CEU eTD Collection T HE C FROM ETHNICTOCIVIC the degree of Master of Arts in Political Science Political in ofArts of Master the degree Supervisor: Professor NenadDimitrijevic Professor Supervisor: ASE In Partial fulfillment of the requirements for requirements ofthe fulfillment In Partial OF Department of Political Science Political of Department NATIONALISM Central European University European Central THE C Alexandru Krasznay ATALONIA Budapest, Hungary Budapest, A Submitted to Submitted UTONOMOUS 2010 By , S PAIN C OMMUNITY OF CEU eTD Collection attitudes towards nationalismcivic towards attitudes nationalism. to from community moved autonomous the of that reflectethnic findings Catalonia successfully All policy. media and legislation justice transitional in implementing government regional the pastthe 23 years in Catalonia, as well establishingas levelsthe ofinclusiveness and openness of employs both quantitative and qualitative ininterpreting analyses over opinion conducted polls paper in the examineCatalonia, development nationalism to the Inorder various aspects. provingat that policies is: question The research controversial. isstill extremely nationalism state of current the where Spain, of in case Catalonia, applies the two types ofnationalism, andcivic. ethnic previously Unlike his theoreticalthought, model also the between Smith D. Anthony by made differentiation classic the explore to out sets thesis This Abstract , are Catalans still characterized by sentiments ethnic nationalism?of Catalan people experienced a transition from ethnic to civic nationalism in nationalism civic to from atransition ethnic people experienced Catalan As reflected in opinion polls and different governmentalreflected inopinionpollsanddifferent As 2 The research aims CEU eTD Collection professionalism, andassistance patience past twoyears. during the Science andtheCentral staff,European faculty,University, for colleagues their and Political of Department the to grateful am I least, not but Last identity. national constructing communication andstudies enablingme developto an understanding of rolethe of mediathe in outcome. I am also extremely thankful to Professor Kate Coyer for guiding my interestin given hisand support encouraged me initial from the of phases projectthe until final the has wholeheartedly who Dimitrijevic, Nenad Professor for consideration my highest express substantially contributed to my work with their dedication and constant guidance. I wouldlike to have people helpthat the with important of was possible some research This two–year Acknowledgments 3 CEU eTD Collection racsig...... 44 ...... Broadcasting Chapter 3 – In–Depth CaseStudy: Expressions ofNationalism Catalanin Public iidWrs...... 63 Citied Works...... 58 Conclusions...... 27 Chapter 2 – Explaining theTransition Process from Ethnic toCivic Nationalism...... 12 ...... Chapter 1–Nationalism and ItsFacets 6 ...... Introduction 5 ...... of Figures Table 4 Table ofContents...... 3 ...... Acknowledgments 2 Abstract...... Catalan Broadcasting is Moving 53 3.2. Forward...... Som Catalans, no som 48 3.1. espanyoles!...... Qualitative Analysis of Catalan 38 Transitional 2.2. Justice...... Quantitative Analysis of Catalan Nationalism from 1984 2.1. 27 to 2007...... 2. The Origins of 23 Nationalism ...... in 1. Catalonia 1. From Individual to 12 Collective 1. Identity...... Attitudes towards 35 2.1.5. immigration...... Self–identification as Catalan 33 vs...... 2.1.4. Spanish Satisfaction with the level 32 of 2.1.3. autonomy...... Nationalist 30 2.1.2. sentiment...... Self–Identification with Catalonia 29 or ...... 2.1.1. Elsewhere Table ofContents 4 CEU eTD Collection Table 5:Attitudes towards immigration Table 4:Self–identification asCatalan vs.Spanish Table 3:Satisfaction withthe oflevel autonomy Table 2:Nationalist sentiment Table 1:Self–Identification with Cataloniaor Elsewhere ...... 31 Table of Figures ...... 36 5 ...... 32 ...... 34 ...... 30 CEU eTD Collection considerable powertoautonomous regional institutions givingofficial all to recognition rights in the case of ethnic minorities. The new constitutional monarchy, on the other side, granted been by tackled meansofassimilationthe whichhave policies, infringed to proved upon universal has regime,problem this Franco the During areCatalans. people of wherethe majority Catalonia, is in reversed independence. this relationship autonomy even However, or tendencies towards constant displayed that Catalonia like regions minority strong the and – Castilians as perceived Historically speaking, the has Spanishnation by been torn betweenconflicts majority the – butalsoregime (1939–1975), organization the thebroadcastingof services. Francoist the of victims the concerning legislation regional their sentiments, nationalist Catalans’ the on study longitudinal basis of a the of state nationalism, on and current thepast examining to interest its limit will thesis The broadcasting. service public the as well as policies, justice regional identity definesCatalonia,that thein livingin asreflected people transitional surveys, communities rather than autonomous their own loyalty towards of share attitudes to seem regions these scope, Spain as a and whole.intensity its in both time over varied has Thus, activism political their Although the1975. in monarchy main focus the of (re)instauration the of after and this before sentiments nationalistic thesis constant shown have regions is rather on the different history,comprises that communities same 17autonomous underthe monarchy. constitutional a Having differentAfter 40years of Kingdom the (or dictatorship, Spain isof today nation Spain) a multicultural language,Introduction but somewhat similar political aims, three of these 17 6 CEU eTD Collection critique butexplain from civic transitional ethnic the progress to nationalism in Catalonia. formulate and isnot concepts my Following only and a developeffect. thisprinciple, purpose to links between cause better topics, determining views overtheir complex everon morerely than now can scholars fashion, inan interdisciplinary research academic of emergence the Witnessing nationalism. in ethnic originates nationalism civic Catalan that my claim for example whatis called civic nationalism. In fact, the autonomous region of Catalonia, Spain, stands as an ethnic nationalism bringing historical evidence, andhow itmore evolved into positive forms of all across Europe. This thesis will develop on how Western countries, such as Spain, experienced between two the types ofnationalism made byAntony D. Smith is(1986; 1991) actually visible classic differentiation the that rightly argue others However, literature. inthe nationalism nationalism”. The first chapter will extensively explore the differences between differences the explore extensively will chapter first The nationalism”. “civic with identifiable is nationalism Western while nationalism”, “ethnic to corresponds nationalism Eastern that many scholars argue is that research present the triggered What Catalan. and Spanish identities, national two the between distinction nationalism. as communities and 1994,20).Similarly,(Maxwell Spiegel here nationalistlabeled the discourse, and andneeds press on demandspower of the between Spanishstate autonomous the that the mediate must in Madrid government national the context, this In nationalities. diverse of nation Today,becomehave all 17 regions Therefore, communities. autonomous isseenasa Spain 1979, andits regional increased steadily power since.ever (Nuñez 2001, 722–729) 18, December community on ofautonomous status the granted was Catalonia fact, ethnicities. In nationalism The tension between these two different political identities led to a clearer ledto identities political different two between these Thetension , can be differentiated between (mainstream) between , canbedifferentiated 7 ethnic nationalism ethnic and and civic civic CEU eTD Collection more inclusive and open towards accepting non–Catalan elements. Taken into consideration the consideration into Taken elements. non–Catalan accepting towards open and inclusive more they whether its conclude are community,of status and autonomous Catalonia had achieved after consolidation, democratic yearsof the during acts modifications inlegislative important media. andjustice legislations:broadcasting Iwill transitional selected anumbercompare of Secondly, Iwill developa qualitative analysis based on the peculiarities displayed by each of the nationalism. of in development trend the existenceof a certain possible from the 4 differentin the same region – Cataloniayears – with a similar representative sample of the region. Sothe results Center, can Research Sociological Spanish be the institute, compared research same the by time every developed and,was it because based valuable also is study empirical The society. in the on changes possible them,about the thesis will results canyieldvalid andcomparable butalso another one the 10yearsbetween data, because establish the 2002, and 2007 on the topic nationalof identity.years The were selected based on availability of employed forFirstly, each type. resultsthe interpret Iwill of fourfrom opinion polls 1984, 1993, different governmental policies different question: The research change overtime. theirdiscussing The current state of nationalism inCatalonia will be assessed by using opinion andpolls Due to the use of both Due tothe use of interests of others. and identity the national Catalan the representing between the balance maintain successfully to itsresources dedicated regional government present in–depththe case Catalan of the public broadcasting which aims atproving thatthe will chapter last theThe thesis. throughout explained causes a number of dueto nationalism nationalism? I hypothesize that the Catalan people experienced a transition from from tocivic experienced Catalanethnic atransition that the Ihypothesize people quantitative , and are Catalansstill characterized by sentiments ofethnic qualitative 8 analyses, two different methodologies will be As reflected inopinionpolls and As reflected CEU eTD Collection theoretically oriented approach of this theme, I will employ the nationalism. Due to the immense literature in the field, this part of the thesis is structured asa is inof field, structured thesis the part this the immenseliterature Due tothe nationalism. The first chapter policy. media and begins inspecific yearsCatalonia during the justice areas: of democratic consolidation transitional two with of community autonomous the by passed legislation the examine will I an hand, other the On overview nationalism. of Catalan nature in of is the change