Before Postnationalism: Supernationalism, Modernisme, and Catalonia

Brad Epps is Professor of To wish class or nation away, to seek to live sheer Romance Languages and irreducible difference now in the manner of some con- Literatures at Harvard temporary poststrucuralist theory, is to play straight University. He has pub- into the hands of the oppressor. lished over fifty articles on —Terry Eagleton modern literature, film, art, and architecture from Introduction: An Alluring Proposition Spain, Latin America, Ca- talonia, and France and is the author of Significant ostnationalism may well be a lure, and a late Violence: Oppression and capitalist one at that. It serves, within an in- Resistance in the Narratives Pcreasingly anxious intellectual market, as a sign of Juan Goytisolo (Oxford that sells. And what it sells, ever so symbolically, is UP). He is currently prepar- nothing less than the promise of a new world, free from ing two books: Daring to the narcissism of small differences and the fanaticism Write, on gay and lesbian of big identities, beyond the pettiness of borders and issues in Latin America, the grandeur of patriotic projects. Postnationalism Spain, and Latino cultures shimmers seductively as a way out of so many nagging in the United States, and Barcelona and Beyond, on problems, so much sacrifice and violence, so much di- modern Catalan culture. visive love and ironclad hatred. Ample as its bounds He is also co-editing two may be, it is arguably related less to internationalism, volumes, one with Luis in the Marxian sense, than to multinationalism, where Fernández Cifuentes, Spain globalization is of capital importance indeed. Even if Beyond Spain: Modernity, the concept is taken less dramatically as indicating a Literary History, and Na- crisis in strong understandings of national identity, even tional Identity, and another if it is taken as more descriptive than prescriptive, it with Keja Valens, Passing nonetheless suggests a world order in which national- Lines: Immigration and ism is out of sync with new material technologies, modes (Homo)sexuality. of information, and markets. However superannuated it may seem to some, nationalism, in all its conten-

Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies Volume 7, 2003 136 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

tious guises, remains rigorously current nationalism is not only charged but also for many more. As Immanuel Wallerstein overstated. Far from being mutually ex- asserts, “[t]here is no question that, at the clusive, nationalism and postnationalism present time, nationalism in general […] are in many respects complementary—one is a remarkably strong world cultural highly successful Western construction force,” stronger now, he continues, “than entailing another, so far less successful and any other mode of social expression or more anxiously Western construction. The collective mentality,” with the possible repercussions of such constructions for exception of religion, to which it is so of- what is not the West, or not quite the ten bound (314). Even Eric Hobsbawm, West, are serious, but so too are the re- who writes of the decline of nationalism percussions for the West itself—its frayed as an historical force, notes that “there is yet persistent European core. no foreseeable limit to the further advance For nationalism is by no means in- of national separatism” (163). There is operative in contemporary Europe; nor, also, of course, no foreseeable limit to na- despite its more ardent detractors, is it tional consolidation and expansion, most operative only as violence or the threat of spectacularly that of the United States of violence. And postnationalism, however America in its various wars against terror- operative it may be, is not devoid of a vio- ism. lence of its own: the violence of discount- And yet, obviously, there is some ing the differences between established question as to the strength, sweep, and and aspirant nation-states or indeed of future of nationalism, a question posed placing a violent burden of proof on as- by the very existence of something called pirant nationalisms.1 The violence of “postnationalism.” As term and concept, postnationalism is, in other words, that “postinternationalism” also exists, as well of silencing, forgetting, or otherwise es- as “postcapitalism,” and perhaps, though chewing the violence by which such sov- I have yet to see it, “postmultinational- ereign designations as Spain, France, or ism.” Whatever the case, the proliferation the United Kingdom—let alone the of the “post” is as dizzying as it is undeni- United States—have been maintained, are able. Postinternationalism, as formulated maintained. It is also the violence of ad- by James Rosenau and his followers, takes vancing a world order in which the cul- as its motivating force the insufficiency of prit, the source of so many ills, is figured the sovereign state of Westphalian Europe not as capitalism, but as nationalism pure to account for the dynamics of contempo- and simple. Symbolic as much of this vio- rary global politics. Postnationalism ap- lence is, it can be, in its effects, quite real. pears to be similarly motivated, though Martin Matustík, in a gripping study on the accent tends to fall on the dangers of postnational identity, critical theory, and nationalism (its violence, racism, sexism, existential philosophy, explicitly links na- and so on) rather than on the limitations tionalism to racism and sexism, but of the established analytical protocols of tellingly decouples it from capitalism.2 international relations theorists. The ethi- “Where once the communist nomencla- copolitical, even moral, tenor of postna- tura and free markets competed for the tionalism is such that the contrast with global pledge of allegiance,” Matustík Brad Epps 137 writes, “now nationalist identity and reli- ation. Put more emphatically, it is worth gious and secular fundamentalism fill in considering postnationalism, its under- the void created on our world-historical standing of space, subjectivity, power, and, stage” (vi). The free market has “beaten” perhaps most critically, cultural history. the communist competition, which, as The postmodern penchant for the prefix only so much nomenclatura, apparently “post” sends me back, then, to other pen- did not have much of a chance in the first chants, other signs, ostensibly before the place. The resulting void—which is not a “post”: to modernism and nationalism, void but rather the deceptive fullness of specifically in and around Catalonia.3 The the so-called free market—is filled, a little geopolitical specificity is not beside the too conveniently, by nationalism. Not point, for it would be facile, or all too only are the connections between com- imperious, to suggest that the national and munism and nationalism—not interna- postnational, despite their general thrust, tionalism, but nationalism—elided, so too were the same the world over, that they are the connections between the free mar- “took place” without significant variants. ket and nationalism, including the resur- For some, Catalonia is a nation without a gence of nationalism that attends the state, and hence uneasy about the scope much trumpeted triumph of the world of the nation-state called Spain and the market. At any rate, in Matustík’s presen- scope of Spanish nationalism, let alone tation, nationalism calls for its own evacu- about the implications of Spanish post- ation, its own voidance. Capitalism, how- nationalism—as distinct from global ever, can apparently stay put. postnationalism or postnationalism un- For Matustík, the voidance—or bound.4 This is tense terrain, suffused with avoidance—of nationalism is most suc- dreams and desires, where the intellectual cinctly articulated as postnationalism, a is buckled by the emotional and where “deromanticized and political view of na- neutrality, as usual, is fraught with per- tion, which Julia Kristeva appropriately sonal problems, both individual and col- designates Nations without Nationalism” lective.5 In order to negotiate this terrain (vii). Never mind the romanticism that and to push at its penchant for strong inheres in “nations without nationalism,” terms, famous names, and non-literary nor, for that matter, the conflation, via protocols, I will examine a number of rela- nods to bell hooks and Cornell West, of tively little-known works, literary and oth- ethno-racial separatism and national sepa- erwise, by Prudenci Bertrana, Pompeius ratism in toto, Matustík’s call to another Gener, Domènec Martí i Julià, and other “new spring of the nations” (vii) is as poi- Catalan modernistes, paying special atten- gnant as it is flawed. Among other things, tion to (inter)national affiliations and to it underestimates the role of capitalism another once strong term, “supernation- and overestimates the role of existential alism.” In so doing, I hope to put forth a philosophy. And yet, such hopeful, well partial prehistory of postnationalism that meaning investments in the critique and might give us pause before assuming, in elimination of sexism, racism, and other spite of all the sophisticated theoretical harmful ideologies in the name of post- caveats about temporality, the “post” to nationalism cannot but merit consider- be either so new or so sure of success. 138 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

