Leadership of Women in Crete and Macedonia as a Model for the Church Aída Besançon Spencer A superficial glance at the New Testament in translation, com- teaching positions versus unofficial teaching, nor does it seem bined with an expectation of a subordinate role for women, re- to be an issue of subject matter. sults in generalizations that Paul commands women not to teach These sorts of modern categories are not apt for describing or have authority (1 Tim 2:11–15), except in the case of older wom- a church that met in a home in which the family and family- en teaching younger women how to be housewives (Titus 2:3–5), of-faith structures and the public and the private spheres and women are not to teach in official, public, formal positions in overlapped in the home-worship events. Paul does not the church, but they can teach in informal, private, one-on-one complain that the false teachers are not appointed teachers; situations in the home.1 rather, he complains that they are offering false teaching. It is However, a deeper search into the New Testament reveals a important, then, not to misread the social context in which dissonance with those interpretations. In 1 Timothy 2:12, Paul early Christian teaching transpired on Crete and elsewhere.5 writes, “I do not permit a woman to teach,” but, in Titus 2:3, Paul expects the “older women” to teach. Paul uses the same root word Many egalitarians have argued that 1 Timothy 2:11–15 needs to for men as for women teaching, didaskō. However, is it clear that be understood in light of its heterodox and cultural context. The “man” is the object of teaching in 1 Timothy 2:12? Also, why would beauty of the Bible is that each of God’s revelations is commu- Titus not teach all the women in Crete (Titus 2:6–8)? Timothy nicated in a different historical situation so that we can apply does in Ephesus (1 Tim 5:1–2). Although both Timothy and Ti- each passage in analogous contemporary historical situations. tus are supposed to present Paul’s instructions to their respective Of course, since one God inspires these revelations, certain prin- congregations (1 Tim 4:6; Titus 2:15), why is Timothy challenged ciples will be above culture, but how to apply these principles will to be a model (typos) for all the believers (1 Tim 4:12), but Titus is vary. Two major factors affect the place of women in the differ- challenged to be a model (typos) only to the younger men (Titus ent New Testament churches: first and primarily, the acceptance 2:6–8)? In contrast, why does Paul presuppose and support the or rejection in a church of the gospel core message (heterodoxy leadership of Euodia and Syntyche as his coworkers (Phil 4:2–3), or orthodoxy) and, secondarily, the regional culture’s expecta- as well as Lydia (Acts 16:14–15, 40), if all women are restricted? tions for women. I have chosen three churches (Philippi, Ephe- Some commentators have argued that Titus 2:3, directing the sus, Crete) where (1) we have a clearer understanding of ancient elder women to teach, is possible only because Titus 2 envisions a women’s positions and (2) the New Testament shows the effect private, informal household (oikos) setting, while 1 Timothy 2:11– of the gospel on leadership roles. (I have not included Corinth 12 envisions a public, formal church setting.2 Oikos, however, is because, in Corinth, the women were continuing to pray and also Paul’s image for the church: God’s oikos “is the church of the prophesy in public and because their secular position is not as living God” (1 Tim 3:15). But why would a devout believer act clear as in Macedonia, Anatolia, and Crete.) Comparing the his- in one’s own household differently than when serving in God’s torical cultural information about women in Macedonia, Ana- household? Early Christians lived, of course, in their own house- tolia, and Crete with the state of right teaching in these different holds,3 but they appeared to have worshiped in either their own New Testament churches sheds light on solving any apparent dis- or one of the other households, not in separate church build- harmony. In contrast, traditionally, overemphasizing the women ings, as became more prominent after Emperor Constantine’s in Ephesus at the expense of the other region’s women leaders era.4 Thus, the private, informal versus public, formal dichotomy has resulted in a blanket limitation on women’s leadership, limit- seems more appropriate to a modern, Western, preemerging ing opportunities for all women to use their spiritual and natural church setting than to the ancient Western emerging church, or gifts in church leadership while overburdening men. to house churches in mainland China. Ben Witherington sum- marizes well: AÍDA BESANÇON SPENCER is Professor of New Tes- tament at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. If Paul and/or Luke had qualms about women teaching under