a pattern there and data see whether empirical of analyze will I hand, one the theOn qualitatively. and quantitatively both studied be will most that aspects importantof Catalan nationalism authors based state the about of conclusions Instead drawing nationalism couldof today. status on that the portray one piece of evidence,in the thethesisThe presentthe originality liesthesis its comprehensive with of of analysis diverse the aspects gathersfield a relevant number of of result into the same outcome or different (amended hypothesis) outcomes. could that paths possiblecausal investigating alternative and also allowsmethod discovering Catalan people experienced atransition fromethnic tocivicnationalism that myhypothesis seenamely nationalism,disprove will if outcome the had towards Catalans that theattitudes on concentrate I will of transformation, process Tracing this further. and consolidation democratic of times the to change, regime the after from times the government and Bennett 2005, 206). In my inquiry, Iwill follow the policies adopted by the Catalan regional variables andthemechanisms –between explanatory of variable” outcome (George response the chainidentify –andinterveningcausal process “to tracing causal the asanattempt the SocialSciences Development inthe explain this micro–historical phenomenon. In their methodology book , Alexander L. George and Andrewdescribe and Bennett Alexander L.George process , 9 process–tracing Case StudiesandTheory . The process–tracing method to the CEU eTD Collection relation between Catalonia and Spain. Catalonia between relation Civil War, especially in Catalonia where thisidentity has been systematically suppressed, in the the of victims with dealing of importance the by is explained choice particular This policies. justice transitional analysis of the to isdedicated chapter second of the part last The forms. civic to ethnic in changefrom fact, not, did did or nationalism whether prove arelikely to indicators Spanish orCatalan, both, andfinally or his/her personal immigration. towards attitudes These as self–identification Catalonia, in autonomy of level the with satisfaction his/her sentiment, nationalist his/her of level the belongs, participant the where location the with identification self– are: indicators five The development. nationalism this testing for selected were indicators from and literature the the positioning of selfthe within his/her own collective identity,five showingcould that apattern accountfor thetransition from ethnic civic to nationalism. Deriving virtually nationalism, of development inthe linearity detect to possibility is the this for reason for 23yearsSpanish every The one of history, yearsthroughout decade. recent four scattered of study with anempirical starts the It thesis. analysis of core the represents The secondchapter fascistregime. Spanish this ends chapter history with a brief nationalismof Catalan its from origins end until ofthe the in Catalonia, nationalism emerged whyethnic clarify the reasons to nationalism.of order civic In case the in forms of ownhistory nationalism its ethnic residing Catalonia, changed gradually to in that argues thesis present the negligible, is sometimes them between differences range and the common agreat have nationalism of types all that Acknowledging nationalism. civic and liberal as as well nationalism, ethnic and traditional are: were considered that nationalism of varieties four–type by paired analysis, due two interdependency to their two four Thus,and the overlap. 10 CEU eTD Collection changes in the nature of of nationalism. inthenature changes the reflect policies media its that is claim my asCatalans, such groups ethnic different the at integrity create abinding, same the but of state, the timerespecting 1975was after unitary to mediarespectingmonarchy. pluralism the and Spain’s Considering main Spanish that purpose therefore interest, balance and Spanish its won managedto mainstream the successfully goals its media legislation through Catalan government see the whether Finally, Iwill policies. with issues,how ethniccommunity–based andsee they oriented vs.civic are intheirpublic the words, chapter will insightful provide an broadcastingprofile of Catalan the publicdeal that transition to democracy and the Constitution of 1978, which reestablished the monarchy. In other the throughout continuing death, Franco’s before even changed have might they that way the willanalyzingmission at theirandimpact today, I look of developmentthe mediathese policies, Before Franco’s regime. lastin decadeof butonly the oppression theirconstant despite heritage weremaintainingmedia specificlanguages independentand cultural the structures As Iwill inargue thelast chapter of under–developed thesis,the the butalready–existent 11 CEU eTD Collection Italy Italy in 1861,Germany in 1871, Serbia Montenegroand in 1878. 