Uneasy in Catalonia: dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera, Superseding Modernisme Franco-Spanish colonialist cooperation in Morocco, beginning in earnest in 1925, leads to the defeat of Abd el krim, leader Sabia, però, fer-me perdonar, i no eren menys addictes aquells de qui més of what Raymond Carr has called “vague malparlava. Berber nationalism” or “Rif ‘nationalism’” —Prudenci Bertrana, Jo! Memòries (573, 574), in May 1926. Bertrana’s novel d’un metge filòsof appears therefore at a moment that critics now take to be decisive for Catalan na- My entry into a postmodernist-in- tional culture. It is not, however, Bertrana’s flected postnationalism takes the form, literary debut. That had taken place in then, of an examination of a modernist- 1906 (when Bertrana was already around inflected supernationalism, articulated in the age of forty), with a short novel of a number of essays by Pompeius Gener morbid eroticism and obsession titled and shadowed forth, rather differently, in Josafat. Replete with a Quasimodo-like a relatively minor novel by Prudenci Ber- bell keeper and the rotting cadaver of a trana. Jo! Memòries d’un metge filòsof, ap- prostitute, Bertrana’s little novel caused pears in 1925, long after the heyday of quite a stir, particularly in the author’s modernisme and long before the heyday of native Girona, and went on to be canon- postmodernism, at least as it is generally ized in Catalan letters as the work of a understood today.6 By 1925, anti-mod- modernist who suffered marginalization, ernist noucentisme, with its emphasis on poverty, and persecution.8 civic control and classicism, is also on the Bertrana’s trajectory, his personal wane, its principal proponent in the realm image, his “geni i figura,” contrasts with of culture, Eugeni d’Ors, having moved that of Gaudí, a man renowned for his to Madrid in 1920. In 1925, Josep Maria almost messianic commitment to God, de Sagarra and Carles Riba propel a de- Catalonia, and art. It also contrasts with bate about the status of the novel to the that of Rusiñol, a man celebrated by center of Catalan culture, a debate that is Rubén Darío and others as a cosmopoli- also, even primarily, about the status of tan connoisseur, an all-in-all successful Catalonia itself: a nation presumably in chap, the occasional bout of illness, doubt, need of a novel. Less than a year later, and and depression notwithstanding. Gaudí’s as if a major change had been sealed, a “success” is by now beyond dispute, his tram runs over the premier modernist ar- buildings having become obligatory sites chitect, Antoni Gaudí, who, taken for a for visitors from all over the world. Rusi- beggar, is carted off to die. The year that ñol’s Cau Ferrat, with its collection of Gaudí dies, 1926, the Catalan intelligen- wrought iron, tapestries, ceramics, and tsia pays homage to Santiago Rusiñol, one art—including paintings by a newly ap- of the movers and shakers of modernisme, preciated El Greco—remains as palpable in a commemorative act held in Sitges, testimony to Rusiñol’s “success.”9 Today the same coastal town where, years be- a museum open to the public, the Cau fore, in 1893, the first Festa Modernista Ferrat is one of the main cultural sites of was held.7 On a wider front, under the Sitges, a town that, rather like Province- Brad Epps 139 town, Massachusetts, is hard-pressed to bility only for the introduction and for remind its visitors that there is more to it having than sand and surf and sex. Josep Pla ends his rather personalized study of the artist desxifrat, ordenat i revestit amb el meu by claiming that: vulgar estil unes notes embrionàries, inconnexes i subtils que, per un atzar Rusiñol, malgrat haver estat molt providencial, arribaren a les meves sol.licitat, no volgué tenir en vida mo- mans. (11) nument. Però, ja mort, li elevaren monuments i bustos i el seu nom fou Bertrana, “l’autor,” presents himself as escrit en pedres, marbres i bronzes. more a scribe and editor than a creator, a (308) sort of organizing principle that brings together the disparate materials that com- Whatever the play of life and death, suc- prise the “Memòries,” whose author, we cess and failure, Rusiñol has attained a read, is a doctor named Daniel Pérez, an monumentality that, while not as impos- individual fond of speaking ill of others— ing as Gaudí’s, certainly outstrips Bertra- and of other nations. The play of authors na’s, in relation to whom it is almost im- and identities is important, because Daniel possible to speak of monumentality. Pérez is based on Diego (or Dídac) Ruiz, Bertrana has no Cau Ferrat, and today his a real-life acquaintance of Bertrana and works, his literary works—he was also a author in his own right.10 Identification painter, but again less successful than proves treacherous, however, for Pérez/ Rusiñol—hardly abound in even the best Ruiz necessarily snakes back on Bertrana, of bookstores in Barcelona, the city he rendering his assertions as to the author- loved to hate. Translations, even of Josafat, ship of the text suspect: are virtually non-existent. Bertrana’s relative obscurity after his death is forged, as refuso, des d’ara, en absolut, tota con- it were, in his lifetime, for the writer did comitància ideològica amb el doctor not exactly enjoy an unbroken, ascendant Daniel Pérez […]. El seu Jo, amb ma- trajectory. Jo! Memòries d’un metge filòsof júscula, no té res a veure amb el meu appears, thus, in a context not just of jo, amb minúscula. (11) Spanish colonial exercise and Catalan cultural reexamination but also of deeply Part of the refusal of any ideological over- personal and professional frustration. The lap is extratextually motivated. Aurora text, published after some thirteen years Bertrana, Bertrana’s daughter and author of “silence” on the part of its author, gives of Paradisos oceànics (1930) and El Marroc fractured testimony to this context and sensual i fanàtic (1936), calls her father’s remits the reader to it. novel “una venjança,” a work of personal Though autobiographically marked, revenge (Obres completes xxix). Apparently, the “Jo” of the title is not Bertrana’s, at Prudenci Bertrana felt that Ruiz had done least if the author of the “advertiment” is him a great disservice, duped him even, to be believed. By way of the device of the by getting him to collaborate on a little found manuscript, Bertrana distances work titled La locura de Álvarez de Castro himself from the text, claiming responsi- (1910) aimed at belittling the reputation 140 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

of the general who had defended Girona timent,” call him Bertrana or not, identi- in 1808 against the French. The work was fies himself as one of the perpetually be- not well received, to say the least. The fic- lated: “homes com jo que mai han anat a tional Daniel Pérez’s penchant for speak- l’hora” (11). The author is a latecomer, ing badly of others in his quest for fame— “mancat d’inventiva” (12), and as such he of which more, later—thus implicates not is far from being the up-to-date, cutting- only Dídac Ruiz but Prudenci Bertrana edge, innovator, at the forefront of moder- as well. But there is more than a begrudg- nisme or the avant-garde.11 Rather than ing play of personalities here. The autho- priority or anteriority, the temporality of rial I’s that punctuate the prologue invoke this endeavor—so dependent on chance, a divided subject and a contested author- lateness, and the work of others—is some- ity that reflect and refract, however unwit- thing like posteriority, related in turn to tingly, the aforementioned cultural debates posterity, to a succession of generations about the state of Catalan letters and, in- (or degeneration) and, through transfer- deed, of Catalonia, as nation, itself. ence, to future fame and recognition. The The “Memòries” of Pérez, “doctor dictionary serves me here, for, in poster- philosopher” and embattled man of Cata- ity, future fame is deferred fame, future lan letters, are fraught with ruin, found recognition delayed recognition, long in by Bertrana because lost, ordered because coming and, hence, susceptible to mis- disordered, placed into circulation because recognition. Jo! is thus a text marked by misplaced. The putatively ruinous state the “post” and conjures up a sort of post- of the “Memòries” may explain, in part, nationalism avant la lettre, but a postna- why Bertrana is so concerned about dis- tionalism rife, as we shall see, with hatred tancing himself from the text, why he does and narcissism, with the drag of national- not want to have his name slip into Pérez’s, ist difference. and why he resists assuming the role of Language, rather predictably, is here autobiographer. But the ruinous state of critical. Jo! is written in a vibrant Catalan. the mind whence the “Memòries” issue Bertrana, an avid hunter, would report- may also be a factor. Daniel Pérez, even- edly go “hunting” for words, an exercise tually entrusted with the management of by no means unique to him, especially a mental asylum, is not a man of sound given the contested state of the Catalan mind, and it makes sense for Bertrana to language before, and indeed even after, the doctor the doctor’s writing, to set it normative measures of Pompeu Fabra and straight, or as straight as he can, and to others in the first decades of the twenti- be done with it. I want to stress that I use eth century.12 Among the many words he Bertrana’s name as a troubled convenience comes upon, “Pérez,” the last name of the and that I am reluctant to identify the “Jo” of the “Memòries,” is one of them. A author of the “advertiment,” blithely, as great deal can lie in a name, and “Pérez,” Bertrana. My reluctance, however, cannot with a “z,” names a subject that does not but mirror that of the author of the quite fit, that does not quite translate into “advertiment,” the scribe and editor, the Catalan. And yet, perhaps for that rea- subject who deciphers, who interprets. Be son, it names a subject that seems to trans- that as it may, the author of the “adver- late all too well: Brad Epps 141

La meva celebritat era indiscutible celebration of racial purity is as secure as dintre Catalunya. Cert que llavors ens it is small minded: Catalonia must be trobàvem en plena resurreció de beyond Catalonia so as to return, rein- l’ànima catalana. Al nacionalisme, li vigorated, as Catalonia. The morphology calien genis, figures, eminències de tota llei, per a oposar a les de l’Espanya cas- of this civic folktale turns too on a depar- tellana. Els dramaturgs, el novel.listes, ture and a return: d’Ors invents a prodi- els sociòlegs, el metges i els filòsofs gal daughter who, in her goings and havien de completar la tasca dels comings, saves rather than spends and who poetes, iniciada ja de temps. De lírics, settles down to make a “proper” Catalan n’hi havia prou, d’altres en mancaven. home. Daniel Pérez, in contrast, is a man (16) who comes to waste his life and who in- spires Catalans because his origins are not The supposed surfeit of poets, noted by Catalan: he is born neither in Catalonia Sagarra around the same time that the nor to Catalan parents. In fact, his mani- novel appears, must be countered and festly “impure” origins, given voice in ev- corrected through the cultivation of nov- ery utterance of his name, the patronymic elists, doctors, and philosophers, among “hijo de Pedro,” are, as he puts it, “un altre others. motiu d’enlairament” (16). So far, so good: the text is all in all Pérez, or rather his proper name, is quite consistent with the debates on cause for Catalanist celebration precisely Catalan culture of the mid-twenties. But because it does not designate a Catalan there is a wrinkle, a telling one. Daniel subject: Pérez, doctor and philosopher, is both what is lacking and what is needed in Catalonia, Jo no era català. No us diré d’on era indeed in Catalan nationalism: Daniel per no desmentir el fals origen que jo Pérez, non-Catalan doctor and philoso- mateix, sarcàsticament, a fi de moles- pher, composer of a work of personal tar el meu oncle—un famós catedràtic memories that functions as a novel, a molt conegut pel seu furibund espa- Catalan novel. Now, it is not just by be- nyolisme—vaig atribuir-me. (16) ing born outside of Catalonia that one can become a great inspiration to Catalonia. Pérez is not of Catalan origin, and After all, Ramon Perés, credited with the his “real” origin, the origin of his family first positive use of the word modernista, name, is teasingly retained from the is born in Cuba to Catalan parents, and, reader. He preserves instead a false origin, in fiction, Eugeni d’Ors’s ideal Catalan one he has attributed to himself and whose muse, la Teresa, La ben plantada, from the function is to annoy his españolista uncle— work of the same name (1911), is born in a famous professor, as famous, perhaps, as the symbolically laden Asunción, Para- Miguel de Unamuno. Speculation aside, guay.13 But if d’Ors noucentista ideal the retention of presumably basic infor- comes from America, it, or she, comes mation about a particular individual and from Catalans in America, Catalans from the compensatory admission of false, sar- Catalonia, born and bred there: “Alegria! castic attributes in a work whose tone is Tot, tot s’ha salvat. La Raça és, en l’admi- confessional suggests a mise en question of rable criatura, puríssima” (60). D’Ors’s national identity in general. In Bertrana’s 142 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

