for freedom in the Huang 15 modern ideas of liberalism and democracy developed in the 19th century; it included modern political concepts such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech, abolishment of censorship, political participation by the people, democratic government, etc.

Liberty and Nationalism

In these political interpretations of Milton, liberty and nationalism converged on

Milton’s image as the model of revolutionary spirit and liberty. As shown in the three texts discussed earlier, the Chinese writers consistently underscored the intrinsic correlations between liberty and national stability. Liberty constitutes the foundation of happiness for all members of the society and forms the basis of an ideal government. The well-being of a nation depends on a republican government that protected freedom in religion, education, family, and politics with a liberal democracy. The nation was considered an organic whole, founded on the collective vitality of the people, the society, and the government. To achieve the greatest good for the nation, liberty needs to be realized at all levels, from individuals to the collective whole. In a nation troubled by despotic monarchy and sociopolitical corruptions, revolution and the establishment of liberal democracy are imperative for solving the problems.

Their liberal ideas are primarily derived from European liberalism. Since the late-19th century, debates on polity centered on the choices between a constitutional monarchy and a republican government. Through the translations and introductions by liberals such as Yen Fu and Liang Qichao, European liberal ideas came into the consciousness of many Chinese elites. By 1901 and 1903, Yen Fu translated John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty,

Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations, Herbert Spencer’s A Study of Sociology, and others, which had a great impact on the Chinese elites’ understanding of social, political, and tracts on Reformation, education, divorce, censorship, and regicide. As a puritan, Milton built his main arguments from scriptural sources and developed his major works from biblical stories. Even his criticisms on the monarchy relied heavily on the interpretations of kingship in the Bible. Huang 16

economic theories of liberalism. Liang further developed his theory of liberty and political

reform in Xinminshuo (On New Citizen), adapting European political and economic theories

from Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and Herbert Spencer for the political needs in

China.7

However, Chinese liberalism has never been a direct implant of European liberalism.

Studies on Chinese liberal thoughts in the late 19th-century showed that the liberalism of Yen and Liang was a conglomeration of European liberalism, nationalism, and Confucian values, especially in the relation between the individual and the nation. Benjamin Schwartz argued that Yen Fu re-interpreted European liberalism under the framework of nationalism and drew correlations from Chinese political philosophies to justify his liberalism.8 Chang Hao

analyzed the intellectual development of Liang and identified the connection between Liang’s

liberalism and the Confucian ideal of sage-statesmanship.9 Philip Huang also maintained that

“China and the West did not represent mutually exclusive wholes to Liang, but each a complex range of intellectual alternatives.”(160)

Due to the influences of Yen and Liang and the expanding understanding of Western sociopolitical theories and cultures, the Chinese elites in the May-Fourth movement and the

New Cultural movement adhered themselves, more or less, to liberal attitudes or principles in

order to liberate China from traditional constraints. The liberal scholar Yin Haiguang

characterized early Chinese liberals as “liberators”, who unshackled themselves from

Confucian orthodoxy, ethics, and traditional systems. He pointed out that there was not a

clear and unified definition for “Chinese liberalism”. However, those who were considered

7 “His writings, especially those between 1898 and 1903, abounded in references to Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), John Stuart Milll (1806-73), Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), and to the favorite phrases of these men—“the greatest happiness of the greatest number,” “liberty of thought and discussion,” “struggle for existence,” and “survival of the fittest.”(Huang 68) 8 See particularly Chapter III “Declaration of Principles” and Chapter VI “On liberty”. 9 The term “sage-statesmanship” refers to an important Confucian ideal called neisheng waiwang (inner sagehood and outer kingship). An ideal Confucian should accomplish himself both by self-cultivation (xiusheng) and by nurturing the people through statecrafts (jinshi jimin). For details, see Hao Chang, “The Intellectual Setting,” Liang Chi-chao and Intellectual Transition in China, 1890-190 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), 7-34. Huang 17

“liberals” shared some common traits: attacking Confucianism and traditional values,

advocating science, democracy, liberty, progress, and the use of baihua (the modern

vernacular language). (22) These values permeated the discourse of those participated in the

May-Fourth movement, the New Cultural movement, and the aftermaths.10 Although the

