Leadership of Women in Crete and Macedonia as a Model for the Church Aída Besançon Spencer

A superficial glance at the in translation, com- teaching positions versus unofficial teaching, nor does it seem bined with an expectation of a subordinate role for women, re- to be an issue of subject matter. sults in generalizations that Paul commands women not to teach These sorts of modern categories are not apt for describing or have authority (1 Tim 2:11–15), except in the case of older wom- a church that met in a home in which the family and family- en teaching younger women how to be housewives (Titus 2:3–5), of-faith structures and the public and the private spheres and women are not to teach in official, public, formal positions in overlapped in the home-worship events. . . . Paul does not the church, but they can teach in informal, private, one-on-one complain that the false teachers are not appointed teachers; situations in the home.1 rather, he complains that they are offering false teaching. It is However, a deeper search into the New Testament reveals a important, then, not to misread the social context in which dissonance with those interpretations. In 1 Timothy 2:12, Paul early Christian teaching transpired on Crete and elsewhere.5 writes, “I do not permit a woman to teach,” but, in Titus 2:3, Paul expects the “older women” to teach. Paul uses the same root word Many egalitarians have argued that 1 Timothy 2:11–15 needs to for men as for women teaching, didaskō. However, is it clear that be understood in light of its heterodox and cultural context. The “man” is the object of teaching in 1 Timothy 2:12? Also, why would beauty of the is that each of God’s revelations is commu- Titus not teach all the women in Crete (Titus 2:6–8)? Timothy nicated in a different historical situation so that we can apply does in (1 Tim 5:1–2). Although both Timothy and Ti- each passage in analogous contemporary historical situations. tus are supposed to present Paul’s instructions to their respective Of course, since one God inspires these revelations, certain prin- congregations (1 Tim 4:6; Titus 2:15), why is Timothy challenged ciples will be above culture, but how to apply these principles will to be a model (typos) for all the believers (1 Tim 4:12), but Titus is vary. Two major factors affect the place of women in the differ- challenged to be a model (typos) only to the younger men (Titus ent New Testament churches: first and primarily, the acceptance 2:6–8)? In contrast, why does Paul presuppose and support the or rejection in a church of the gospel core message (heterodoxy leadership of Euodia and Syntyche as his coworkers (Phil 4:2–3), or orthodoxy) and, secondarily, the regional culture’s expecta- as well as (:14–15, 40), if all women are restricted? tions for women. I have chosen three churches (, Ephe- Some commentators have argued that Titus 2:3, directing the sus, Crete) where (1) we have a clearer understanding of ancient elder women to teach, is possible only because Titus 2 envisions a women’s positions and (2) the New Testament shows the effect private, informal household (oikos) setting, while 1 Timothy 2:11– of the gospel on leadership roles. (I have not included Corinth 12 envisions a public, formal church setting.2 Oikos, however, is because, in Corinth, the women were continuing to pray and also Paul’s image for the church: God’s oikos “is the church of the prophesy in public and because their secular position is not as living God” (1 Tim 3:15). But why would a devout believer act clear as in Macedonia, , and Crete.) Comparing the his- in one’s own household differently than when serving in God’s torical cultural information about women in Macedonia, Ana- household? Early Christians lived, of course, in their own house- tolia, and Crete with the state of right teaching in these different holds,3 but they appeared to have worshiped in either their own New Testament churches sheds light on solving any apparent dis- or one of the other households, not in separate church build- harmony. In contrast, traditionally, overemphasizing the women ings, as became more prominent after Emperor Constantine’s in Ephesus at the expense of the other region’s women leaders era.4 Thus, the private, informal versus public, formal dichotomy has resulted in a blanket limitation on women’s leadership, limit- seems more appropriate to a modern, Western, preemerging ing opportunities for all women to use their spiritual and natural church setting than to the ancient Western emerging church, or gifts in church leadership while overburdening men. to house churches in mainland China. Ben Witherington sum- marizes well: AídA BesAnçon spencer is professor of new Tes- tament at Gordon-conwell Theological seminary. If Paul and/or Luke had qualms about women teaching under This article is developed from her work on 1 Timo- all circumstances and on all subjects, we certainly would not thy and Titus, 2 Timothy in the new covenant com- have [Titus 2:3] in this letter. The issue in regard to teaching mentary series (2013, 2014). she is a Board of ref- is not gender specific in itself (see, e.g., Rom 16; Phil 4, which erence member for christians for Biblical equality refers to women coworkers in Philippi), nor, to judge from and book review editor for Priscilla Papers. Among earlier Pauline letters, is the issue women teaching or speak- her numerous books and articles are Beyond the Curse: Women Called to ing to men (cf., e.g., 1 Cor 11; :18–26). Furthermore, the Ministry (also in French and spanish), Biblical Voices on Biblical Equality, issue is not public versus private speaking, nor is it official The Global God, and 2 Corinthians, daily Bible commentary. she is Found- ing pastor of organization of pilgrim church, Beverly, Massachusetts.

Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No. 4 ◆ Autumn 2032 • 5 Philippi, Macedonia is one of the most amiable New Testament letters. Yes, the church had its problems, but the church was not convinced by heterodox The positions of women in ancient Macedonia, Anatolia, and teachers. Derek Thomas summarizes: “But in the earnest and un- Crete had many similarities, especially in contrast to women discriminating preaching of Paul to the women at the riverside, in ancient and Israel. Wealthy Athenian and Eastern in the baptism of Lydia, in the influence of Euodia and Syntyche, women were still sequestered in the home. J. B. Lightfoot com- in the and service of the hon- ments about Macedonia: “In not a few aul, , Timothy, and Luke encouraged ored widows and in the warmth of the instances a metronymic [inscription] welcome Crescens’ sister could expect, takes the place of the usual patronym- Pthe participation and leadership of women we may be glimpsing the new kind of ic and in other cases a prominence is in Philippi by speaking to them in public, status the Christian church could afford given to women which can hardly be staying at Lydia’s house, and choosing women to women, especially in a place where accidental.” He adds, “the active zeal of such as Euodia and Syntyche as coworkers. the Jewish presence was not strong.”15 the women in this country is a remark- able fact, without a parallel in the Apostle’s history elsewhere and Ephesus, Anatolia only to be compared with their prominence at an earlier date in the personal ministry of our Lord.”6 Macedonian women gained Lydia herself came from (Acts 16:14), which is in the an- more social and legal rights than other Greek women, especially cient region called Lydia in Anatolia, Western Minor. Ac- Athenian.7 As a result, women in Hellenistic Egypt had many so- cording to William Ramsay, the Lydians tended to be matriarchal cial and legal rights because Hellenistic queens were successors (a preference native to Asia Minor), in contrast to the Phrygians of the Macedonians. Thus, in Hellenistic Greece, some women and Carians, who tended more to the patriarchal type of social scholars and prose writers can be found in Alexandria, such as institutions.16 In the province of Lydia, the goddess was promi- the Neopythagorean philosopher Perictione and Hypatia, who nent, while a male god very often was put forward as her son. In was leader of the Neoplatonic School (fourth and fifth centuries Phrygia and Pisidia, the goddess was not so prominent, and the AD).8 William Tarn summarizes: “If Macedonia produced per- male god often stood alone.17 Thus, not surprisingly, the Synod haps the most competent group of men the world has yet seen, of Laodicea in Phrygia in the fourth century was the first to limit the women were in all respects the men’s counterparts; they women.18 In contrast, women prophets were frequent in Ana- played a large part in affairs, received envoys and obtained con- tolia before the second century.19 Anatolian women, with their cessions for them from their husbands, built temples, founded Amazon heritage, were influential. Ephesus in Anatolia was first cities, engaged mercenaries, commanded armies, held fortresses, a Lydian village. Of the twelve Ionian cities, Ephesus is the most and acted on occasion as regents or even co-rulers.”9 Egypt had Lydian.20 In Anatolia, women also were prominent. It was ac- at least seven Cleopatras!10 ceptable for them to hold public positions and perform duties of In contrast to ’s disciples, who were astounded that Jesus authority and influence in their communities.21 The worship of spoke to the Samaritan woman (John 4:27),11 Paul, Silas, Timothy, was also prominent, and this pagan cult seemed to have and Luke encouraged the participation and leadership of women influenced the new Christians in Ephesus. in Philippi by speaking to them in public, staying at Lydia’s house, Second-century geographer wrote, “All cities wor- and choosing women such as Euodia and Syntyche as coworkers ship Artemis of Ephesus, and individuals hold her in honour (Phil 4:2–3). “Coworker” (synergos) is also used to signify Paul as above all the gods. The reason, in my view, is the renown of the a teacher, Timothy as an evangelist, Silas as a prophet, and Ep- , who traditionally dedicated the image, also the ex- aphroditus, Clement, and Prisca. In the genitive case, synergos treme antiquity of this sanctuary. Three other points as well have is a “colleague.”12 Paul told the Corinthians to “be subject to . . . contributed to her renown, the size of the temple, surpassing all every coworker,” and “give recognition to such people” (1 Cor buildings among men, the eminence of the city of the Ephesians 16:16, 18). Thus, a “coworker” is a colleague placed in a position and the renown of the goddess who dwells there.”22 Ephesus and of authority to whom the churches were to be subject. Synonyms Artemis were inseparable.23 Pausanias also mentions that the for coworkers include ministers of the word, such as apostles, priestesses and priests of the Ephesian Artemis lived in purity for prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph 4:11–13).13 Euo- a year, “not only sexual but in all respects, and they neither wash and Syntyche “labored by side” with Paul in the gospel nor spend their lives as do ordinary people, nor do they enter (Phil 4:3). Euodia and Syntyche’s disagreement affected the unity the home of a private man.”24 Strabo, a first-century geographer, of the entire church. Lydia, Euodia, and Syntyche were function- describes the priests (megabyzi) as “eunuchs” who were held in ing as church overseers. Lydia was a persuasive businesswoman, great honor. Maidens (virgins) served as colleagues with them in the head of her household, who was quite aggressive when she their priestly office.25 The “eunuchs” either were not sexually ac- strongly urged (parabiazomai) Paul, Silas, Luke, and Timothy to tive for a year or they castrated themselves.26 They would model cross barriers of race (Jew and Gentile) and gender and to remain a celibate religious lifestyle in honor of the virgin goddess.27 In at her house (Acts 16:14–15, 40). This church, led by women, be- contrast, married women were forbidden even to enter the tem- came a financial and spiritual partner with Paul to advance God’s ple of Artemis.28 As a result, the Ephesian Christian church, too, reign for many years.14 Consequently, the letter to the Philippians had a low view of marriage (1 Tim 4:3).