text, national identity is in some basic claims that he is, still yet, a man without sense always improper, a play of proper a country: “Segueixo sense patria” (191). names in which the assumed, conventional Switzerland, Pérez’s last articulated desti- correspondence between subject, place, nation, is a confederation, a plurilingual and blood is broken, ruined, lost. “Pérez” nation known for its neutrality (reaffirmed is not Catalan, at least not originally; that in 1920 by the Declaration of London, we do know. Whatever its true, precise in connection with the League of Nations) origins, it designates not so much a local- and relative prosperity: but these are not izable native as an unlocalizable, errant the reasons Pérez gives for going there.14 alien. Julia Kristeva, writing in a language For Pérez says he goes to Switzerland in (French) that is not her first, states that order to speak badly (malparlar) of the “[t]he cult of origins is a hate reaction” French, just as he had gone to France to (2), hatred both of others and, more tor- speak badly of the Catalans, just as he had tuously, of oneself. Kristeva’s statement is gone to Catalonia to speak badly of the an overstatement, broad, unqualified, and Spaniards, the Spanish-speaking Span- uncompromising, and as such, interest- iards. Pérez might have gone to Belgium ingly enough, it is relevant to Bertrana’s or Germany or Italy, because a certain text. For Pérez is also given to broad state- geopolitical contiguity appears to be at ments in which something local is de- work in his travels; unlike his wife and ployed, rather generally, at once to per- her lover, he travels by land, not by sea. turb and to reinstate something univer- Pérez moves from one country to another, sal. Pérez does not evince a cult of origins; from one to the next, and brings the bor- instead he breaks (with) origins, sets them ders of Europe into doleful relief. The man in motion. He is an iconoclast, not an without a country, the exile and expatri- iconolator, of natural origins and proper ate, the vagabond—the title of another of names. Which does not mean that he does Bertrana’s texts—and the would-be cos- not hate, that his “anti-cult” is not a hate mopolitan, hungry for recognition and reaction too: remember that Pérez’s adop- fame, is here, in these transnational move- tive Catalanism, tied to his desire for in- ments, ultimately so out of disdain, dis- tellectual fame, is a reaction to his already gust, resentment, and revenge. National- famous intellectual uncle’s Spanish nation- ity and national identity allow for a chain alism. Kristeva also writes of the hatred of of meanness, so many ways in which the origins as the “matching opposite” of the human, cut apart and nationalized, can cult of origins, thereby pressing home the speak badly of itself, hate itself, and try to problematic “nature” of repression, flight, overcome itself by way of “international” and disavowal (3). The opposites may not crossings. Love of one’s country gives way literally match, may not really be true in Jo! to hatred of all countries, to a desire opposites at all, but they do provide a to leave them all behind. postmodern indication of Pérez’s modern, Pérez, in Bertrana’s hands, presents belatedly modern, dilemma. himself as a “un jueu errant, empès per At the very end of the text, Pérez re- una ansietat i per una paciència morboses” counts how he left Catalonia for France (191). The figure of the wandering Jew is and then France for Switzerland and ex- overdetermined, certainly by the time Brad Epps 143

Bertrana is writing, peppering both fic- notes how Barrés’s thought is “organized” tion and non-fiction alike. Even Darío had by “broad dichotomies” that include: styled himself “el judío errante de La Na- ción” (59), in reference to the Argentine nationalism vs. ‘cosmopolitanism’ (read paper for which he was writing. Old and ‘the Jewish menace’), traditionalism vs. overused as it is, the figure brings to mind déracinement, patriotism vs. egotism, in the modern tradition not merely Eu- collective energy vs. individualistic gene Sue’s Le juif errant (1844-45), but waste. (119) also, and more elliptically, Maurice Barrés’s Les déracinés (1897), the first part of a tril- The cult of the I, so resonant for Bertrana’s ogy significantly titled Le Roman de text, is tempered, in Suleiman’s exposition l’énergie nationale.15 Whatever the force of of Barrés, by the cult of the we, under- his fiction, Barrés is arguably even more stood here as a collectivity of like-minded famous for his assertions, born out of the and “like-blooded” individuals. What Dreyfus affair, that the intellectual is es- makes Barrés germane to a reading of sentially uprooted, unrooted, and errant. Bertrana is not, however, the cult of the I For Barrés, uprootedness is not a positive alone, but also the ways in which the fig- quality; quite the contrary, it is both the ure of the (wandering) Jew acquires national cause and the effect of a serious depletion significance in an international frame. In of “national energy,” a matter of dissolu- one European nation after another, the Jew tion and decay, a phenomenon to be com- is other than the “I,” other than the “we,” bated at all cost. Against a presumably as if personal pronouns, both singular and uprooted intellectualism Barrés advances plural, were always already coopted. The a renewed appreciation of sentiment, dynamic, if such it can be called, appar- rooted in the individual subject. Tellingly, ently holds, at least in Bertrana’s rendition, as a means of warding off what he takes to for those European nations which are not be the dissolution of French society, Barrés yet established, which aspire to statehood. engages in a cult of the I, a “culte du moi.” Catalonia is thus implicated in a univer- As Eric Cahm remarks, “[d]ans un monde salism whose nationalist vectors are charged en décadence, le moi restait le seul point with racism and, more specifically, anti- de repère solide. Il fallait donc l’affirmation Semitism. And yet, the advent of the in- du moi contre les ‘Barbares’ oppresseurs” tellectual, tied to the Dreyfus affair and, in (85). So, against wandering Jews and er- Spain, the “affaire Montjuïc” (the impris- rant intellectuals, Barrés champions a sen- onment, torture, and execution of anar- timentally inflected nationalism in which chists and suspected anarchists), compli- the firmly situated I, the land, and the cates this scenario. As Carlos Serrano notes, dead (who return to the land) have su- the intellectual first appears, between 1895 preme value (Cahm 174). We are, it seems, and 1900, as a contestatory subject, criti- far from Bertrana’s Pérez. cal of the established order, political stag- Barrés’s nationalist stance leads him, nation, militarism, and anti-Semitism, “un in a logic as ineluctable as it is specious, claro producto del traumático final del to advocate the resistance to, and expul- siglo” (86). sion of, so-called foreign influences. It is By 1925, the intellectual is a firmly along these lines that Susan Suleiman established, even somewhat stagnant, cat- 144 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