Chinese elites later parted their ways and took different stands on sociopolitical and cultural issues, they generally accepted liberty as an essential value, notwithstanding the diverse definitions they have attributed to it.11

The Chinese writers of Milton in the 1920s and 30s followed the line of liberal discourse initiated by Yen and expanded by the May-Fourth generation. Like the early liberals, they combined liberalism with nationalism in their portrayals of Milton. Sifting through their screen of liberal discourse, Milton’s puritan ideology and the sociopolitical circumstances of 17th-century England were overlooked. The elements such as Milton’s advocacy of liberty, his political polemics, and his service in the government were preserved and woven into a new story of liberty, revolution, and nationalism converging on Milton the paragon poet.

However, this new story was more than a tale about Milton. It has become a political allegory that addressed the central concerns of the Chinese elites regarding the socio-political realities of China. Milton was “borrowed” from England and reconstructed as a model for the Chinese writers to emulate. As Wordsworth invoked Milton to save

England, Tien attempted to invoke Milton as a poet-patriot and a model of revolution for his fellow countrymen. The title “Milton and China” established a cross-cultural connection between two elements, suggesting a reading of the foreign poet Milton from the Chinese perspective. By comparing Milton with Du Fu—a Chinese poet famous for his realism and patriotism, Zhang identified similar traits between two poets and enlisted Milton in the rank

10 For the major intellectual trends of the May Fourth movement, see Chow, 1960. 11 For the Chinese elites’ attitudes toward the republican form of government, see Twitchett and Fairbank, ed., 1986. Huang 18 of poet-patriot like Du Fu. Milton’s religious and literary ideas faded into the background and the Chinese interpretation of Milton as an ideal poet-patriot moved to the foreground.

Therefore, the story of Milton was intended to stimulate the revolutionary spirit of its Chinese audience, encouraging them to emulate Milton’s devotion to liberty and his country, and to join efforts in social, political, and cultural reforms.

Huang 19

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Puritan Era: Sec. 2. The Great Poet of Revolution).” Yingguo wenxue shigang (A

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Commercial Press, 1937. 155-59.

Liang, Zhinan. “Mierdun erbaiwushinian jinian (The 250th Anniversary of John Milton).”

Wenxue (xunkan) (Literature [Trimonthly]) 153 & 154 (Dec. 22 & 29, 1924).

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Times Publishing Co., 1980.

Zeng, Xubai. “Yingguo wenxue: wu yuehan mierdun (English Literature, 5: John Milton.”

Xiyang wenxue jiangzuo (Lectures on Western Literatures). Minguo Series 2, no. 63.

Facsimile. World Bookstore, 1935. 24-27.

Zhang, Changgong. “Mierdun yu Du Fu (Milton and Du Fu).” Chengxing yuehkan

(Morning Star Monthly) 2 (1930): 13-36. Summarized from Tokutomi Sohō cho, Toho

to miru ton. Tōkyō: Min'yūsha, 1917.

Zheng, Zhenduo. “Wenxue dagang, dishibazhang: shiqishiji de yingguowenxue (An Outline Huang 20 of Literature, Chapter 18: English Literature in the 17th Century).” Xiaoshuo yuebao

(Fiction Monthly) 16.4 (April 1925): 26973-83.

Huang 21

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Huang 25

Appendix A: Chinese Texts Cited and the English Translations

A . 疾風靡物而思勁草，中原板蕩而思忠臣，華氏以英國腐敗而思蜜爾敦，人之情也。今請得略敘蜜爾敦氏之生平，及其與時代之關係。意者其藥石英國之大精神，或亦能藥石今日之中國。(2) When the storm overwhelms everything, strong weeds are desired. When the nation suffered civil unrest, loyal men are wanted. It is only natural that Wordsworth conjured Milton, because England was mired in corruption. Now allow me to recount concisely Milton’s life and the relation of the man to his time. I hope that Milton’s spirit, which has exerted great remedial influences on England, might also cure today’s China.