6 • Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No.4 ◆ Autumn 2013 Acts records the silversmith Demetrius reminding his fellow to teach them. They were exempt from any requirement that ne- artisans that “we get our wealth from this business,” and, when cessitated their leaving the home for any period of time. They Paul persuaded “a considerable number of people” that gods also did not participate in the synagogue “House of Study,” which made with human hands were not real, their businesses would be was a place for males only. They were considered to be in the affected (:25–26 NRSV). As the Ephesians were renowned same category in rabbinic laws as Gentiles and slaves.42 Wealthy for their devotion to luxury,29 the church also had problems with Jewish and Greek women would be encouraged to stay within wealth (1 Tim 2:9–10; 6:6–10, 17–19). the house, active in the indoor life of household management.43 Ephesus was also well known as a center for the study and The Gentiles at Ephesus had a variety of educational expec- practice of magic—the use of techniques to assure human control tations for women. Women would participate in the religious or power over supernatural forces.30 Magic appeals to unhealthy ceremonies of goddesses,44 but probably not in actual physical curiosity and the desire for power over others and oneself.31 Mag- .45 Later Greek and Roman societies appear generally to ic and drugs were interrelated.32 Artemis’s name, together with have limited the public participation of women. The Athenian the names of other gods, would be repeated in incantations.33 Greeks and the Romans were both patriarchal. Even though the Jerome comments that Ephesus was “the chief city of Asia where situation may have been better for some Gentile women, since idolatry and the deceptions of the magicians’ arts which always many women were no longer forbidden from pursuing higher accompany idolatry thrived. . . . They, whom the error of demons education, still, very few women were teaching in a professional had so long held and who knew that there are spiritual beings sense in salaried positions in great houses, or running a school as and powers and who had perceived a certain likeness of divin- a sophist.46 Early marriage limited opportunities for women. The ity in organs and auguries and , were in need of the learned professions were still usually reserved for men. Women apostle’s commendation to God.”34 The festival of Artemis, like were also excluded from law schools, since arguing publicly in those of the Amazons, affirmed orgiastic religious practices.35 court was forbidden, being considered “immodest.”47 When women celebrated their festivals, they might “spend whole Thus, when confronted with heterodox teaching and learn- nights on the bare hills in dances which stimulated ecstasy, and in ing, neither the Jewish nor Gentile women may have been well an intoxication perhaps partly alcoholic, but mainly mystical.”36 prepared to withstand either. Some Christians at Ephesus had previously participated in these When Paul does not permit a woman “to domineer over practices of magic (Acts 19:13–19; 1 Tim 5:13). (authenteō) a man, but to be in silence” (2:12b), he uses oude to Paul’s commands for the women at Ephesus in 1 Timothy connect “I am not permitting a woman to teach” with “to domi- 2:11–12 to learn “in silence,”37 but not yet “teach,” show they neer over a man.” The second action, “to domineer,” is more inten- had succumbed to heterodoxy and needed to be reeducated to sive than “to teach.” Thereby, we can translate the sentence, “I am withstand it.38 They were to learn in silence because the ancients not permitting a woman to teach, certainly not to domineer over considered this the best way to learn, as Simon, the son of Paul’s (or destroy) a man.” Romans 8:7, 11:21, and 1 Timothy 6:16 also teacher, Rabbi Gamaliel, summarized: “All my days have I grown join by oude two actions that are prohibited, where the second ac- up among the Sages and I have found naught better for a man tion is more intense and negative than the first action, in the same than silence; and not the expounding [of the Law] is the chief way as “domineer” (authenteō) is more intense and negative than thing but the doing [of it]; and he that multiplies words occa- “teach” (didaskō). Paul writes in Romans 8:7 that the mind hostile sions sin.”39 Silence had positive connotations among the ancient to God “does not submit to God’s law or moreover/especially not Jews, because the Old Testament gives positive connotations for is able” to do so. In 1 Timothy 6:16, he identifies God as the One silence, for example, “Those who have knowledge use words with “whom no human has seen, moreover/especially not is able to see.” restraint. . . . Even fools are thought wise if they keep silent, and So Paul is not allowing women to continue a teaching destructive discerning if they hold their tongues” (Prov 17:27–28 TNIV). to men, even as Eve’s teaching was destructive to Adam. Women and men at Ephesus wanted to be “teachers of the Volumes have been written on authenteō.48 The difficulty law,” but they understood “neither what they say nor concerning arises with interpretation, because this verb occurs nowhere else what they assert” (1 Tim 1:7). They had no “perception” of spiri- in the Bible. Although some scholars have argued that authenteō tual truths based on careful faith-based thought.40 Consequently, has positive connotations (“to exercise authority”), these positive their authoritative manner of communication did not ensure the connotations come from later ecclesiastical use (AD 370 and even authority or accuracy of what they communicated. later) and are therefore irrelevant.49 The noun cognate used by If such teachers included Jewish females (such as younger Jewish writers contemporary to Paul clearly has negative connota- widows, 1 Tim 5:11–13), teaching authoritatively would be an tions. For example, Josephus uses authentēs to render “assassins” unusual and desirable opportunity for them. Of course, Jewish (murderers of Galilean Jew[s] on their way to a festival in Jeru- women could be taught and could teach the Scriptures at home, salem).50 Contemporary Roman writers also used authentēs with as Lois and Eunice authoritatively taught Timothy the Old Testa- negative connotations. The historian Appian (AD 95–165) used ment.41 However, Jewish women, unlike Jewish men, were not authentēs for “murderer.”51 Diodorus of Sicily also used authentēs obligated to study rabbinic and Old Testament law, nor did they in negative contexts: “the perpetrators of the sacrilege” and “the receive any merit in studying the law, nor was anyone obligated author of these crimes.”52 Authenteō is similar to the negative

Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No. 4 ◆ Autumn 2032 • 7 type of leadership Jesus portrays for the Gentile rulers (archōn). prototype of an ignorant person who sins, yet receives mercy. In Their leadership is described with two words: katakurieuō and contrast to Eve, Adam often is a prototype of someone who sins, katexousiazō (Matt 20:25), formed from the root preposition “un- but not by means of deception.65 He knew what he was doing. der” (kata), which vividly describes the position of the person be- In Romans 5:12–21 and 1 Corinthians 15:22, Adam is significant ing ruled. Katakurieuō signifies “exercise complete dominion.”53 for what he brought into the world—death. All humans die and Katexousiazō signifies to wield “authority over” or “tyrannize” live in a world of death and suffering because Adam sinned and “over someone.” 54 Liddell and Scott’s Lexicon agrees: authenteō sig- brought death into the world. nifies “to have full power or authority over,” and “commit a mur- How, then, does the illustration of Eve relate to the women at der,” while authentēs refers to a “murderer.” 55 Thus, Paul would be Ephesus? The women at Ephesus were reminiscent of the woman prohibiting women from exercising an absolute power over men in Eden: Eve. The Ephesian women were learning and teaching in such a way as to destroy them. By learning “in silence” (2:11–12), a body of heretical beliefs to others in an autocratic manner, the women at Ephesus will become part of the health-producing and they submitted to heterodox teachers who brought spiritual educational process: learning peacefully, cooperatively, not teach- death to their listeners. Eve, too, had in her time been deceived ing, yet, thereby, not harming their teachers. into believing certain heterodox teachings: if she touched the Why might Paul have chosen to use authenteō (“domineer,” fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, she would be- 2:12) when writing to Ephesus? Artemis of Ephesus was modeled come like God, yet she would not die. She authoritatively passed on the queen bee.56 After the young queen has stung to death on her teachings to Adam. Her eating the fruit symbolized her any other competing queen bees, she leaves the hive on a mating “belief.” Sadly, he learned. He, too, ate the forbidden fruit. The flight. The seven or eight drones who mate with her die because entire state of humanity and nature was affected by their actions: their reproductive organs are torn out after mating.57 Similarly, enslavement to sin and death. Eve’s deception affected the state the cult of Artemis at Ephesus was associated with or actual into which she entered, one of transgression. So, too, if the wom- murder. Artemis could use her arrows to protect, but also to at- en at Ephesus continued in being deceived by false teaching, they tack. One etymology for her name was “slaughterer, butcher.”58 would enter a state of transgression. And, as the earth became Artemis could protect mothers, but also kill them.59 In festivals fallen, so too the church at Ephesus would