egory of identity, one that Pérez simulta- nothing particularly good to say about neously takes on and disrupts. The after- Switzerland or “la pròdiga Amèrica” (192) effects of fin-de-siècle trauma, to use either. What is more, his ultimate battle Serrano’s phrase, persist, but the identifi- seems to be with Catholicism, if not in- cation of the intellectual with the critic of deed Christianity in general. The final anti-Semitism, exaggerated in the first lines of the text toy with a peaceful resolu- place, is likewise disrupted. Pérez is clearly tion: “una amnistia per al àngels rebel.lats” not a rooted subject, a steadfast national- and “tot l’element católic espera [un] tractat ist, or an essentialist intellectual, but that de pau” (192). It toys with resolution, but does not mean that he is easy and at home only to undercut it with a declaration of with the Jews. After all, Pérez deploys a exacerbated, estranged, highly individu- language that, for all its comic wildness, alistic war: “Jo sóc el Papa de l’Anticrist engages some of the most virulent strains damunt la terra, o no sóc res” (193). The of anti-Semitism. Specifically, Pérez claims declaration, made in Switzerland as a to have sojourned in “totes les sinagogues memorable epilogue to a collection of i sanedrins del que podríem anomenar memoirs written in Catalan, supposedly judaisme intel.lectual, raça ingrata i cruel, twelve years earlier in Paris, resonates with maleïda del Senyor” (191). This “race” is previous authoritative declarations. It reso- (also) without a state, an uprooted nation nates with Jaume Brossa’s declaration, reviled by a religion whose embrace is written originally in Castilian, that Cata- decidedly less than loving. The hateful lonia “o serà moderna o no existirà;”16 with religion is, in this context, Catholicism, Torras i Bages’s “Catalunya serà cristiana similarly bound to all sorts of national and o no serà;”17 and with Zola’s “la République transnational projects. One accursed race sera naturaliste ou elle ne sera pas.”18 For recalls another, for the Catalans are also Cacho Viu, who brings the preceding presented, from the very outset of the text, three declarations together, the two Cata- as “una raça baixa i transhumant” (17). lan ones are positivist diagnoses, one on The text thus establishes a connection behalf of modernity and the other on be- between the Jewish “race” and the Catalan half of religious tradition (x). Positivist or “race,” a connection already established in not, they are declarations whose all or the racialist and racist discourse of many nothing, either/or, love/hate structure centralists (and more than a few Catalan- leaves little room for negotiation or com- ists), who deploy anti-Semitic topics promise. They function as condensed about money and miserliness to put manifestos that continue well into the Catalan economic success in (im)proper avant-garde, itself so given to manifestos, perspective. Pérez, remember, is neither with André Breton’s “la beauté sera con- Catalan nor Jewish, and his condescend- vulsive ou ne sera pas” (190) being per- ing flirtation with both “races,” his pass- haps the most famous example.19 ing identification with them and with re- Among so many declarations about lated modes of nationalism and intellec- being and not being, so many uncompro- tualism, must itself be put in perspective. mising utterances and ultimatums, Pérez’s For however much he comes to in- declaration stands out for its openly per- sult Catalans and Jews, Pérez also insults sonal, present, and reprobate character: the Spaniards and the French, and has “I am something negative” (the Pope of Brad Epps 145 the Anti-Christ) rather than “it will be inmodestia casi grotesca, se presenta something positive” (modern, Christian, en términos megalomaníacos como un naturalist, convulsively beautiful). One filósofo de categoría excepcional. (107) person’s negative can be another person’s positive, needless to say, and narcissism Similar remarks have been made about can inhabit both, can even benefit from Ruiz’s contemporary, the dictator, Primo 20 condemnation, from reprobation. As de Rivera. But Ruiz is not a dictator, Jacques Lacan puts it, the character—or however authoritative and fitfully sure of dimension—of the reprobate “n’a rien de himself he may be. In an erratic little text narcissiquement si désavantageux” (VIII titled Missatge a Macià published in the 21 398). The “I,” the “Jo,” that so emphati- first year of the Second Republic, Ruiz cally graces the cover of Bertrana’s text— describes the world as follows: “Jo!,” with an exclamation mark—is pur- chased, so to speak, through an act of op- és la Jungla de les Interjeccions! D’on position and rebellion. It is a narcissistic van modulant-se, aquí y allà, algunes rares, raríssimes consciències. Poques. act in which the “Jo” is paradoxically el- Sempre molt poques. Això sí que evated by courting condemnation, by set- s’administra a gotes i a dosi refracta. ting the stage for a damnable posterity: “I ‘Jo’... ‘Je’... ‘Ich’... am the pope of the anti-Christ or I am ‘Yo’... ‘Io’... ‘Ego’... ‘I’... nothing at all.” Lacan’s observation is part Tot això és crit de dolor. És conat de of a lengthy seminar on transference, but batre el Temps. De vence’l Tot és un I adduce it here to point to the embattled, ¡Ay! modulat. I tot ha dit, diu o dirà contested state of individuation vis-à-vis ‘jo.’ (36) modes of collective identification. Against nation-states established and unestab- The connections with the title of Bertrana’s lished, against Judaism and Christianity, text are unmistakable, that “Jo” prefigures against family, friends, and strangers, this one, this one refigures that one, in a Bertrana’s protagonist is a subject whose prepositional relay that implicates both self-proclaimed superiority is suffused authors yet again: after the fall of the dic- with sarcasm—mean spirited, ridiculous, tator and on the threshold of a new, en- and maddeningly insistent. A “metge thusiastic, but ultimately short-lived Re- filòsof,” Pérez openly declares himself “el publican order. filòsof de la blasfèmia, l’invencible erudit, Ruiz was fond of the word “enthusi- el lluitador i el sarcàstic” (156). asm,” to the point that Sobejano calls him It would therefore appear that “el vocero del entusiasmo […] poco vin- Bertrana’s Daniel Pérez does indeed re- culado a fines nacionales” (466). Enthu- semble his historical counterpart, Diego siastic about the I, Ruiz is deeply suspi- Ruiz, at least as others have figured him. cious of national ends and origins, of all Gonzalo Sobejano, in his masterful study that which pretends to situate, ground, of Nietzsche in Spain, provides a concise, or root the I, all that which tries to take it unambiguous verbal portrait: out of the wildness of a highly figurative jungle and domesticate it, render it de- Ruiz, doblemente llevado por su mo- clarative, deaden it.22 Little wonder, then, cedad y su catalanismo adoptivo a una that in the flurry of interjections, the “Jo” 146 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

(or “jo”) moans and groans in so many Maragall, author of a number of passion- European languages, seeking not stabil- ate, poetic defenses of Catalonia, is the ity but mobility, not acceptance, comfort, first to translate Nietzsche—into Catalan and conformity, but dissension, discom- and Spanish—and to disseminate, even fort, and a rare, preciously rare, difference domesticate, the German’s thoughts, giv- beyond nationalism. Reproof, rebuke, cen- ing notice of him in La Vanguardia and sure, and so on are the hallmarks of this elsewhere. Maragall’s “Elogi de la paraula,” subject, one that is not one, or not simply though written after the high point of the one (because prone to a polyglot schizo- Catalan’s fascination with the German, is phrenia), and that is not, for all that, with- an example of a “corrected” Nietzsche, a out psychic benefit, as Lacan might put vitalist excursion into humanist territory it. But something moans yet. A Lacanian in which community and Christianity are take may be justified, but another con- not gainsaid but preserved, even elevated. troversial authority, this one known to Such reconciliation could not long hold, Bertrana, to Ruiz, and arguably to Pérez, and Maragall grows increasingly disen- is more apposite: Nietzsche. chanted with Nietzsche. But with Gener, as with Ruiz, neither of whom enjoys the Uneasy out of Catalonia: fame of Maragall, things are quite differ- 23 Superseding Nationalism ent. Pompeius (or Pompeyo) Gener, whom Ruiz derides for his “chapucerías” Some are born posthumously. (cited in Sobejano 109), was the son of a —Nietzsche, The Anti-Christ pharmacist, editor of Valentí Almirall’s L’Estat Català (1869-1873), and president There is more than a drop of Nietzsche of La Joventut Federalista. A pharmacist in Pérez’s rantings. The repudiation of the himself, Gener is another intellectual—a Judeo-Christian tradition, regardless of the philosopher, a “metge filòsof”—affiliated, rifts between the two; the feverish defense albeit ambivalently, with the modernist of the individual in extremis, and an ironi- movement. Gener died in 1920, five years cally attenuated vitalism: the marks of Pé- before the publication of Bertrana’s text. rez’s identity bear the mark of Nietzsche. But at the turn of the century, in 1900 to The significance of Nietzsche is disputed, be exact, he published a series of articles of course, and yet it stands still as one of on the subject of “supernationalism,” the mainstays of modernisme. Sobejano some in the Spanish papers, Vida Nueva makes the link explicit: and Nuestro Tiempo, and others in Joventut. Born in 1848, Gener was not a young man Nietzsche empieza a ser conocido en when he published in such “youthful” and España gracias al movimiento modernista de Barcelona y concretamente a “innovative” reviews, but chronological la fecunda curiosidad de dos escritores age in and of itself did not seem to mat- catalanes que no pertenecen a la joven ter. A good part of the modernist move- generación de Rusiñol, sino a la inme- ment is marked by an intergenerational diatamente anterior: Joan Maragall y dynamic that renders the fixations on Pompeyo Gener. (37) youth and the obsessions with innovation Brad Epps 147 more flexible and figurative than might him all but lost to the world. Gener’s pre- otherwise be imagined. The barriers of age, occupation with the world, and with his of generations, might be overcome, that place in it, does not lead him to interject is, just as the barriers and borders of na- the I in the variegated manner of Ruiz, tions might be overcome, through an but to note its ascendancy in modern imaginative, transformative exercise of the Catalonia: “Tot ha tendit a donar impor- will. For Gener, like Ruiz later on, made tància al jo, a la personalitat, i després a la much of the will and worked strenuously raça” (“La qüestió catalana” 275). Yet Ge- to carve out a space of prominence for him- ner also suggests that the importance at- self and his ideas. That he failed to do so tributed to the “jo” has its risks. For him, and slipped into obscurity—nationally, let the risk is not how the celebration of a alone internationally—even before he was particular I may slip into the celebration dead only heightens the connections with of a particular race, not how personalism Pérez/Ruiz and, for that matter, with may feed racism, but how the I, rendered Bertrana. famous, can engender moves on the part Years before Gener published his ar- of those less famous to know and expose ticles on supernationalism, Clarín, in one it. Towards the end of his Literaturas of his “Paliques,” had wondered about malsanas, Gener writes of an “enfermedad Gener’s whereabouts, “¿dónde anda ése?” universal” that he associates with journal- (137). Clarín was apparently concerned not ism, to wit, its reported desire to expose so much to find Gener as to reassure him- “cada detalle del último crímen que self that Gener was in fact no longer to be espeluzna, y cada indiscreción de la vida found. Clarín had lamented that Gener, privada que tiembla el orbe” (363, em- before his eclipse, had introduced to Spain: phasis original). Darío had also con- tended, as a correspondent for La Nación, la manida novedad del superhombre, with the problems of journalism, but sin haber él entendido, por supuesto, Gener attacks the medium with a fervor el pensamiento del príncipe filósofo que explicó… hasta cierto punto, la of an entirely different sort. Gener’s is a teoría de esa humanidad superior. long, positivist-inflected study that, as (137) Sobejano insists, contains entire sections lifted from Nietzsche’s work on Wagner Interestingly, Darío had also wondered (41, 157, 163). Be that as it may, Gener about Gener’s whereabouts, but unlike here expresses concerns that are less philo- Clarín he did hope to find him and even- sophical than sociological, concerns that tually did. Darío’s inquiries, however, at dovetail the questions of personality, po- first come to naught: “se me dijo que a ése sition, and posterity that run throughout no le buscase, pues solamente la casuali- Bertrana’s text. dad podría hacer que le encontrara” (40). Gener is troubled by the publica- It is intriguing that two such famous and tion of the diaries and letters of Flaubert, different writers as Clarín and Darío would Michelet, Proudhon, and others as symp- wonder where Gener might be, and that tomatic of the expansion of journalism. both would, for opposite reasons, declare He winces at the idea that: 148 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