B. ……倡其所謂三大自由論：曰信教自由；曰家庭自由；曰自主之權；家庭自由之中更含婚姻自由，教育自由，言論自由，以為吾人欲保其社會一員的幸福，此三大自由實要素中之要素。其後十數年間蜜氏之筆除少數 Sonnet 體詩歌外，殆專為政治上宗教上之自由與正義而奮鬥。一時致放棄其作國民的大敘事詩之理想。這是因為他的創造熱不敵其憂時之念啊！(3) . . . to promote his idea of the three liberties, namely, religious liberty, domestic liberty, and individual liberty. Domestic liberty also includes the freedom of marriage, of education, and of expression. The three liberties are the foundation to ensure one’s happiness as a member of the society. In the subsequent decade, apart from a few sonnets, Milton dedicated his pen solely to the struggle of political, religious liberty and justice. At the time, he gave up his ambition in writing a great national epic, since his aspiration for literary creativity has yielded to his concern for the troubled time!

C. 其答沙爾美沙斯氏之長篇論文 Defensio Pro Populo Anglicans 不獨使論敵為之奪氣，為之喪膽，作者自身亦以此失明，咳！看他是何等忠於主張，忠於民治啊！(5) Writing to answer Salmasius's long polemics with Defensio pro populo Anglicano, he not only silenced and intimidated his enemies but also sacrificed his own eyes for it. Ah! How dedicated he was to his beliefs, how devoted to democracy!

D. 彌爾頓的根本思想，是自由主義。他的目的，是在宗教上，政治上，教育上以及思想上，都適用這種自由主義的。(19) Milton’s basic principle was liberalism. His goal was to make liberalism applicable to religion, politics, education, and ideas.

E. 他全集一貫的意義，是把國家擴大起來。……他所希望的，是國家能實行道義，禮拜上帝，踐履真理，成一個協同生活的大團體。 (19) His sole purpose was for the nation to grow. . . . His prospect was that the nation could act with honor and justice, worship God, walk in the path of Truth, and become a great united group with concerted life.

F. ……杜甫的志願，專在於秩序的恢復；彌爾頓的志願，專注在於自由的進取。杜甫的偶 Huang 26

像是君主，彌爾頓的偶像是國家。杜甫以其忠義，獻給君主的祭壇；彌爾頓以其自由獻給國家的祭壇。(20) . . . Du Fu’s wish was to restore order; Milton’s mind was devoted to the advancement of liberty. Du Fu’s hero was the Emperor while Milton’s was the Nation. Du Fu dedicated his loyalty to the Emperor; Milton dedicated his ideal of liberty to the Nation.

G. 詩之版圖的擴大，全在於詩人的能接觸政治。因為政治關於人生的極大。能接觸政治，可以說已得到人生的要所。政治詩人的「烟士披里屯」與非政治詩人是不相同的，一則是比較濃厚，一則是比較切實。……杜甫所以有特殊的地位，其為政治的詩人，亦即為原因之一。因為他可以藉以發展他奇特的天才。彌爾頓和他自然是一個道理的。(20) If the poets can engaged politics in their works, the territory of poetry will be expanded. Politics is an important part of human life. Engaging political themes in literature means that one has gotten the gist of life. The “inspiration” of a political poet is different from that of a non-political poet; it is more solid and more realistic. . . . Du Fu’s role as a political poet was one of the reasons that he occupied a special position in poetry—for his special gift could be better developed. So was the case of Milton.

H. ……英國的清教運動為之反動，主張道德復興，道德復興也包括「再生」和「新生」二重意義，「再生」以個人為出發點，旨在使一己的道德修養發達到最高度，為聖為賢，從心所欲；「新生」以社會、國家、人群為依歸，旨在使政治和宗教完全達到自由、平等的境界，世界開明，人類安樂。所以清教徒(Puritan)在修養上是保持宗教真正的意義，……；在政治上要求建立共和政府，實行民主政治，俾人民生活自由、信仰自由。這個運動起來以後，人民自然樂於附和，因之清教徒(Puritan)在英國的勢力，一時如火如荼，不可抑遏。(151) . . . The English puritan movement was the reaction against [moral corruptions in the Renaissance], declaring the revival of virtues in two senses: “regeneration” and “new life”. “Regeneration” centered on the individual person. One should cultivate oneself to reach moral perfection, like saints or sages who acted freely and properly without faults. “New life” concerns the society, the state, and the people. Politics and religion should reach the status of total freedom and equality, so the world became an open place where people lived peacefully and happily. Personally the puritans followed the true meaning of religion, . . . . Politically they demanded republican government, democracy, and freedom in everyday life and religion. Since the advent of this movement, people were happy to follow them. The puritans became an irrepressible power in England.