fall. (Already, some for Artemis, to keep Artemis from slaughtering the partici- women were “turning after Satan” [1 Tim 5:15].) pants, “one must hold to a man’s throat the sword, and spill the Instead, Paul had begun a process to address the educational blood for hallowing and the Goddess’ honour’s sake.”60 Artemis’s limitations imposed on women, especially in such a syncretistic tales were not that different from legends about Amazon war- area as Ephesus, by commanding that the women learn the truth riors, who were required to slay a male enemy before they could so they could understand fully the Christian message and not be marry.61 Catherine Kroeger adds: “In Ephesus women also as- deceived, and, then, when they taught, they would bring spiritual sumed the role of the man-slaying Amazons who had founded life and salvation to their listeners. the cult of Artemis of Ephesus. . . . Evidence of actual human Crete sacrifice has been discovered at the lowest level of the great Ar- temisium.”62 Consequently, authenteō might very well allude to Crete also had a strong emphasis on matriarchy.66 It had one of a traditional destructive pagan feminine principle at Ephesus. the oldest civilizations in the Aegean Sea, “the first great civiliza- However, if women were actually killing men, Paul would have tion on European soil.”67 Although females in Crete did not have used a stronger verb than “I am not permitting.” Rather, he was all the political rights that men had, Minoan Crete women were using authenteō metaphorically to describe destructive attitudes, probably the social equals of men and participated in all activities, women modeling themselves on Artemis, the “slaughterer,” and including the dangerous sport of vaulting over charging bulls.68 on Eve, for, when she ate the fruit forbidden by God, it resulted Perhaps because of this, the women at Ephesus were hav- in death (Gen 3:3–4). I. H. Marshall summarizes: “In the context ing more difficulty with heterodoxy; thus, Timothy had to be a it seems most likely that through their being ‘deceived’ there was model for all believers of orthodoxy (right doctrine), whereas, at a false content to their teaching and that this element included Crete, the elder women could share the educational burden with some kind of emancipatory tendency.”63 Titus. Although Crete had a heterodox teaching similar to the Eve is a prototype of someone who sins because (s)he is de- one in Ephesus, it did not appear to affect the women’s doctrine. ceived: “And so Adam was not deceived, but the woman, having The challenge was to orthopraxy (right action). The opponents been deceived, came (to a state of ) transgression” (1 Tim 2:14). As in Crete were confessing knowledge of God, but their actions did in 1 Timothy 2:13–14, and in 2 Corinthians 11:3, Paul uses Eve as a not demonstrate their beliefs. As Paul lamented, they “profess to prototype for persons who are deceived by Satan’s teachings that know God, but they are denying his works, being abominable lead them away from the truth. In 2 Corinthians, Eve illustrates and disobedient and unacceptable for every good work” (1:16). the danger to the whole church of Corinth, while, in 1 Timothy, Paul’s opponents denied God’s works by not doing them.69 she illustrates the danger for the women at the church in Ephe- The women at Crete, thus, were allowed to be in positions sus.64 However, deception is not limited to women. Paul himself of leadership. To support this point, I will show that Titus 2:2–3 says he was deceived by sin (Rom 7:11). In 1 Timothy 1:16, he is a should be translated “elders” rather than simply “old men and old women”: “(Encourage)70 elders (males) to be sober, honorable,

8 • Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No.4 ◆ Autumn 2013 wise, healthy in faith, in love, in perseverance; (encourage) elders and elders have been found.74 Presbyteros (“elders”), like presbeia (females), likewise, to be in demeanor holy, not slanderous, and (“a delegation”), could represent a person or a group banding to- not enslaved to much wine, teaching what is good, . . .” gether or appointed to ask for a favor, peace, or the resolution of An elder is like a steward or manager (oikonomos, Titus 1:7) differences.75 Thus, a synonym for “elders” was “ambassadors,” who was placed in charge of small or large households to feed people who sought reconciliation.76 Generally, they are presented and oversee the other workers, to make investments, and to in the plural.77 The Jewish Christians appeared to have adapted judge over disputers,71 as exemplified by Joseph as ruler over a the Jewish leadership format (since Christianity did have an Old household and all of Egypt (:10). Moses originally chose Testament basis). elders to be trustworthy, honest judges over groups of a thou- In Titus, “overseer” (episkopos) is a synonym for “elder” (pres- sand, hundred, fifty, and ten (Exod 18:13–26). These judges were byteros, 1:5, 7). Episkopos etymologically signifies “to look upon or chosen by the tribes themselves and were trained by Moses (Deut ov e r.” 78 In :28, “to oversee” includes the function of oversee- 1:9–18). Later, the Lord commanded Moses to gather seventy of ing doctrine and is synonymous with shepherding (also 1 Pet 5:2). these judges so that they too would be filled with the Spirit as The term “elder” probably implied a certain age. Some early Moses was and share his leadership burdens. In addition, the rabbis said thirty was the age for authority, sixty was the age to be Spirit came upon Eldad and Medad, who prophesied in the camp an elder (m.’Abot 5:21). Sixty was also the age for a widow to enter (Num 11:16–17, 24, 26). the church’s order of (1 Tim 5:9). In Greco-Roman times, Jewish elders had authority in reli- What is the relationship between the male (presbytēs) and gious and civic matters. They handled city administration and female (presbytis) “elders” in Titus chapter 2 (2:2–3) and the “el- jurisdiction. The council of elders (and chief priests in Jerusalem, ders” in chapter 1 (presbyteros, 1:5)? These terms go back to the i.e., the Sanhedrin) decided cases of orthodoxy and heterodoxy root presbys (an old person or elder). Presbyteros is the compara- with the power of possible excommunication.72 In a village, one tive of presbys,79 literally, “the older one” or “elder of two,” as in of the elders might be chosen to be “ruler of the synagogue” to Luke 15:25. Presbytēs and presbytis are the masculine and femi- oversee the worship service and the place and represent the con- nine prose forms of presbys. Many English translations render gregation to Roman officials.73 Women “rulers of the synagogue” the forms in chapter 2 as simply age, not church leadership.80

Comparison of qualities in Titus 2:2–10 with those needed for elder and minister/

Presbytēs (2:2) Presbytis (2:3) Nea/neos (2:4–7a) Doulos (2:9–10) (male elders) (female elders) (young) (slaves) 1. sober (nēphalios) 1. in demeanor, holy (2:4–5) Why? 1. to one’s master be subject in (elder, Titus 1:7; 1 Tim 3:2, 3; (hieroprepēs) To encourage young females all (hypotassō) minister/deacon, 1 Tim 3:8, 11) (elder, Titus 1:8) (nea) to 1. love husbands 2. honorable (semnos) 2. not slanderous (diabolos) 2. love children 2. to be well-pleasing (minister/deacon, 1 Tim 3:8) (minister/deacon, 1 Tim 3:11) (elder, Titus 1:6; 1 Tim 3:4–5; (euarestos) minister/deacon 1 Tim 3:12; (elder, Titus 1:7) widow, 1 Tim 5:10) 3. wise (sōphrōn) 3. not enslaved to much wine 3. be wise (sōphrōn) 3. not opposing (antilegō) (elder, Titus 1:8; 1 Tim 3:2) (elder, Titus 1:7; 1 Tim 3:2, 3; (elder, Titus 1:8; 1 Tim 3:2) minister/deacon 1 Tim 3:8, 11) 4. healthy in 4. teaching what is good 4. be pure (hagnos) 4. not misappropriating for a. faith (kalodidaskalos) (elder, Titus 1:8) themselves (nosphizō) (elder, Titus 1:9; minister/ (elder, Titus 1:8; 1 Tim 3:2) (elder, Titus 1:7; 1 Tim 3:3; deacon, 1 Tim 3:11) minister/deacon, 1 Tim 3:8) b. love 5. work at home (oikourgos) 5. showing for themselves (elder, 1 Tim 3:4–5; minister/ every good trust deacon, 1 Tim 3:12) (elder, Titus 1:9; minister/ deacon, 1 Tim 3:11) c. perseverance 6. be good (agathos) Why? honor the teaching (of (elder, Titus 1:7; 1 Tim 3:3) (elder, Titus 1:8) the savior God) in all 7. be subject to own husbands (hypotassō) Why? God’s word not be blasphemed To encourage young males (neōteros) (2:6–8) to be wise (sōphroneō) (elder, Titus 1:8)

Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No. 4 ◆ Autumn 2032 • 9 However, a church leadership position is also possible. In ancient perseverance, holiness (female elders and young women), ability times, deference was given to elders simply because of their age.81 to teach (female elders). All are to be household-oriented, not Second, in the same way as presbyteros could refer to leadership self-pleasing, not disobedient, and not seeking selfish financial positions or to age, presbytēs could refer as well to age or to lead- gain. Yet, the male and female elders have distinctive aspects of ership positions. Although the Bible does have several references their Christian walk to which they had to pay attention. For ex- where presbytēs refers simply to age,82 other references clearly ample, only women in these lists are challenged not to be slander- refer to ambassadors or envoys, as with the “elders” of the ruler ous (Titus 2:3; 1 Tim 3:11).89 from Babylon who visited Hezekiah (2 Chr 32:31) and elders rep- The elders in Titus 2:2–3 were exhorted to develop qualities resenting the Jews to Sparta and to Rome (1 Macc 14:22; 15:17). also highlighted for the church leaders mentioned in 1 Timothy Even the envoys from Rome are called “elders” (2 Macc 11:34). 3:2–12: being sober, wise, well behaved (overseer), and being not Elders (presbytēs) are also mentioned at the city gate where judg- open to attack from others, not devoting themselves to much wine, ments were made in Israel (Job 29:7–8; Lam 5:14). When Paul having sound doctrine, being honorable, sober, and not slander- calls himself presbytēs in Philemon 9, some translators render ers (ministers/). The list for the female elders is connected it “ambassador” (REB, TEV), while others “old man” or “aged” with the list for the male elders by “likewise”: “[encourage] elders (NRSV, NIV, KJV). (female), likewise, to have a holy demeanor, not slanderous, and The feminine presbytis occurs only in Titus 2:3 in the Bible. not enslaved to much wine, teaching what is good” (2:3). Thus, Were women ever called “elder,” implying a leadership position although Paul highlights distinctive qualities for the male and fe- in ancient times? Yes, one heroic “aged” (gēraia) mother of seven male elders, their role as elders is similar. In 1 Timothy, the “like- sons was called by the author of 4 Maccabees an “elder” (pres- wise” indicates that the women are to pray as are the men (2:9), bytis), even though a woman (4 Macc 16:14).83 At Crete, a female, the ministers/deacons must have leadership qualities similar to Sophia of Gortyn, is described on a plaque as “elder (presbytera) the overseer’s (3:8), and the female ministers/deacons must have and ruler of the synagogue.”84 A woman, Mannine of Venosa, leadership qualities similar to those of the male ministers/dea- thirty-eight years old, is described as an “elder” in a cemetery cons (3:11). The “likewise” also indicates that Titus is to encourage in Italy. Bernadette Brooten found six or seven Jewish women the female elders as much as he does the male elders. “elders” spread over a wide geographical area.85 The Shepherd of When the elder women are exhorted to be “holy” (Titus Hermas used presbytis and presbytera as synonyms for the church 2:3), they are being encouraged to act in a manner appropriate (Vision 1 [2:2], Vision 2 [5:3; 8:1]). Female elders must have had to a priestly vocation. The neuter form, , of hieroprepēs,90 leadership in the church,86 because the Synod of Laodicea (343– is always used in the New Testament literally for the temple in 81) forbade any more presbytides being ordained (canon 11). Con- Jerusalem (e.g., Matt 21:23). If indeed all believers are members sequently, Kevin Madigan and Carolyn Osiek found evidence of God’s “holy priesthood,”91 then certainly women elders also for eleven female presbyters dating from the second to the fifth need to act appropriately according to their priestly vocation—in century.87 Atto, of Vercelli (tenth century), summarizes other words, in a holy or reverent manner. that, before the Council of Laodicea (fourth century) “female Instead of wasting their time being drunk, the female elders presbyters” “assumed the office of preaching, leading and teach- are to teach (Titus 2:3). Didaskalos is the same root word used in ing.” They “presided over the churches.”88 1 Timothy 2:12. The difference is that, in Crete, the women are If presbytēs and presbytis in Titus 2:2–3 refer to leadership encouraged to teach what is good (kalodidaskalos), whereas the positions, how do they relate to the qualifications in 1:6–9? In women in Ephesus were forbidden from teaching what is bad.92 the same way as Paul describes the ministers/deacons in 1 Timo- The elder/overseer was to love what is good (philagathos, Titus thy 3:8–10 in a general way first and then goes on to describe 1:8). The next step would be to teach what is good (2:3). the female and male distinctive qualities (3:11, 12), so does Paul Ancient Crete and Sparta were cultures oriented toward war- in Titus first describe the general qualities of an elder/overseer fare. Cretan marriage was a public, state-controlled ceremony (1:6–9) and then goes on to highlight qualities on which the men involving those who belonged to the same age grade and same (2:2) and the women (2:3) need to work. Again in 1 Timothy 3, social class.93 The Cretans were particularly communal. Meals Paul encourages everyone to seek an overseeing office (episkopēs) and sleeping quarters were communal: one for the young men, (3:1), but then delineates the distinctive qualities of overseers another for the young women. Even mature men ate together. In (episkopos) and ministers/deacons (diakonos) (3:2–13). Similarly, Cretan society, the household was of considerable importance.94 the elders, youth, and slaves in Titus 2:2–10 are encouraged to One Minoan palace would sustain hundreds of people.95 The rel- seek positive qualities that would make them eligible to serve as atives and followers would construct their houses radiating out Christian leaders. from the palace at the center.96 However, the wives usually did Many of the qualities needed for elders/overseers in Titus 1:6– not join the husbands’ homes until later when the young women 8 are reiterated in the later lists in Titus 2:2–10: self-controlled had learned how to manage household affairs.97 Most marriages limiting of consumption of intoxicating substances (elders), hon- in all ancient cultures were arranged. For example, in Xenophon’s or, wisdom (male elders, young women and men), faithfulness Oeconomics, the husband says to the wife, “I took you and your (male elders and slaves), love (male elders and young women), parents gave you to me” to obtain “the best partner of home

10 • Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No.4 ◆ Autumn 2013 and children” (Oec 7.11). Thus, love for one’s husband had to be summarize all the previous lists. Younger women are instructed learned. In Titus, Paul places responsibility for the training on to model themselves on the elder women, and Titus is exhorted the female elders. Titus does not teach the women. Husbands do to be a comparable “model” (typos) for the younger men (Titus not teach women (in contrast to Xenophon, Oec 7.8–9), nor do 2:7–8), treating them as “brothers” (1 Tim 5:1). Timothy, though, is mothers, as we might expect. Paul a model to all believers (1 Tim 4:12). wanted Christian models for the aul’s standard of monogamy in marriage stood in Education through modeling is a younger women. He assumed a so- Pcontrast to Roman and Greek standards deeming most effective means of communi- ciety divided by sex when he picked it acceptable for married men to have sexual cation, especially to those who are Christian female elders as teachers. relations with slaves, concubines, or prostitutes. one’s equal.104 Thus, women teaching women was Thus, Paul gave the female elders not a limiting command for women, but, rather, a liberating one. in Crete a key role to teach the young women, one unusual for Paul encouraged the young women to work in the “house- society. It is true that, in Titus 1:6 (as in 1 Tim 3:2), hold” (oikourgos, 2:5). In contrast to postindustrial societies, in the general qualification for an elder/overseer is to be a “one- ancient times, all people worked in the household; as Xenophon woman man,” but this may simply indicate that most Cretan and explains, husband and wife are “partners (koinōnos) in the house- Ephesian elders were men rather than women. A male overseer, if hold (oikos).” Xenophon goes on to explain that men work out- married, must be a man who is faithful and devoted and focused doors, while women work indoors (Oec 7.30); however, the out- on only one woman. In other words, men are to love “their own doors and the indoors are all part of the household. In contrast, wives as their own bodies” (Eph 5:28). Paul’s standard of monoga- the model of an ideal, biblical, capable wife works both outdoors my in marriage stood in contrast to Roman and Greek standards and indoors, as in Proverbs 31:13–27, buying fields, planting vine- deeming it acceptable for married men to have sexual relations yards, and selling garments.98 The women were to be rulers of the with slaves, concubines, or prostitutes. Roman slaves legally never household (according to 1 Tim 5:14), and, thus, would not be idle married; they cohabitated (contubernium). The slaves, however, (1 Tim 5:13). The rabbis agreed that “idleness leads to unchastity” considered their marriages valid. The slave women could not be (R. Eliezer) and “idleness leads to lowness of spirit” (R. Simeon accused of adultery.105 Xenophon assumes a married man could b. Gamaliel, m. Ketub. 5:5). Their basis may be King Lemuel’s have a sexual relationship with a household slave: “When a wife’s mother, who said that the capable wife “does not eat the bread of looks outshine a maid’s, and she is fresher and more becomingly idleness” (Prov 31:27).99 dressed, they’re a ravishing sight, especially when the wife is also Although hypotassō (“being subject,” Titus 2:5) can be used willing to oblige, whereas the girl’s services are compulsory” (Oec for hierarchical relationships, it can also be used for mutual or 10.12). Demosthenes explains, “Mistresses (hetaira) we keep for equal authorities, as prophets who are subject to other prophets, the sake of pleasure, concubines for the daily care of our per- allowing each other to speak and evaluate each other’s message sons, but wives to bear us legitimate106 children and to be faithful (1 Cor 14:29–33), or as Christians to Christians (Eph 5:21), or as guardians of our households” (Neaer 122). Hetairai were “women, the Son and the Father (1 Cor 15:27–28), or as the Corinthians slave or free, who traded their sexual favours for long or short who are served and Stephana’s household who are serving in periods outside wedlock.”107 They could be streetwalkers or ac- ministry (1 Cor 16:15–18). Wives, along with other Christians, are complished courtesans. Adolf Berger and Barry Nicholas explain exhorted to be supportive presences in actions and words. They that Roman law “took cognizance only of adultery by the wife. . . . are respectfully