[c]uando un gran escritor muere, los important as it is overlooked. For as Cacho rapporters [sic] cual cuervos voraces Viu reminds us, Catalanism is not, his- échanse sobre su cadáver, lo descuar- torically speaking, always the same as na- tizan y lo roen antes que los gusanos. tionalism, the latter being frequently (371) saddled with a traditionalism that is not shared, at least at first, by many Catalan- So incensed is he by this “profanación ists, most notably Almirall. We might do póstuma” that he calls for laws “en todas well to recall the hesitation over nomen- las naciones cultas” to prohibit it (371). clature among Catalans, the debates sur- If this is positivism, it is of a special sort rounding terms now largely taken for because it posits a need to curtail obser- granted, totalized, and then rejected or vation (371). Gener’s expressed purpose, accepted, superseded or reaffirmed. Cata- summed up in the title of the final sec- lans are here linked explicitly to a super- tion, is to advance an “aesthetic therapy” national project, however Utopian, that that would cure the ills of modern soci- entails the deepening, expansion, and, fi- ety, including those of knowing, and nally, transcendence of Catalonia and wanting to know, as much as possible Catalanism, but also of the nation and about the life, and whereabouts, of indi- nationalism in general. The admiration of viduals. Such “expoliaciones póstumas” all that is good, all that is superior (reso- (372), he contends, must be nipped in nant, by the way, in Maragall’s defense of the bud. It may be indiscreet to tie Gener’s Iberianism), is what distinguishes, in criticisms of curiosity and visibility to his Gener’s eyes, supernationalism from a own reported reticence to be found. And more egalitarian, democratic, and level- it may be temerarious to weave a long ing internationalism (“La qüestió catalana” work from 1894 on something “ill,” Lite- 270). Gener’s language is in many respects raturas malsanas, into short articles from Nietzschean, with “supernacional” bound, 1900 on something “healthy.” But I do as another one of Gener’s texts makes clear, so for a reason. No stranger to the cel- to “superhome” (“Els supernacionals” 226) ebratory rhetoric of individualism, Gener or “Übermensch;” but his sense of history nonetheless spins it in an interesting way. is arguably more Hegelian and, as Sobejano Tersely put, the individual, as a nation- convincingly argues, deeply humanist, ally located subject, must be dislocated if even philanthropic (156-61). In Gener’s the national is to give way to the superna- formulation, furthermore, there is less a tional. The I must be obscured, lost, if it return, or some willful affirmation of a re- is to be found anew, if it is to be better. turn in a Nietzschean sense, than an up- The formulation of supernational- ward movement, “una marxa ascendent” ism is, however, more direct than I have (“Els supernacionals” 225), out of and indicated: “A més d’ésser Catalans de cor away from death, decay, and putrefaction. som SUPERNACIONALS, com que ad- Not surprisingly, death is figured as mirem tot lo bo sense distinció de nacio- Spain, a state supposedly anchored in the nalitat” (231, emphasis original). Gener’s past, while life is figured as the aspirant whole-hearted Catalans might be Catalan- Catalan movement, a supernational move- ists, but they are not, for that reason, nec- ment in which movement is understood essarily nationalists. The distinction is as as struggle: Brad Epps 149

Els Supernacionals sabem que tot el Such formulations have been deployed to món és moviment i lluita, que l’única justify the unity of Spain after Franco and manera de crear la Nova Pátria Supe- are not, appearances notwithstanding, be- rior és lluitar per estendre la vida i ele- yond partisan politics.25 The “separation” var l’especie humana dins la vida of terms and concepts is obviously valu- mateixa. La pau només s’obté després del triomf. (226) able, but should not be validated forth- with, as if there were absolutely no coin- Gener’s supernationalism is heady stuff, cidences or overlaps. Matustík, advocat- but possibly no less heady than postna- ing postnationalism, makes similar sepa- tionalism, at least if the latter is taken as rations, only more forcefully: having no national, much less nationalist, origins, as leaving all locations, all na- ‘supernationalism’ supplements dis- courses of particular differences and tions, behind. Gener’s presentation of su- ‘supranationalism’ engenders discours- pernationalism, which foreshadows, as it es of ‘racist internationalism’ such as were, Bertrana’s, or Pérez’s, mise en ques- the secular ‘frontiers of an ideal hu- tion of nationalism and cosmopolitanism,24 manity’ or those of religious integra- raises questions about the ways in which tions. (viii) such terms and concepts are imbricated. Deirdre Curtin, in a 1997 inaugural ad- In both cases, interestingly, postnation- dress as Chair of the Law of International alism is winnowed out of the mess of op- Organizations, in Utrecht, Holland, in- pressive ideologies, cleansed of any both- sists that “postnational,” though only re- ersome contamination, and ironically of- cently placed in circulation, “must be dis- fered, in the process, as the latest of “cher- tinguished from ‘supranational,’ ‘interna- ished concepts.” tional’ etc.” (51, n. 220). For Curtin, su- And yet, postnationalism is by no pranationalism—here interchangeable means free of a nasty, nagging racialist and with supernationalism: racist particularism that masquerades as universalism or, as Wallerstein contends, is premised on the idea that the na- that endures as one of the hallmarks of tion-state can be recreated at a larger universalism. Both Curtin and Matustík, geo-institutional scale, ‘super-national- like a number of others who champion ism,’ which does not eliminate the postnationalism, are focused on Europe, understandings behind nationalism as the “new” Europe, the European Union. such but simply makes a shift in scale. It is dubious, at best, to assume that the (52, emphasis original) European Union does not aspire, in its negotiated and fissured wholeness, to be Against this scale-sensitive model, Curtin a “super-nation-state.” Borders are still situates postnationalism, which she claims: policed; people are still interdicted at sea, denied entry, quarantined, interned, and is about separating out a number of our most elided concepts cherished deported or repatriated; bodies of would- within the nation-state. It presupposes be immigrants still catch in the fences that national (cultural) plurality can along Ceuta and Melilla, still suffocate in coexist alongside with [sic] political the holds of ships, still wash up on the unity. (52) shores of continental Spain. Postnation- 150 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

alism, in Spain, in Europe—a situated, and a strongly racialist understanding of delimited postnationalism, mind you— nationality and, by extension, superna- must yet contend with the suspicion that tionality. Thus, while claiming that su- it is a competitive, compensatory strat- pernationalism transcends national bor- egy, born out of war and ruin, but also, ders, Gener nonetheless enforces these lest we forget, out of the struggle to main- boundaries in the final lines of “Els su- tain and develop markets, world-wide. If pernacionals de Catalunya.” Invoking a its originary context is post-war Germany “República aristàrquica mediterrània,” and the fractured nationalism therein,26 Gener invokes a European Republic that postnationalism has expanded into a more does not admit of separatism but that in- unified, yet still strongly delimited, real- stitutes instead a complex sort of unity ity. It hovers over a unified Europe, one and integration. “No som separatistes,” he that studies requests to enter and to be- declares, “Marxem mirant cap endavant, long, requests not just by particular indi- cap a Europa. En tot cas, els separatistes viduals, but by particular nation-states: seran els que es quedin enrere, mirant cap Turkey, Morocco, and so on. Faced with a l’Àfrica” (227). The racialist, if not rac- such expansive participatory demands, ist, tenor of these statements, according such anxious desires to be part of it and to which Africa is effectively totalized and its economic and political power, Europe, consigned to the dustbin of history, is not the European Union, responds by invok- without currency. For Africa continues to ing, among other things, a naturalized be adduced as the most intractable of notion of geography, itself almost insepa- continents, resistant to progress and de- rable from a fetishized understanding of a velopment, anxiously out of the scope of name: “Europe.” According to this still “realistic” multinational interests and in- vibrant logic, Turkey is partly European; vestments, a locale that is still, in gen- Cyprus, a divided island, partly or even eral, resistant to globalization. But there entirely European; Morocco—Ceuta and is more. In Gener’s rendition, Africa is not Melilla not withstanding—not European just Africa, really and literally; it is also a at all. Some nations, in short, seem to be figure for Spain, the rest of Spain, sans more “postnational” than others are, and Catalonia. Spain as Africa, but also, lest this complicates matters quite a bit. the play of analogies be too simple, Matustík’s remarks about the racist Catalonia as Poland and Catalans as Jews particularism of supernationalism and and Phoenicians: the figures are well worn supranationalism bear heeding, but only but still quite current. Something is in- if postnationalism is questioned, seriously deed rotten in the state of Denmark. questioned, too. At any rate, Matustík’s I have said that Gener’s superna- suspicions are well founded, as an exami- tional propositions are heady, but they nation of Gener’s work makes clear. Ge- might also be taken—and in fact have been ner’s articles, published a hundred years taken—as crazy. The rhetoric of sanity and ago, remain instructive, because even as insanity, reason and madness, sickness and Gener claims that supernationalism tran- health hounds the diffuse yet intense re- scends national boundaries, he invokes ception, both positive and negative, of Aryan superiority (“Resurrecció” 240) Nietzsche’s work in Spain. Gener is espe- Brad Epps 151 cially implicated, and Sobejano, for one, and her daughter away from her husband. is relentless in his criticisms of him. Ac- Rozas is the most prominent in a fairly cording to the critic, Gener, believing in long list of secondary characters, a list that the deification of humanity, does not un- includes a degenerate German, a taciturn derstand Nietzsche; he plagiarizes him; Frenchmen from Rosselló, and a lascivi- he presents himself as prior to him; he is ous, globe-trotting Portuguese. The lat- more properly a disciple of Renan; he con- ter is the most similar to Rozas, for he too fuses, misinterprets, mixes, and falsifies lays siege, as Pérez puts it, to Pérez’s wife (40-45, 156-73). For Sobejano, Gener is Merceditas. Both suitors eventually meet a secondary figure who merits attention with Pérez’s opposition, but the good doc- primarily for having been one of the first tor tolerates quite a bit for at least two intellectuals to introduce Nietzsche into reasons. First, Pérez expresses an overween- Spain. Sobejano is by no means alone in ing interest in the misfits and outcasts of his assessment, though others, as Consuelo society: “[s]ofria una fatal atracció pels Triviño observes, had for a time a more depravats i poca-soltes, mentre m’adulessin positive take on Gener’s contributions to i es supeditessin a la meva voluntat” (82). Catalan culture. Regardless, the rather Second, he sees an opportunity for his own maddening profile of Gener is striking. personal, intellectual advancement in the The profile of Diego Ruiz is not so differ- linguistic capabilities of his foreign ac- ent, merely more direct: Ruiz is, as men- quaintances: tioned, presumably megalomaniacal, gro- tesquely immodest, given to composing el que la Merceditas feia amb els gats i works designated as a type of “extravío gossos, jo ho feia amb els estrangers filosófico” (466). Having read these writ- exiliats o rodamons. Ultra resultar-me ers, I take the point; there does seem to pintorescs, una vaga idea d’aprofitar- me’n per a traduir les meves obres i be a hint of madness here, but to say so universalitzar-les i ensems d’esbravar without reservation is to ignore how psy- la meva disposició poliglota me’ls feia chological assessments implicate not only indispensables. (76) those who make them (implicitly posi- tioned as sane and healthy) but also the Pérez’s professed desire to be universal, to history of ideas itself. have his work and his life translated into The problem of psychological evalu- all the tongues of the world, does not ation and historical documentation bears translate, in turn, into something truly on Bertrana’s text as well. Daniel Pérez is, transubjective, let alone selfless. Pérez as I have already remarked, a man who pursues what Wallerstein has called a self- practically loses his mind (if it were not centered universalism (xx), an almost im- already lost before) while minding a mad- perial expansion of the self beyond the house. The madhouse is not merely the presumed pettiness of nations. Foolhardy psychiatric hospital that he ostensibly di- as this may sound, it is nonetheless con- rects but also, and by no small measure, sistent with the workings of fame, intel- his own home sweet home, where a man lectual fame most definitely included. The named Rozas rubs up a little too closely fame that Pérez imagines has, however, to Pérez’s wife and seduces her, taking her deep genealogical roots. After all, his life’s 152 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