I. ……清教徒主張信仰絕對自由，不定國教，實行民主政治，建立共和政府，改國號為英吉利共和國(English Commonwealth)；保皇黨則不然，主張以新基督教(Presbyterians)為國教，迎王復辟，實行君主立憲。(152) . . . The puritans demanded absolute freedom of belief, without assigning a national religion; they called for the practice of democracy, the establishment of a republican government, and the change to the “English Commonwealth”. The royalists, however, insisted on making the Presbyterian Church the national church, restoring the king to the throne, and establishing a constitutional monarchy.

Huang 27

J. 克林威爾主持全國政權時，大文豪密而登(John Milton)任秘書長，照理有這二位大人物，一文一武，領導著清教徒和全國人民推行共和政治，勵行新法，英國的政局可以安定。……(152) When Cromwell directed the government, the great writer John Milton was the Chief Secretary. With these two great figures, a man of arms and a man of letters, who led the puritans and the people to implement the republican policies and to enforce new laws, the English political scene could now be stable. . . .

K. ……是逢英國民軍起義，他遂回國，一面為私塾教授，一面寫文章以響應民軍。詹理士第一(Charles I)被戮後，他當國會議員，又兼拉丁文秘書長。……他寫了不少為宗教、教育、政治爭自由的論文。他三十三歲時，因為要駁斥反對民主政治的學者所做的《王的肖像》(Eikon Basiliske)一書(該書盛稱帝王的神聖)，他遂寫了許多的小冊子，幫助新政府說話，暢論，詹理士第一違反憲政的罪孽和國會處置的不當；而這些書冊寫成以後，因勞苦過度，他的眼光全失了。在沒有寫完這許多書以前，親友們去勸他不要太辛苦，他很堅決地說：「我情願為自由而犧牲我的目光。」其忠於民主政治如此。(155-56) . . . when the troops of English people revolted, he returned to his country, teaching in a private school and writing to support the people’s forces. After the execution of Charles I, he became a member of the parliament and the Chief Secretary for Latin. . . . he wrote numerous essays to advocate liberty in religion, education and politics. At thirty-three, in response to Eikon Basilike, the work written by an antidemocratic scholar (the work venerated the sacredness of the monarch), he wrote numerous tracts to defend the new government, criticizing Charles I for violation of the constitution and inadequate measures with the parliament. Due to overuse of his eyes, he finally turned blind. While he was writing these works, some friends and relatives advised him not to work so hard. He answered steadfastly, “I am willing to sacrifice my eyes for liberty.” What a commitment to democracy!

Huang 28

Appendix B: Chinese Terms and Transliterations

baihua 白話 Chenxing yuekan 晨星月刊 (Morning Star Monthly) fanmingzhu zhengzhi 反民主政治 Fu Donghua 傅東華 Gao Changnan 高昌南 gemingjun 革命軍 Huangchao jingshi wenbian 皇朝經世文編 huangjun 皇軍 jinshi jimin 經世濟民 Liang Qichao 梁啟超 Liang Zhinan 梁指南 Lin Zexu 林則徐 Mierdun yu Du Fu 彌爾頓與杜甫 (Milton and Du Fu) Mierdun yu Zhongguo 蜜爾敦與中國 (Milton and China) mingzhu zhengzhi 民主政治 minjun 民軍 neisheng waiwang 內聖外王 renmin 人民 Sizhouzhi 四洲志 (A Gazetteer of Four Continents) Tien Han 田漢 wangshi 王室 Wanyio wenku 萬有文庫 (Comprehensive Library) Weiji 朱維基 Wenxue dagang 文學大綱 (An Outline of Literature) Xinminshuo 新民說 xiusheng 修身 Yen Fu 嚴復 Yin Haiguang 殷海光 Yingguo wenxue ABC 英國文學 ABC (ABC of English Literature) Yingguo wenxue shigang 英國文學史綱 (A Historical Outline of English Literature) Zhongxi Tongshu 中西通書 (Sino-Western Almanac) ziyiozhuyi 自由主義 ziyou 自由