This article is developed from her work on 1 Timo- all circumstances and on all subjects, we certainly would not thy and Titus, 2 Timothy in the New Covenant Com- have [Titus 2:3] in this letter. The issue in regard to teaching mentary Series (2013, 2014). She is a Board of Ref- is not gender specific in itself (see, e.g., Rom 16; Phil 4, which erence member for Christians for Biblical Equality refers to women coworkers in Philippi), nor, to judge from and book review editor for Priscilla Papers. Among earlier Pauline letters, is the issue women teaching or speak- her numerous books and articles are Beyond the Curse: Women Called to ing to men (cf., e.g., 1 Cor 11; Acts 18:18–26). Furthermore, the Ministry (also in French and Spanish), Biblical Voices on Biblical Equality, issue is not public versus private speaking, nor is it official The Global God, and 2 Corinthians, Daily Bible Commentary. She is Found- ing Pastor of Organization of Pilgrim Church, Beverly, Massachusetts. Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No. 4 ◆ Autumn 2032 • 5 Philippi, Macedonia is one of the most amiable New Testament letters. Yes, the church had its problems, but the church was not convinced by heterodox The positions of women in ancient Macedonia, Anatolia, and teachers. Derek Thomas summarizes: “But in the earnest and un- Crete had many similarities, especially in contrast to women discriminating preaching of Paul to the women at the riverside, in ancient Athens and Israel. Wealthy Athenian and Eastern in the baptism of Lydia, in the influence of Euodia and Syntyche, women were still sequestered in the home. J. B. Lightfoot com- in the prayers and service of the hon- ments about Macedonia: “In not a few aul, Silas, Timothy, and Luke encouraged ored widows and in the warmth of the instances a metronymic [inscription] welcome Crescens’ sister could expect, takes the place of the usual patronym- Pthe participation and leadership of women we may be glimpsing the new kind of ic and in other cases a prominence is in Philippi by speaking to them in public, status the Christian church could afford given to women which can hardly be staying at Lydia’s house, and choosing women to women, especially in a place where accidental.” He adds, “the active zeal of such as Euodia and Syntyche as coworkers. the Jewish presence was not strong.”15 the women in this country is a remark- able fact, without a parallel in the Apostle’s history elsewhere and Ephesus, Anatolia only to be compared with their prominence at an earlier date in the personal ministry of our Lord.”6 Macedonian women gained Lydia herself came from Thyatira (Acts 16:14), which is in the an- more social and legal rights than other Greek women, especially cient region called Lydia in Anatolia, Western Asia Minor. Ac- Athenian.7 As a result, women in Hellenistic Egypt had many so- cording to William Ramsay, the Lydians tended to be matriarchal cial and legal rights because Hellenistic queens were successors (a preference native to Asia Minor), in contrast to the Phrygians of the Macedonians. Thus, in Hellenistic Greece, some women and Carians, who tended more to the patriarchal type of social scholars and prose writers can be found in Alexandria, such as institutions.16 In the province of Lydia, the goddess was promi- the Neopythagorean philosopher Perictione and Hypatia, who nent, while a male god very often was put forward as her son. In was leader of the Neoplatonic School (fourth and fifth centuries Phrygia and Pisidia, the goddess was not so prominent, and the AD).8 William Tarn summarizes: “If Macedonia produced per- male god often stood alone.17 Thus, not surprisingly, the Synod haps the most competent group of men the world has yet seen, of Laodicea in Phrygia in the fourth century was the first to limit the women were in all respects the men’s counterparts; they women.18 In contrast, women prophets were frequent in Ana- played a large part in affairs, received envoys and obtained con- tolia before the second century.19 Anatolian women, with their cessions for them from their husbands, built temples, founded Amazon heritage, were influential. Ephesus in Anatolia was first cities, engaged mercenaries, commanded armies, held fortresses, a Lydian village. Of the twelve Ionian cities, Ephesus is the most and acted on occasion as regents or even co-rulers.”9 Egypt had Lydian.20 In Anatolia, women also were prominent. It was ac- at least seven Cleopatras!10 ceptable for them to hold public positions and perform duties of In contrast to Jesus’s disciples, who were astounded that Jesus authority and influence in their communities.21 The worship of spoke to the Samaritan woman (John 4:27),11 Paul, Silas, Timothy, Artemis was also prominent, and this pagan cult seemed to have and Luke encouraged the participation and leadership of women influenced the new Christians in Ephesus.