work is in the field of phrenopathy, and the first prefix (“anti”) designating prima- he tends to understand intellectual rily an opposition, a struggling with, and achievement in terms of an inherited fail- the second (“super”) an overcoming, a ure to adapt. Darwinism is preserved, but going beyond. Ruiz indicates as much twisted into Decadence, so that the sur- when he declares in his Super-Christ that vival of the fittest, or at least the bright- the superior being is not the superman, est, becomes the survival of the misfit: “jo “terme indecís i pobre en conseqüències,” classificava el geni entre les herències but the “ultravertebrat,” the ultraverte- morboses” (85). Such taxonomic practice brate (188). The term “ultravertebrate” is has considerable comic effect. Referring itself rather indecís, but it does have rich to one of his acquaintances, Pérez dead- and unexpected resonances, the most no- pans: “sa germana havia comès un infan- table being Ortega y Gasset’s España inver- ticidi, i ja era una dada favorable” (85). tebrada, published in 1922, only a few Turning bourgeois scientific culture on its years before the “Memòries,” in which head, Pérez makes superiority a function Ortega attempts to grapple with the seem- of congenital inferiority and brilliance a ingly intractable “problem of Spain.” At function of degradation. Like nationality, the same time, “being beyond” or “being “geni i figura” are subjected in Bertrana’s above” (“super”) has long entailed “being text to ironic replay, undeniably funny and against” (“anti”). It is scarcely daring to yet also quite serious. The presentation of say that, in the mind of many, it is by secondary characters is, on this score, illu- opposition that something is overcome. minating, but it is in the epilogue that the Even when it is thought that it is by avoid- question of nationality is most incisively ing opposition, by circumventing or ig- developed and allows for the most com- noring it, that something is overcome, the pelling relays to supernationalism. two are tied, however spectrally, together. The epilogue, as a summation of the Super-Christ and Anti-Christ enable, protagonist’s national(ist) travels and tra- then, a relay that includes supernational- vails, is brief, perhaps as brief as the “espai ism and the implicit antinationalism de lucidesa” (191) that allows Pérez to (which haunts, as I am obviously suggest- present himself as the pope of the Anti- ing, postnationalism). The madness that Christ. The reference is most compellingly saturates Jo! and that implicates so many to Nietzsche’s work, Der Anti-Christ other writers and texts might recall, as I (1895), but by way of Diego Ruiz’s have intimated, the tensely positive ratio- Diàlegs y màximes del Super-Christ [sic] nalization of irrationalism, or at least of (1911). Ruiz, as Sobejano notes, had writ- the irrationalism that flecks, in the opin- ten a prologue for the 1907 Spanish ver- ion of some, the supernationalism Gener sion of Nietzsche’s text, El Anticristo (107). so fervently endorses. Pérez, Ruiz, and The title Ruiz chooses for his own work, Gener, the fictional and the historical, Super-Christ—long before Jesus Christ Su- might just serve as figures who question perstar—signals, however, a revision. In the the rationality of nationalism or who lay play of prefixes, “anti” and “super” func- bare, through a sort of parodic assump- tion almost interchangeably, at least at first tion, the irrationality of nationalism and blush. For there is obviously a difference, its overcoming. Brad Epps 153

There were also, to be sure, negative cal severity (from Aristarkhos, a severe critic psychological valorizations not only of of Homeric poetry). The term bears, fur- Gener and Ruiz, but also of Nietzsche thermore, a certain conceptual similarity himself. Maragall’s worries in that respect to the noucentista doctrine of aribitrarisme, have already been mentioned. But Mara- or estètica arbitrària, which has little to do gall was by no means Nietzsche’s most with the present-day understanding of negative critic. For a truly negative cri- arbitrariness and everything to do with tique, we might turn to Domènec Martí i arbitration, with authoritative, even au- Julià, director of the Phrenopathic Insti- thoritarian, acts of judgment, evaluation, tute (1909-1915), founding member of and critique. La Joventut Democràtica Federalista, and The terms, ever expanding, are criti- subsequent director of Unió Catalanista. cal. Nationalism, for Martí i Julià, is re- For Martí i Julià, Nietzsche’s is a thought lated to internationalism; more precisely against thought, the mad thought of a it presupposes international relations: madman given to dilettantism, sadism, “suposa ademés vida de relació interna- sickness, unbridled individualism, and cional” (314). In a way, Martí i Julià’s for- imperialism. Of all the charges against the mulation provides yet another connection German, the last one, imperialism, may with Gener’s formulation of a national- be the most devastating, and is certainly ism bound to the supreme good of other one of the most complex, for it gives yet nationalisms in and as supernationalism, another twist to the national and nation- but without the visible Nietzschean bag- alist question. According to Martí i Julià, gage. Five years may make quite a difference in the “fate” of a concept, but more l’aristarquia de l’individu és ben cert than nationalism and its contemporane- l’objectiu natural de l’home, mes ningú ous variants—internationalism, superna- pot defensar que la vera aristarquia sia tionalism, and antinationalism—are at la nietzscheniana [sic], sia la concebuda stake here. For Martí i Julià, the danger is per un esperit tocat de bogeria. I l’imperialisme moderníssim no és altre que not nationalism, or even some unarticu- l’individualisme nietzschenià aplicat lated supernationalism, but imperialism, als organismes col.lectius. (314) which he, in a language closer to our own, ties to plutocracy and militarism, brute In Martí i Julià’s article, published in 1905 force and violence rationalized in the name in the very same Joventut in which Gener of sovereignty. This might be all quite easy published his, Nietzsche’s madness, his to process, if it were not for the fact that “bogeria,”27 is associated with a sort of it is around the very same time that Enric supernationalism run amok. It is a super- Prat de la Riba is formulating a national- nationalism in which the supernational ism not in opposition to imperialism, but subject, the superman, effectively sets at as its condition of possibility, its desired naught any truly transcendent project by condition of possibility. Prat’s extraordi- rushing into imperialism. Martí i Julià narily influential La nacionalitat catalana does not deploy the term supernacional, (1906) traces an ascendant march that but he, like Gener, does make use of culminates, ideally, in imperialism. The aristarquia, a term which is related to criti- modern Republic that Gener invokes is, 154 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