to cooperate with their husbands, treating them Adultery by the husband was never as such a crime, but his illicit as valuable.100 This is particularly important (and challenging) intercourse with a respectable woman constituted the crime of in a society where the father or husband was the paterfamilias or stuprum under the Lex Julia, and in the fifth century (Cod. Just. chief priest who held the power of life and death over the entire 5.17.8) his adultery in the matrimonial home or his adultery with household.101 Aristotle, for example, addresses his words to male a married woman anywhere entitled his wife to divorce him.”108 masters (Politics 1.2.2 [1253b]), but, in contrast, Paul has Titus ad- If a man were faithful and devoted and focused only on his wife, dress his words to females directly (2:3). Aristotle uses the lan- he would have no room in his heart or his time for other intimate guage of one human “ruling” another in the household (archō, female (or male) relationships. Politics 1.2.8, 12 [1254a–b]),102 but Paul does not. In effect, “a one-woman man” (1 Tim 3:2) would be a man who As the female elders are compared to the male elders by the is “joined fast to his wife” and “one flesh” with her.109 Thus, the em- use of “likewise” (2:3), now the male youth are compared to the phasis in the text is not on the gender of overseers being men. A female youth: “encourage the younger ones [probably males],103 man with one wife indicates fidelity in marriage and being devoted likewise, to be wise concerning all, showing yourself a model to the spouse, which is a quality necessary for leadership. A single, of good works, in the teaching—pure, honorable, beyond re- chaste man (or woman) would not contradict Paul’s prescription. proach with a healthy message, in order that any opponent might Such a man yet has no wife to whom to be faithful. If single men be ashamed, not having evil to say concerning us” (2:6–8). The could not be overseers, then Paul, maybe even Timothy, could not young men, like the young women, as well as the elders, are to be overseers. In fact, by this reasoning, Jesus, the greatest “Over- be “wise concerning all” (2:2, 6–7). “Concerning all” appears to seer” of our lives (1 Pet 2:25), could not be an overseer!

Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No. 4 ◆ Autumn 2032 • 11 An additional question to consider is the nature of language Bible Commentary Series (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), 363; that may appear sex-specific, but is in reality generic. If 1 Timo- Fee, 1 Timothy, 186; Kelly, Commentary, 240; Mounce, Pastoral Epistles, 410; Philip H. Towner, The Letters to Timothy and Titus, New Interna- thy 3:2 and Titus 1:6 are sex-specific, how, then, would we inter- tional Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerd- pret Malachi 2:15, “let none be faithless to the wife of his youth” mans, 2006), 724. (RSV)? Does that mean that Malachi allows wives to be faithless 3. E.g., Titus 1:11; 1 Tim 3:4–5, 12; 5:4; 2 Tim 1:16; 4:19. to their husbands? I think not. 4. E.g., Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 10.3–4. 5. Ben Witherington III, Letters and Homilies for Hellenized Chris- Probably, the translations “faithful in marriage” (CEV) or tians I: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on Titus, 1–2 Timothy, and 1–3 “faithful to their spouse” (1 Tim 3:2 CEB) render best the inten- John (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2006), 138. tion of the more literal “a one-woman man.” Further, the over- 6. J. B. Lightfoot, St. Paul’s Epistle to the Philippians (Grand Rapids, seer’s relationship with his (or her) spouse is an important, but MI: Zondervan, 1913), 56–57. not the only, quality for leadership. How can people be faithful 7. Lightfoot, Epistle, 56; Acts 16:13–15, 40; 17:4, 12. 8. Nevertheless, education was not promoted for women, even by and persistent in following God if they cannot be faithful and the wealthy. See Sarah B. Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: persistent in their earthly one-flesh relationship?110 Women in Classical Antiquity (New York, NY: Schocken, 1975), 131, 136–39; Pomeroy, Women in Hellenistic Egypt: From Alexander to Cleopa- Conclusion tra (New York, NY: Schocken, 1984), 66–71; Leanna Goodwater, Women in Antiquity: An Annotated Bibliography (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1975), 15. While the celebrants of Artemis might be encouraged to par- 9. William Tarn, Hellenistic Civilisation, 3rd ed. (New York, NY: ticipate in intoxicated orgiastic practices and the magical con- World, 1952), 98. trol of gods and humans (e.g., Acts 19:19), in contrast, Paul was 10. Pomeroy, Women; Grace Harriet Macurdy, Hellenistic Queens: exhorting self-control, order, and gentleness. Although Ephesus A Study of Woman-Power in Macedonia, Seleucid Syria, and Ptolemaic Egypt, The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Archaeology 14 (Chi- was a place of great wealth, and the heterodox teachers also were cago, IL: Argonaut, 1932). promoting their own financial gain (Titus 1:10–11), the Christian 11. E.g., Mishnah Ketubbot 1:8; 7:6. A woman could be divorced overseers were not to be greedy. Good teaching is essential dur- without financial settlement if she spoke in public with a man. ing times of wrong teaching, controversy, and speculation. 12. Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, and Henry Stuart Jones, A Greek-English Lexicon, 9th ed. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1968, hereafter LSJ), “Apt or skillful at teaching” in 1 Timothy 3:2 is a key character- 1711–12; 1 Cor 3:8–9. istic for an overseer at a time when the church is confused about 13. 2 Cor 1:1, 24; 1 Tim 1:1; 2:7 (Paul: apostle, teacher); Rom 16:21; 1 which teaching is sound and unsound.111 Effective teaching is Thess 3:2; 2 Tim 4:5 (Timothy: evangelist); :32; 2 Cor 1:19, 24 (Silas: often combined with wisdom.112 The women at Ephesus needed prophet); Phil 2:25; 4:2–3; Rom 16:3 (Aída Besançon Spencer, Beyond the Curse: Women Called to Ministry [Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1985], 118–19). to learn (1 Tim 2:11). The women at Crete needed to teach (Titus 14. Phil 1:5; 4:15–19; 2 Cor 8:1–5. 2:3). Believers needed to be taught so they could teach others (2 15. Derek Thomas, “The Place of Women in the Church at Philippi,” Tim 2:2). Teaching is so important that elders who teach should Expository Times (January 1972): 120. be paid more than others (1 Tim 5:17–18). 16. W. M. Ramsay, The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia I (Oxford: In summary, although women were more prominent in these Clarendon, 1895), 5, 7, 94. 17. Ramsay, Cities, 264. secular cultures, the Jewish and Gentile disciples of Jesus did 18. Spencer, Beyond the Curse, 63. not automatically limit their prominence, as in Macedonia and 19. Ramsay, Cities, 118. Crete. In contrast, they assumed the leadership of women in the 20. W. M. Ramsay, Asianic Elements in Greek Civilisation (New churches of Philippi and Crete. Although the women in Ephe- York, NY: AMS, 1927), 172–73, 263, 267, 296. 21. Rick Strelan, Paul, Artemis, and the Jews in Ephesus, Beihefte zur sus in Anatolia also had a heritage of secular leadership, Paul did Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der limit their teaching because they had been affected by negative älteren Kirche 80 (New York, NY: Walter de Gruyter, 1996), 191. Paul aspects of the pagan religions. Instead, he placed them on a pro- Trebilco, Jewish Communities in Asia Minor, Society for New Testament gram to prepare them for leadership through education. What Studies Monograph Series 69 (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 112–26. key principle is, then, above culture? Affirmation and knowledge 22. Pausanias, Description of Greece (Descr.) 4.31.8. of healthy, accurate teaching is what counts above all. The dis- 23. Strelan, Paul, 46. ciples were most concerned with this. They did not travel about 24. Pausanias, Descr. 8. 13.1. teaching distinctive roles for men and for women in the church, 25. Strabo, Geography (Geogr) 14.1.23 [C641]; Jerome Murphy- O’Connor, St. Paul’s Ephesus: Texts and Archaeology (Collegeville, MN: but, rather, right knowledge and action. Liturgical, 2008), 24. Notes 26. Catherine Clark Kroeger, “God/dess of the Past,” The Goddess Revival: A Biblical Response to God(dess) Spirituality, ed. Aída Besançon 1. E.g., William D. Mounce, Word Biblical Commentary 46: Pasto- Spencer et al. (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 1995), 58. Florence May Ben- ral Epistles (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2000), 410; J. N. D. Kelly, nett (Religious Cults Associated with the Amazons [New York, NY: AMS, A Commentary on The Pastoral Epistles, Harper’s New Testament Com- 1967], 19–20, 38–39) adds that effeminate priests and sex confusion were mentary (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1963), 240; Gordon D. Fee, part of the rites of Artemis at Ephesus. See also Richard Clark Kroeger New International Biblical Commentary: 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus (Peabody, and Catherine Clark Kroeger, I Suffer Not a Woman: Rethinking 1 Timo- : Hendrickson, 1988), 186. thy 2:11–15 in Light of Ancient Evidence (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1992), 2. E.g., Luke Timothy Johnson, Letters to Paul’s Delegates: 1 Timothy, 193–96; Ramsay, Cities, 93–94; Ramsay, Asianic, 174. 2 Timothy, Titus, The New Testament in Context (Valley Forge, PA: Trin- 27. “Virgin” may simply refer to being unmarried. Sex is prohibited ity, 1996), 232–33; Samuel Ngewa, 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus, African only between husband and wife (Ramsay, Cities, 95, 136; Strelan, Paul, 73, 120).