under Prat and d’Ors, the modern Em- Barcelona as the center—or at least a cen- pire, whose classicism and “heliomàquia”28 ter—of an expansive, enlightened empire. are ever so studiously brought up to date: D’Ors’s conception of nationalism, at once “l’imperialisme és el període triomfal d’un appreciative and critical, is clearly in tune nacionalisme: del nacionalisme d’un gran with Prat’s. Both men see imperialism as poble” (108). the triumphant period, or episode, of na- Eugeni d’Ors, for his part, explic- tionalism and regionalism; both men ad- itly associates imperialism with superna- vance the vision of “un gran poble” whose tionalism, political expansion, and the grandeur is measured in terms of the union reconstruction of the city, in an article on or alliance, as among equals, of similar Norway published in 1905. For d’Ors, “grans pobles.” imperialism is the effect of (a delimited) From the nationalism of “una raça solidarity and synthesis, the unification baixa i transhumant” to the nationalism of (a certain) humanity in a superior, civic of “un gran poble” there is quite a stretch, mode. D’Ors’s imperialism is, as he him- and one cannot but wonder if Bertrana’s self describes it, aggressive, forceful, and text, published almost two decades after interventionist. It keeps faith in the “su- Prat’s, does not constitute a sarcastic and perior comunitat mística” that is, for “blasphemous” response to it. Whatever d’Ors, Humanity as conceived by Rome. the case may be, Prat acknowledges, some- Humanity outstrips political borders, but what elegiacally, that not every people, needs arbitration, the enlightened direc- not every nation, can attain the moment tion of the “civilized.” Imperialist Cata- of imperial splendor, “la florida imperia- lonia, like Imperialist Norway, designates, lista” (111). More importantly, he dissoci- then, the ideal of a future unity out of dif- ates imperialism from militarism and asso- ference, a future pact between sovereign ciates it instead with “civilization,” under- equals (“Noruega” 307).29 In neither case stood as symbolic and material production. is nationalism the objective, only the Prat sketches three kinds of imperialism: means. In that sense, d’Ors actually pre- “l’imperialisme salvatge d’Orient” in which sents himself as critical of nationalism, material force and violence predominate; inasmuch as “el Nacionalisme no és sub- “l’imperialisme sa i fecund, però incom- stancialment altra cosa que el Regiona- plet, de Grècia” in which the force of civi- lisme: una manifestació de la força disgre- lization, of culture, alone is deployed; and gatòria” (“Noruega” 305, n. 3). With na- “l’imperialisme modern, l’imperialisme tionalism and regionalism related and “di- integral, el de les grans races fortes d’ara” minished” as almost interchangeable in which the force of culture is served and phases in an imperial project, separatism, sustained—“servida i sostinguda”—by autonomy, and independence are likewise material force (111). Tellingly, modern put in their place as so many “episodes.”30 imperialism brings Prat, enamored of the The humanist tenor of d’Ors’s argument, Mediterranean, to the decidedly non- profoundly indebted to an idealized figu- Mediterranean United States. Prat praises ration of Imperial Rome, and hence to a Roosevelt and calls for Catalans to become supposedly superior Mediterranean model, Americans, North Americans—“Siguem subtends d’Ors’s dream of reconstructing americans. Eduquem-nos a Amèrica i a Brad Epps 155 l’americana. Res d’europeïtzar-se” (110). Nothing succeeds like failure, or so the Prat’s call might be contrasted with Pérez’s saying goes. Pérez’s ineffectiveness—funny more ironic reference to “la pròdiga and sad, silly and serious—might serve as Amèrica,” the place to where his wife, their a message of caution, mad though it may daughter, and Rozas emigrate—only to be, to those who would embrace yet an- drown, near Bermuda, before getting other term and concept, “postnation- there.31 Prat’s America is clearly not alism,” as a way out of the damage done in Darío’s or José Martí’s or Bertrana’s and the name of the nation, in the name of points to a different international picture, nationalism. Nationalism, transnation- from Europe and beyond Europe, in which alism, internationalism, multinationalism, the newest imperial power looms large. supernationalism, antinationalism, post- Whether one accepts Prat’s dissociation nationalism: so many prefixes attached to of imperialism from militarism (he praises, the same root, so many ways of bordering remember, the United States) or under- the same question, the same problem, the stands it as a disavowal or, worse yet, a same modern fact. I cannot but see some- sham, the fact remains that this libera- thing absurd in these variations on the tional nationalism harbors a profoundly same theme, these almost compulsively imperial impulse. Little wonder, then, that rewritten and anxiously rehearsed perfor- so-called modernistes such as Martí i Julià, mances. Absurd, but poignant, maybe all Bertrana, Gener, or Brossa, or even Rusi- too poignant, too: for the world is shot ñol, should have such deep and protracted through with nations and nationalism, problems with noucentista ideals of aes- shadowed by their legacy, rocked by their thetic civility and imperial arbitration. unwillingness to go away, to give up the Then again, the noucentista project, a ra- ghost. Nations and nationalism are no tionalized cultural and political program more dead than God, and all of the intel- administered from above, is in crisis by lectual proclamations to the contrary— 1925, but only after making life difficult, appealing as they almost invariably do in some cases almost impossible, for many, nowadays to information technology and including Bertrana. the latest version of the “cutting edge”— Bertrana, Ruiz, and Gener, for all cannot gainsay the reality of borders. If I their differences, were hard-pressed to fit have called Bertrana’s text postnational, it into the increasingly institutionalized is not because it resolves, transcends, or power systems that all but cornered the otherwise leaves the national behind, but market on sober civic-mindedness. Too because it defers and delays the resolu- willful or, more accurately, too much at tion, or dissolution, of the national, be- odds with the “will” of national and in- cause it attests to the passion and pain of ternational institutions, they slipped into the personal in its dealings with it. The obscurity, poverty, and insignificance. personal investments in nationalism, as Then again, to depict them so, and with- well as in postnationalism, bear studying, out qualification, may be to play into their to be sure. But they bear study in and game, to validate a romantically charged out of other “prefixed” variants, such as heroism of marginalization, victimization, the once rather famous, or infamous, su- failure, frustration, and ineffectiveness. pernationalism. After all, early in his 156 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

“Memòries,” before things really get crazy, movement, is a phenomenon that Pérez gives a sense of what is at stake: dates from the later eighteenth cen- “l’honor i el prestigi que es deixa en un tury, while a specifically ‘national’ sen- indret de frontera es recobra en l’altre, i timent can be discerned little earlier than the late fifteenth or sixteenth amb escreix” (17). Sometimes, yes indeed; centuries in Western Europe. The ‘na- many times, not at all: there is not always tion-state,’ too, as a political norm is an increase, a profit, for everyone, as Pérez, quite modern. If the system of Euro- and Bertrana, well knew. The borders are pean states came into being at the still there, and here, however much some of Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, it was us might wish them away, declare them not until the nineteenth century that outdated, or relegate them to posterity. these states began to be converted into Postnationalism can only be prefigured, still. ‘nation-states,’ and hence a system of nation-states came into being. (11) Smith goes on to complicate this timeline, and Notes finds in “pre-modern eras, even in the ancient 1 Terry Eagleton begins his perceptive article world, striking parallels to the ‘modern’ idea of on nationalism with a quote from Raymond national identity and character” (11). Smith calls William’s novel, Second Generation: this pre-modern perspective “perennialism” in dis- ‘Nationalism is in this sense like class. tinction from modernism and, more importantly, To have it, and to feel it, is the only “primordialism,” which maintains that nations and way to end it. If you fail to claim it, or nationalism are perennial and natural; perennial- give it up too soon, you will merely ism does not posit the nation and nationalism as be cheated, by other classes and other natural or, on the whole, universal. At any rate, nations.’ (23) striking as the parallels are between one age and 2 A more balanced understanding of nation- the other, Smith concludes by saying that “one alism and postnationalism may be founded in Ri- can concede the antiquity of collective cultural chard Kearney’s work on Ireland: ties and sentiments without assimilating them, ret- To critique the nation-state is not to rospectively, to nations or nationalism” (13). Mod- repudiate all forms of nationalism. It ernism, understood amply, and nationalism are is unwise, in particular, to ignore how related in especially intense ways. certain forms of nationalism have 4 France and French nationalism are also im- served, historically, as legitimate ide- plicated, if to a lesser degree (population and terri- ologies of resistance and emancipation. tory). The focus on Spain is here further over- (57) determined by the fact that the present paper was The impact of Irish nationalism on Spain, par- written for a conference organized at Duke Uni- ticularly the Basque Country, is touched on by versity in 1999, titled “Brokering Spanish Postna- Hobsbawm (139). tionalist Culture.” As I remarked at the time, the 3 I am aware that modernism and nationalism very title of the conference contains a logical con- do not constitute a neat pair, and that the former, tradiction and reminds me of Borges’s “Nueva in particular, has a cultural and artistic significance refutación del tiempo.” That said, postnationalism the latter does not. Still, the terms are associated, might only be possible if it grapples with such and in the work of sociologists, historians, and contradictions, with specific locations and embodi- political scientists too. That said, the following, ments, in a manner similar to that which Bruce from Anthony Smith, bears quoting: Robbins advances for a truly “diverse cosmopoli- In a sense, the ‘modernists’ are right. tanism” that involves “the term’s scaling down, its Nationalism, as an ideology and a pluralizing and particularizing” (3). What a spe- Brad Epps 157