12 • Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No.4 ◆ Autumn 2013 28. Pomeroy, Goddesses, 189. Artemidorus Daldianus (of Ephesus) 43. Philo, On the Special Laws 3.31 [169–71]; Against Flaccus 11 [89]; (Onirocritica 4.4) wrote that death is the penalty for a married wom- Spencer, Beyond the Curse, 50. See also Xenophon, Oeconomicus 7.23, 35. an who entered the temple of Artemis of Ephesus; Bennett, Religious 44. Sinclair Hood, The Minoans: The Story of Bronze Age Crete (New Cults, 33. York, NY: Praeger, 1971), 117. The fifteen known women who were high 29. Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae (Deipn.) 12. 525C; Murphy- priests in Ephesus is the largest group known from any city (Strelan, O’Connor, St. Paul’s, 50; Strelan, Paul, 76. Artemis was called “savior” Paul, 120). because her temple was a place of refuge (Colin Hemer, The Letters to the 45. Euripides, Iphigeneia at Tauris, 41. in Their Local Setting, JSNT 11 [Sheffield: JSOT, 46. Bruce W. Winter, Roman Wives, Roman Widows: The Appear- 1986], 48). ance of New Women and the Pauline Communities (Grand Rapids, MI: 30. Webster’s Dictionary 2001: 1155. For an example of the mysteries Eerdmans, 2003), 116. of Artemis, see G. H. R. Horsley and S. R. Llewelyn, eds., New Docu- 47. Winter, Roman Wives, 178. Nevertheless, a few Roman women ments Illustrating Earliest Christianity, 6 (NSW, Australia: Ancient His- gave public speeches (Pomeroy, Goddesses, 175–76). tory Documentary Research Centre, Macquarie University, 1992), 200– 48. Sanford Hull lists the many exegetical difficulties in 1 Tim 2:8– 02. Betz includes samples of ancient spells of power (Hans Dieter Betz, 15 (Gretchen Gaebelein Hull, Equal to Serve: Women and Men in the ed., The in Translation (Chicago, IL: University of Church and Home [Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming Revell, 1987], 259–65). The- Chicago Press, 1986). A second-century Artemis even has zodiac signs saurus Linguae Graecae lists no verb forms of authentein before the third on her chest; Selahattin Erdemgil, Selçuk Ephesus (: Net Turistik century AD. Yayinlar, 2009), 60; Lynn R. LiDonnici, “The Images of Artemis Ephesia 49. See the extensive discussion in Philip B. Payne, Man and Wom- and Greco-Roman Worship: A Reconsideration,” Harvard Theological an, One in Christ: An Exegetical and Theological Study of Paul’s Letters Review 85, no. 4 (Oct. 1992): 407. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), 361–92; Linda Belleville, “Teach- 31. Spencer, Goddess Revival, 82. ing and Usurping Authority: 1 Timothy 2:11–15,” Discovering Biblical 32. Pharmakeia could refer to drugs or witchcraft (LSJ, 1917). The Equality: Complementarity without Hierarchy, 2nd ed. (Downers Grove, Ephesian Six Letters functioned as charms to make the bearers invin- IL: InterVarsity, 2005), 209–17; Kroeger, Suffer, 87–103, 185–88. cible (Athenaeus, Deipn. 12.548c); Murphy-O’Connor, St. Paul’s, 51; Otto 50. Josephus describes Antipater, Herod’s son, as an authentēs be- F. Meinardus, St. Paul in Ephesus and the Cities of and cause he was accused of killing his family members (Jewish War 2.12.5 (New Rochelle, NY: Lycabettus, 1979), 92. [232–40]; 1.30.1 [582]). Philo describes the person who has tried to de- 33. For an example of a syncretistic spell of attraction, see Betz, stroy the virtues as his “own murderer” (That the Worse Attacks the Bet- Greek Magical Papyri, 89. ter 21 [78]). The Wisdom of Solomon describes bad parents as authentai 34. Ronald E. Heine, The Commentaries of Origen and Jerome on St. who “kill defenseless souls by their own hands” (12:6). Paul’s Epistle to the Ephesians, Oxford Early Christian Studies (Oxford: 51. Roman History; Civil Wars 1.7.61; 3.13.115; 4.17.134. Oxford University Press, 2002), 77. 52. Hist. 16.61.1; 16.5.4. Some scholars have posited that the noun 35. Elaine Fantham, et al., Women in the Classical World: Image and and verb have different root meanings, e.g., Andreas J. Köstenberger and Text (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1994), 134; Martin P. Nils- Thomas R. Schreiner, eds., Women in the Church: An Analysis and Ap- son, The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion, plication of 1 Timothy 2:9–15 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2005), 45, 102. 2nd ed. (New York, NY: Biblo and Tannen, 1971), 503, 509. However, the definitive grammarian A. T. Robertson indicates that the 36. Jacquetta Hawkes, Dawn of the Gods (New York, NY: Random: verb authenteō comes from the noun authentēs (A Grammar of the Greek 1968), 286 (picture 126). The Cretan Bacchic frenzy worship continued New Testament in the Light of Historical Research [Nashville, TN: Broad- in Ephesus (Strabo, Geogr. 10.3.7 [C466]; Kroeger, Suffer, 54). The festival man, 1934], 147–48). of Artemis included heavy drinking (Christine Thomas, “At Home in the 53. LSJ, 896. City of Artemis,” Ephesos: of Asia, An Interdisciplinary Ap- 54. LSJ, 924; BDAG, 531. Katakurieuō is used of the demons who proach to Its Archaeology, Religion, and Culture [Valley Forge, PA: Trin- “overpower” the Jewish exorcists so that they are left naked and wound- ity, 1995], 110), though not all aspects of the festivals were unwholesome. ed (Acts 19:16). See Murphy-O’Connor, St. Paul’s, 63, 175, 177, 199; Paul Trebilco, “Asia,” 55. LSJ, 275. Editors Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida agree The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting 2, The Book of Acts in Its that authenteō signifies “to control in a domineering manner” (Greek- Graeco-Roman Setting, ed. David W. J. Gill and Conrad Gempf (Grand English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains I, 2nd Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994): 321–22; Irene Ringwood Arnold, “Festivals ed. [New York, NY: United Bible Societies, 1989], 474). of Ephesus,” American Journal of Archaeology 76 (1972): 17–22. 56. Statues uncovered of Artemis and coins of Ephesus often include 37. “Silence” is emphasized by being placed before the verb in 2:11 the figure of a queen bee, e.g., Peter Scherrer, ed., Ephesus: The New and by being repeated at the end of 2:12. Guide (: Gaphis, 2000), 205, 213; Kroeger, Suffer, 71. See Ephesus 38. E.g., 1 Tim 1:7; 2:11; 2 Tim 3:6–7. Museum, Selçuk, Turkey. 39. Mi shnah ‘Abot 1:17. For more references, see Spencer, Beyond the 57. Charles D. Michener and Mary H. Michener, “Bee,” Collier’s En- Curse, 77–80. cyclopedia 3 (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1987): 763. 40. Noeō (Frederick William Danker, ed., A Greek-English Lexicon of 58. “Artemis,” Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd ed., ed. N. G. L. Ham- the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. [Chica- mond and H. H. Scullard (Oxford: Clarendon, 1970 (hereafter OCD), go, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2000; hereafter BDAG], 674–75; Jo- 126; LSJ, 248; Nilsson, The Minoan-Mycenaen Religion, 509. Another ety- seph Henry Thayer, Thayer’s Greek–English Lexicon of the New Testament mology is “safe and sound” (Artemidorus Daldianus, Oniocritica 2.35; [Marshallton, DE: National Foundation for Christian Education, 1889], Strabo, Geogr 14.1.6). 426–27). For example, Jesus realizes that his disciples have observed 59. In Euripides’s tales, first the angry Artemis demands the sacrifice that, when they eat something, it enters the stomach and then leaves the of the maiden Iphigeneia, daughter of Agamemon, to appease herself body. But, they have not carefully thought that this physical principle (Iphigeneia at Aulis, 89–93) and then snatches her from the altar to make is analogous to a spiritual lesson (Matt 15:16–20). The rabbinic laws of her priestess of her temple in Taurica, north of the . When- purity and impurity directing ways of eating are not what make someone ever any Greek men came to that coast, they were seized and sacrificed. pure (Matt 15:1–20). Faith helps one understand matters spiritually. See Iphigeneia was forced to consecrate them to Artemis for death on the also Heb 11:3; Matt 16:9; 24:15; John 12:40; Rom 1:20; Eph 3:4; 2 Tim 2:7. altar. “I consecrate the victim,” Iphigeneia laments, “in rites of that dark 41. 2 Tim 1:5; 3:14–15. cult wherein Artemis joys—fair is its name alone.” While Artemis barred 42. Mishnah Qiddushin 1:7; Hagigah 1:1; Sukkah 2:8; Spencer, Beyond murderers from her altars, she “yet joys herself in human sacrifice!” the Curse, 47–57.

Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No. 4 ◆ Autumn 2032 • 13 (Euripides, Iphigeneia at Tauris, 35, 40, 381–84). Clement of Alexandria 66. Bennett, Religious Cults, 75; Winter, Roman Wives, 141. refers to these (Exhortation to the Greeks, ch. 3). 67. Cyrus H. Gordon, “Minoan Civilization,” Collier’s Encyclopedia 60. Euripides, Iph. taur., 1458–61. 16: 330. Keith Branigan and Vickers, Hellas: The Civilizations of 61. Herododotus, Hist 4.117; Bennett, Religious Cults, 10–11. Ancient Greece (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1980), 23. 62. Kroeger, Goddess Revival, 58, 61; OCD, 127. Self-castration of the 68. Gordon, “Minoan”: 332–33; Branigan and Vickers, Hellas, 41–43. eunuchs as consecration to the goddess could be a frenzied and bloody 69. See also Titus 2:7, 12–14; 3:1–2, 8, 14. rite (Thomas, Ephesos, 91). See also Kroeger, Suffer, 185. 70. Since the initial noun “elders” is in the accusative (direct object) 63. I. Howard Marshall, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on case, the verb is implied. “Elders” (2:3), “slaves” (2:9), and “the younger the Pastoral Epistles, ICC (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1999), 441–42. Oth- ones” are likewise in the accusative case, but “the younger ones” has a er helpful samples of similar conclusions about 1 Tim 2:11–14: (1) Di- verb “encourage” or “be encouraging,” which likely is the missing verb daskein “forbids women to teach a wrong doctrine.” Paul does not allow in all three sections. a woman “to proclaim herself author of man,” going back to the sense of 71. Matt 24:45–49; 25:21–23; Luke 12:14, 42–44; Acts 7:26–27, 35. authentēs as the responsibility of the subject in the accomplishment of 72. Matt 21:23; 26:3–4, 47, 57; 27:1, 12; John 9:22; 12:42; 16:2; :5– an act or function. 1 Tim 2:12 may prohibit “cultic action involving actual 9; 25:15; mishnah Sanhedrin; Emil Schürer, The History of the Jewish Peo- or representational murder” (Kroeger, Suffer, 81, 99, 103, 185, 192). (2) ple in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 BC–AD 135) II, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T. Authentein has the connotation “to domineer.” Some kind of “disruptive & T. Clark, 1979), 431–35; Lee I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue: The First behavior, which perhaps included boisterous affirmation of the heresies, Thousand Years (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), ch. 5. seems to lie behind these instructions” (Fee, 1 Timothy, 73). See also REB, 73. Luke 13:14; :15. “I do not permit women to teach or dictate to the men,” and CEV, “They 74. Bernadette J. Brooten, Women Leaders in the Ancient Synagogue: should be silent and not be allowed to teach or to tell men what to do” Inscriptional Evidence and Background Issues, Brown Judaic Studies 36 (2:12). (3) The second verb (authenteō) modifies the first verb (didaskō), (Chico: Scholars, 1982), chs. 3, 4; Levine, Synagogue, 482, 486. Trebil- similar in function to a pleonasm or hendiadys: I am not permitting a co, Jewish Communities, 104–25. He notes Rufina (Ionia), Theopempte woman to teach with self-assumed authority over a man. In other words, (Caria), Sophia (Crete), Peristeria (), Rebecca (Thrace), Sara the connecting oude combines two conceptually different elements to Ura (Rome), Makaria Mazauzala (Oea), and Eulogia (). He found express a single idea (Payne, Man and Woman, 337–59). See also TNIV, twenty-one women with titles in ancient synagogues. The prostatēs (Jael, “I do not permit a woman to teach or to assume authority over a man” in Rom 16:2) in some communities was probably “the most im- (2:12). The footnote has, “Or teach a man in a domineering way.” (4) portant official” (109). “Paul is addressing women who have been involved in teaching the her- 75. E.g., Luke 7:2–4; 14:32; 19:14. esy,” or have assumed the teaching role inappropriately “out of a desire to 76. 2 Cor 5:19–20. dominate in the public meeting” (Towner, Letters, 223–24). (5) Paul “con- 77. Peter includes himself as one of many in 1 Pet 5:1, but John simply sidered it inappropriate for women to arrogate authority to themselves. calls himself “the elder” in 2 John 1:1; 3 John 1:1. See also Brooten, Wom- This would explain why Paul did not use the common word for having en Leaders, 53. Christian elders first appear in Acts. Elders in Jerusalem authority, exousiazō, in 1 Tim 2:12” (Walter L. Liefeld, “Women and the receive the gifts collected by Barnabas and Saul (Paul) for the starving Nature of Ministry,” JETS 30:1 [March 1987]: 52). (6) “Paul may here be Christians in Judea (:29–30). As in Crete, at the second visit to warning against a domineering use of authority, rather than merely any new churches in Asia Minor, Paul and Barnabas oversaw the election of use of authority” (Craig S. Keener, Paul, Women, and Wives: Marriage elders in every church (:23). Each church would have more than and Women’s Ministry in the Letters of Paul [Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, one elder (Acts 20:17). The apostles and elders in Jerusalem would decide 1992]: 109). (7) Authenteō is not “gender-specific,” as John Chrysostom questions of heterodoxy versus orthodoxy. The whole church would con- advises husbands not to “be despotic or domineer the woman” (Hom 10 sent to their decision (Acts 15:2–23; 16:4). As the apostles, even Christian Col). The verb “characterizes the nature of the teaching rather than the elders have the responsibility to pray for healing (Jas 5:14; Mark 6:7, 13). role of women in church leadership in general” (Witherington, Letters, 78. Thayer, Greek-English Lexicon, 242. “Elders” and “overseers” are 227–28). (8) “It is inconsistent to regard the dress code in 1 Timothy 2:9 also synonyms in Acts 20:17, 28, and 1 Peter 5:1–2. A. T. Robertson (Word as culturally relative and, therefore, temporary, but the restriction on Pictures in the New Testament III: The [Nashville, TN: women’s ministry in 2:12 as universal and permanent. All these instruc- Broadman, 1930], 217) suggests “elder” was the Jewish name and “over- tions are part of the same paragraph, the same flow of thought” (Rebecca seer” the Greek name for the same office. Merrill Groothuis, Good News for Women: A Biblical Picture of Gender 79. LSJ, 1462; Thayer, Greek-English Lexicon, 535. Equality [Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1997]: 214). (9) “We must resist read- 80. E.g., NRSV, NIV, TNIV, REB, TEV, CEV, NASB, JB have “older ing our way of doing things back into the practice of the early church. men/women.” KJV has “aged men” and “aged women” (2:2–3). Spanish Teaching in the New Testament era was an activity, not an office. . . . It versions do not differentiate between Titus 1:5–6 and 2:2, 3, rendering was a gift, not a position of authority” (Linda L. Belleville, Women Lead- them all “anciano/a,” Reina-Valera 1995, Dios Habla Hoy, Biblia de las ers and the Church: Three Crucial Questions [Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, Américas, Nueva Versión Internacional. 2000], 173). “There is no first-century warrant for translating authentein 81. E.g., Lev 19:32; Deut 28:50; Isa 9:14–15; Wis 2:10. as ‘to exercise authority.’ . . . Rather the sense is the Koine ‘to dominate, 82. E.g., Abraham, Gen 25:8; Jacob, Gen 43:27; Eli, 1 Sam 2:22; 4:18; to get one’s way.’” “To define a purpose or goal actually provides a good Zechariah, Luke 1:18. fit: ‘I do not permit a woman to teach so as to gain mastery over a man,’ 83. See translation by H. Anderson, Old Testament Pseudepigrapha 2 or ‘I do not permit a woman to teach with a view to dominating a man” (New York, NY: Doubleday, 1985), 561. (Belleville, “Teaching and Usurping Authority: 1 Timothy 2:11–15,” Dis- 84. First to fourth century AD; Brooten, Women Leaders, 41. Levine covering Biblical Equality: Complementarity without Hierarchy, 2nd ed. confirms that women have been identified as elders and rulers of the [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2005], 216, 219). synagogue (officials) in the area of Asia Minor and its immediate sur- 64. Hymenaeus and Alexander are punished instead of educated be- roundings: , Crete, Myndos, Thrace, Venosa, Tripolitania, Rome, cause they apparently know they did wrong (1 Tim 1:19–20). and Malta (10 percent of total names mentioned); Ancient Synagogue, 65. Chrysostom (Homiliae in Genesim 17.19) also notes that Eve did 482–83, 487. Greg Horsely (“Early Evidence of Women Officers in the not deceive Adam. Alan G. Padgett agrees that Eve is a type of those who Church,” Priscilla Papers 1 [Fall 1987]: 4) has found numerous examples of are being deceived by false teachers, but, in 1 Tim 2:11–14, Adam is a type female elders. Moreover, even the term presbytera has been used for older of Timothy and Paul’s sound doctrine (As Christ Submits to the Church: women in 1 Tim 5:2. All this data contradicts Mounce’s pronouncement A Biblical Understanding of Leadership and Mutual Submission [Grand that “there was no position of ‘women elders’ in the Pauline churches or Rapids, MI: Baker, 2011], 94, 96, 99). in the second century” (Pastoral Epistles, 270). In Ireland, women were

14 • Priscilla Papers ◆ Vol. 27, No.4 ◆ Autumn 2013 ordained as , for example, Brigid (c. AD 455–525) as a priest and a 99. Keum Ju (Jewel) Hyun notes that Prov 31 foreshadows Paul’s ad- bishop, whose successors were always to have episcopal orders and honor monition in Titus 2:3–5 (“How Titus 2:3–5 May Be Used Today as a Basis due to a bishop, and also Hilda and Beoferlic. Not until the twelfth centu- for Older Women to Mentor Younger Women,” M.A. thesis, Gordon- ry were the dignity and honors of a bishop removed from the titles of the Conwell Theological Seminary, 2001, 55). abbesses of Kildare. Many women in Gaul were also ordained to conduct 100. Aída Spencer, “Peter’s Pedagogical Method in 1 Peter 3:6,” Bul- the Mass (Peter Berresford Ellis, Celtic Women: Women in Celtic Society letin for Biblical Research 10:1 (2000): 110; 1 Pet 2:13, 17; 3:1. and Literature [Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1995], 37–38, 146–47). 101. Spencer, “Pedagogical Method,” 109; Willetts, Ancient Crete, 87. 85. Not until the Council of Laodicea (AD 363) is the order of female Alan G. Padgett, among others, mentions the evangelistic, apologetic, or elders forbidden by some (Brooten, Women Leaders, 43, 45). missionary nature of Paul’s exhortations in Titus, “for the advancement 86. Catherine Clark Kroeger agrees, “presbytēs is best understood of the church in the face of first century opposition” (“The Pauline Ra- as a church officer,” a “female presbyter” (The IVP Women’s Bible Com- tionale for Submission: Biblical Feminism and the hina Clauses of Titus mentary [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2002], 757). 2:1–10,” The Evangelical Quarterly 59:1 (Jan 1987): 50–51; As Christ Sub- 87. Kevin Madigan and Carolyn Osiek, eds., Ordained Women in the mits to the Church, 86–87. Early Church: A Documentary History (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins 102. According to the Cretan Gortyn Code, the father had power University Press, 2005), 210. Ammion, Artemidora, Epiktō, Kalē, Leta, over the children and the property. Strabo, Geogr 10.4.16, 20; Plato, Laws Martia, Flavia Vitalia, and Guilia Runa are mentioned (169–71, 191–98). 1.625C–626A; Aristotle, Politics 2.2.10 [1264a]; 2.6.21 [1271a]; 2.7.3 [1272a]; 88. Madigan and Osiek, Ordained Women, 191–92. The Acts of Philip Willetts, Ancient Crete, 86–87, 111, 113–14, 117, 119. (4–5th c.) assumes male and female presbyters (167). 103. The masculine plural can also serve as the generic, but, since 89. See also Fee, 1 Timothy, 184; Towner, Letters, 722. younger women were earlier mentioned (2:5), younger males are prob- 90. Hieroprepēs is composed of hieros (“holy”) and prepō (“appropri- ably intended in 2:6. ate”). Hieroprepēs signifies “appropriate to a sacred place.” It is a synonym 104. Only Timothy and Titus are singled out as individual cowork- for semnos (Titus 2:2). It can refer to a temple, e.g., the “sacred precinct” of ers who are patterns (typos) to be followed. a temple of the Mother of the gods (Strabo, Geogr 12.5.3 [C567]) or to a per- 105. Pomeroy, Goddesses, 193; Fantham, Women, 300, 306, 323; Win- son, e.g., a “sacred youth” who died heroically for his faith (4 Macc 9:25). ter, Roman Wives, 41. 91. Hierateuma and hiereus, 1 Pet 2:5; Rev 1:6; 5:10; Exod 19:6 LXX; 106. “Legitimate” (gnēsiōs) is the same term used for Timothy and Isa 61:6. Walter Lock writes, “they are to carry into daily life the demean- Titus by Paul (1 Tim 1:2; Titus 1:4). or of priestesses in a temple.” A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on 107. “Hetairiai,” OCD, 512. the Pastoral Epistles, ICC (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1924), 140. See also 108. “Adultery,” OCD, 10–11. Jewish law also contains, according to Fee, 1 Timothy, 186; Towner, Letters, 723; Witherington, Letters, 137. Tai Ilan, “no definition of or provision against adultery by the husband 92. 1 Tim 1:3, 7; 4:7; 5:13–14. against his wife, since he may marry more than one woman; the wife, on 93. An exception would be a minor who was allowed to marry an the other hand, must remain strictly faithful to her husband. The only heiress who could be even as young as twelve to safeguard the house- way a man can commit adultery is with another man’s wife.” Jewish Wom- hold’s interests. en in Greco-Roman Palestine (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995), 135. 94. R. F. Willetts, Ancient Crete: A Social History, From Early Times 109. Matt 19:5–6; Gen 2:24. For a discussion of the meaning of “one Until the Roman Occupation, Studies in Social History (Toronto: Univer- flesh,” see Spencer, et al., Marriage at the Crossroads: Couples in Conver- sity of Toronto Press, 1965), 48. sation about Discipleship, Gender Roles, Decision Making, and Intimacy 95. Jacquetta Hawkes, Dawn of the Gods (New York, NY: Random, (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2009), 25–31. 1968), 52, 55, 58. 110. See also 1 John 4:20. 96. Gordon, “Minoan Civilization,” 334. 111. 1 Tim 1:10; 2 Tim 4:3–4; Titus 1:9. 97. Spartans could not live with their wives until the men were thirty 112. E.g., Jas 3:1, 13, 15, 17 sophia; :25 sōphrosunē. years of age (Strabo, Geogr 10.4.20 [C482]; Willetts, Ancient Crete, 112–14). 98. The Shulammite also is a vineyard keeper (Song 1:6) and, as well, Rachel was a shepherd (Gen 29:9). Prisca and Aquila had a joint busi- ness (Acts 18:3).

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