cifically Spanish postnationalism cannot do, how- als plans més descabellats i més fan- ever, is assume that the present unity of Spain and tàstics. (478) the present contours of the Spanish are beyond Amid so many deceptively logical appearances, so questioning, beyond, indeed, alteration. many hair-brained and fantastic plans, so much 5 I agree with Silvia Bermúdez who insists comic play, and in the absence of accessible infor- that: mation, it is difficult to affirm or deny the exist- el reconocimiento de la carga senti- ence of two individuals that, with Bertrana, make mental desde la que se formulan las three. reflexiones sobre el tema [del nacio- 11 Interestingly, Manuel Delgado criticizes the nalismo] debe ser premisa intelectual tendency to present the immigrant or outsider as en los debates pues […] éste se articu- belated: la, se manifiesta y se vivencia como A més de ser inferior pel lloc que ocu- un sentimiento. (342) pa en el sistema d’estratificació social, Sentiment has been, of course, at the center of much l’immigrant ho és també en el pla cul- work on nationalism. tural, puix que procedeix d’una socie- 6 Resina notes how Federico de Onís wrote of tat menys modernitzada—el camp, postmodernismo as a conservative reaction, between les regions pobres del mateix Estat, 1905 and 1914, to modernismo (Un sueño de pie- l’anomenat Tercer Món […]. És, per dra 19). tant, un endarrerit, civilitzatòriamente 7 The date is a subject of some revision. As parlant. (34-35, emphasis original) Marfany remarks, “[e]l setembre del 1893 se Both Betrana and Daniel Pérez, his personage, are celebrà a Sitges la primera festa modernista, que és in important respects “outsiders,” even “immi- la que a posteriori fou batejada com a segona” (16). grants,” to the center of modern Catalan urban Marco maintains that the first Festa Modernista culture, Barcelona. was celebrated on August 23, 1892, just a few 12 Three dates are crucial in Pompeu Fabra’s days before Darío’s first visit to Madrid (37). bibliography: 1913, Normes ortogràfiques; 1918, 8 In 1911, Bertrana was briefly imprisoned Gramàtica catalana; and 1932 Diccionari general for reprinting an anti-military article considered de la llengua catalana. Though associated most “offensive” to the established powers. solidly with noucentisme, Pompeu Fabra translated 9 Darío himself extols Rusiñol’s interest in El Maurice Maeterlinck’s L’intruse, a highly symbol- Greco: “[p]or él se acaba de levantar al Greco una ist piece, which opened the Festa Modernista in estatua en Sitges” (39). Sitges. 10 Both the most recent edition of Bertrana’s 13 Although John Butt has traced the term text and Sobejano affirm that Daniel Pérez is based modernismo as far back as Cadalso’s Cartas marruecas on the historical person, Diego (or Dídac) Ruiz in the late eighteenth century, a non-pejorative (generally, but not always, without an accent on usage does not seem to arise until the late nine- the “i”). A contemporaneous biographical sketch teenth century. According to both Butt and by Domènec Guansé, published in 1926, sug- Vicente Cacho Viu, a positive usage of the term gests, however, the existence of two historical per- modernista appears first in Catalan, and subse- sons: quently in Castilian, in 1884, in an article titled la coneixença amb el doctor Daniel “Nostre programa” and published in L’Avens— Pèrez [sic] la féu [Bertrana] pels matei- later titled L’Avenç—by Ramon Perés. In this ar- xos anys que la de Dídac Ruiz. Era el ticle, Perés advocates “lo conreu en nostra pàtria perfecte tipus del desequilibrat. Bastia d’una literatura, d’una ciència i d’un art essencial- en un moment i sobre els fonaments ment modernistes” (15). The term modernismo, in més arbitraris, les més estupendes Castilian, enters the dictionary of the Real Academia teories. Donava aparences de lògica in 1899. 158 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

14 Switzerland is known for its neutrality and A l’entorn meu volaven els papallons prosperity; it is less known for ethnic tensions of i saltaven les llagostes, amb una con- its own. Kurt Mayer studies those tensions, which fiança germanívola. Per primer cop en led in 1979 to the separation of the northern part la meva vida em trobava sol, augus- of Jura from the canton of Bern and to its consti- tament sol, en la pau de la naturalesa. tution as a new Swiss canton (189-90). The ten- Mai la presència del meu JO no m’havia sions have a lengthy history, dating from the Con- sorprès amb la seva puixança com allí. gress of Vienna in 1815, and irrupting with par- Entre la lleial impassibilitat de les co- ticular vigor during World War I. As Mayer notes, ses, em reconeixia tal com era abans i “after 1919, the Jura had become a chronic politi- tal com em disposava a ésser en l’esde- cal minority” (196). venidor. (189) 15 Cacho Viu presents Maurice Barrés in rela- The scene is curious: a romantic moment of natu- tion with Moréas’s classicist École Romane that in- ral communion in a text profoundly marked by fluenced the noucentistes. artifice, an affirmation of the I more reminiscent 16 The quote is from Brossa’s “Catalanismo y of Rousseau than of Nietzsche. socialismo,” Revista Blanca, 1899; it is translated 23 According to Sobejano: and reproduced in the anthology by Cacho Viu en 1900 la actitud del poeta catalán (210). [vis-à-vis Nietzsche] había cesado de 17 The quote is possibly apocryphal. As Carme ser entusiasta, para hacerse más reser- Arnau remarks in the introduction to Torras i vada y crítica, y donde antes veía sa- Bages’s La tradició catalana: lud, vigor y optimismo vería delirio, durant decennis, el llibre ha estat con- esfuerzo extraviado y tragedia. (40) siderat com una mena de compendi 24 Pérez’s desire for fame both within and be- doctrinal dels catòlics catalans, el quals yond national borders necessarily raises questions adoptaren un lema que li ha estat about cosmopolitanism, one of the most privi- atribuït—‘Catalunya serà cristiana o leged, if contested, signs of his times. Interestingly, no serà’—i que malgrat no trobar-se cosmopolitanism has lately been the object of re- en cap dels seus escrits reflecteix amb newed intellectual interest, and in a manner that rotunditat el seu pensament. (11) also bears significantly on postnationalism. Draw- 18 The quote may be found in Zola’s Le roman ing on what Scott Malcolmson calls “actually ex- experimental (301). isting cosmopolitanism,” Bruce Robbins signals 19 The formulation obviously has many vari- two basic assumptions: ants. Manuel Delgado cites Jordi Sánchez of the first, that any cosmopolitanism’s nor- independentista “Crida” as declaring that “Cata- mative or idealizing power must ac- lunya serà xarnega o no serà” (19). knowledge the actual historical and 20 Fabre and Huertas, for example, make re- geographic contexts from which it peated reference to Primo’s megalomania (159, emerges, and, second, that such an 162). acknowledgement must not prove 21 Francesc Macià was a charismatic Catalan fatal. (2) nationalist, founder of Estat Català in 1922 and 25 As Silvia Bermúdez notes: of Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya in 1931, la articulación de un discurso nacio- leader of a rebellion against Primo de Rivera in nalista español no es patrimonio ex- 1926, and first president of the Generalitat from clusivo de los pensadores neoconser- 1931-1933. Ruiz’s text, also from 1931, was first vadores, pues se formula también des- delivered as a speech in l’Ajuntament de Sitges. de las filas mismas de la izquierda es- 22 In Jo!, the most powerful moment of the I pañola y del PSOE. La diferencia es- occurs in a natural, rather bucolic, setting, after triba en que se apela al entendimien- Pérez is practically run out of town: to de España como una nación políti- Brad Epps 159

ca única, según la Constitución de destins per a defensa de sa llibertat, 1978, con una pluralidad de nacio- mes per a expansió gloriosa de la nes culturales. (352) llibertat. (“Noruega” 306) Of course, as Bermúdez points out, the Constitu- 31 That the ship goes down “a l’altura de les tion is itself an historical document which “se pacta Bermudes” (192) is a significant detail: it leaves en un momento histórico que requiere grandes little question as to which America is here at stake: dosis de ambigüedad para que se obtenga el it is North America, the United States; as if the consenso necesario para aprobarla” (353). adjective “pròdiga” were not enough. 26 Joan Ramon Resina is right to contextualize in historically specific terms the provenance of Works Cited “postnationalism,” linking it to Habermas’s “post- Almirall, Valentí. Lo catalanisme. Barcelona: Edi- traditionalism,” and underscoring the place of the cions 62, 1994. post-war German nation-state—occupied and di- Bermúdez, Silvia. “De patriotas constitucionales, vided by other nation-states—in the articulation neoconservadores y periféricos: ¿Qué hace and dissemination of the concept (“Postnational- una España como tú en un entre siglos como ism”). Other critics, Matustík prominent among éste?” Revista de Estudios Hispánicos 37 (2003): them, also point to Habermas. While I do not 341-55. have the space here to rehearse Habermas’s contri- Bertrana, Aurora. “Pròleg: Prudenci Bertrana i la bution, I will note that the national context of seva obra.” Obres completes. By Prudenci speculations on postnationality is neither fixed nor inconsequential, and that the attention to histori- Bertrana. Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1965. cal traces does not mean that we will always trace IX-XL. the same story (or history). What it does mean is Bertrana, Prudenci. Jo! Memòries d’un metge filòsof. that we should proceed with caution before vali- Barcelona: Edicions 62, 1978. dating something like the universality of “postna- ———. Obres completes. Barcelona: Editorial tionalism” or, better yet, the postnationality of Selecta, 1965. “postnationalism.” Breton, André. Nadja. Paris: Gallimard, 1964. 27 “Bogeria” is an important term during this Butt, John. “Modernismo y Modernism.” ¿Qué es period. Among other things, it serves as the title of el modernismo? Nueva encuesta, nuevas lecturas. a short naturalist novel, first published in 1899, Ed. Richard A. Cardwell and Bernard Mc- by Narcís Oller. Guirk. Boulder: Society of Spanish and Span- 28 “Heliomàquia” is one of d’Ors’s cherished ish-American Studies, 1993. 39-58. concepts. It signifies a struggle for, and on behalf Cacho Viu, Vicente, ed. Els modernistes i el nacio- of, the light; enlightenment. nalisme cultural (1881-1906). Barcelona: 29 Valentí Almirall, in Lo catalanisme (1886), Magrana/Diputació, 1984. likewise adduces Norway, but to considerably dif- Cahm, Eric. L’Affaire Dreyfus: Histoire, politique ferent effect (i.e. as a “monarchical solution”). What et société. Paris: Librairie Générale Française, Norway has in common, or might have in com- 1994. mon, with Catalonia, is its relationship to a stron- Carr, Raymond. Spain: 1808-1975. Oxford: Ox- ger nation: in the first case, Sweden, in the second, ford UP, 1982. Spain. Clarín. Obra olvidada: Artículos de crítica. Ed. 30 Aquest és precisament el cas de No- Antonio Ramos-Gascón. Madrid: Jucar, ruega. Comparada amb la penitud de 1973. son voler, la seva independència, la Curtin, Deirdre M. Postnational Democracy: The seva separació del regne suec, no té European Union in Search of a Political Phi- altra significació que la d’un episodi. losophy. The Hague: Kluwer Law Interna- Noruega no vol fer-se senyora de sos tional, 1997. 160 Arizona Journal of Hispanic Cultural Studies

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