1 Autonomous Region of Catalonia, Spain. on focus the with a special in literature the as developed they concepts theoretical relevant most establishing the working definitions of the term Before going into the core of the thesis,– NationalismandIts Chapter 1 Facets this chapter will limit the span of my argument by considered asanation–state considered iswhile state narrative(Calhoun generally and1997, 232), themodern culture historical speakthe same andshare inhabitlanguage, same sameterritory, the any the of that people group for characteristics general most the are a nation to belonging of sense the and identity National otherness (Allport 1987). Attachment of group members toward their country bya membersisof their expressed 1987). Attachmenttoward group country otherness (Allport because the senseauthors most oftake a dialectical nations, approach becauseidentity “[t]here is no adhesion a to group discussing without exclusion”,When simply nationalism. of form the in cannot bonds emotional or loyalties be conceived outside 1983). Anation views atleast asitself special or with aunique, an entity culture, sharing a direct opposition from groupsby other ofits virtue the members to the sense of The The term is used starting with the 19 1. From Individual to Collective Identity Collective to Individual From 1 . According to a well–known interpretation, a nation is set apart isset anation interpretation, a well–known to . According th century to denote the first modern states: Greece in1830, Belgium in 1831, 12 nationalism imagining . In doing so, Iwill briefly review the themselves as a nation (Anderson, nation a as themselves CEU eTD Collection not a unitary phenomenon. Rather, itis more suitable to discuss different that thesis, in present the andreinforced in literature, the is accepted It generally inCatalonia. observations consisting of specific measurable aspects with their will deal part following level,the atheoretical on strictly willbeexamined theconcepts Chapter this of purposes the for Although nationalism. ethnic concept, complementary its and nationalism (conservative) traditional and nationalism, civic concept, twin its and nationalism liberal to refer Thus, Iwill context. in theEuropean especially literature inthe most discussed the also are that nationalism, of types different four on focus will I Instead, analysis. this from excluded There are numerous classifications and typologies of nationalism and most of them will be and revolutions duetothe across (SmithWestern Europe 1991, 96). nation–states consequencesModernity andreligion,of on emergence tradition with the of the that the present thesis willcommunist countries, only like Hungary, with less experiencelimit in constitutional democracy. its However, discussion liberal in asin democracy, Kingdom, such United the Spain,inScotland, or Catalonia, andpost– to nationalism in with peopletradition countries from understanding hasattracted a political doctrine Its as as an ideology. Acknowledging phenomenon. ideological and a social as its appearance after years hundred moretwo than even Nationalism continues to be today“belong” anation to 2004,(Heywood 127). one of the most controversialfeeling of conceptsallegiance However,in I agree with Heywoodpolitical that thisto emotional bonda is not a sinenation; qua non condition of the science, even senselove,belonging, of loyalty, and land group the and caretoward pride, (Bar–Tal 1997, 246). people who do not feel national pride may admit they collective identity represents the foundation of nationalism, this appeared followingthe this appeared of nationalism, thefoundation represents 13 kinds of nationalism, of nationalism is CEU eTD Collection contradict each other. contradict than complete rather thesedefinitions itsfor members. Of all course, of responsibilities memory,territory, common myths, publicculture, economy, common common equal rights and most complete promote A.D. 14) probablytheir the Smith and common will to(1991, state. own provides (4) definitionin thefuture, tolive andhope interests together current common heritage, (3) common cultural of nationalismare by anidealiving sharedby whonationalism united (2) as (1) sameterritory, the on people referring is future describing nation, and of 15) with more the (self–)preservation concerned the to (1972, samereligion. Shafer tothe evenadhering andsometimes sametradition, practicing the a given population aspirations, nation’s thatexpressesthe has aculture language, acommon region, speaks sharing of character afeelingnationalism by sharedlivesas a group that inawell–defined geographical a commonSimilarly,i) Snyder (1969, is arguesthatnationalism aframe ofmind emphasizing the emotional of organization, values thesource and andnationalism as cultural prosperity. economic form astheideal political of nation state the Kohn acknowledges society. the members of loyaltythe between of attitude the basedon a population, of majority large the permeating Nationalism”, Kohn Hans (1967,16) definesnationalism of asastate mindincreasingly definitions by field.in main hisgiven thetheorists “The the seminalwork In Ideaof In order to grasp the content of term the of grasp content the to In order perspective. Anthony D. Smith’s distinction between distinction Smith’s D. Anthony of depending perspective isthe on analysis. Inthe caseof basedon theclassification this thesis civic nationalism 14 and ethnic nationalism comprehensively, I will review the review will I comprehensively, from a historical a from CEU eTD Collection following axioms: following emotions and landscapes) symbols, monuments, milestones, historical heroes, national as (such life day ismergerbetween a complex nationalism an ideology, as Seen doctrine. systematic of a part being necessarily without discourses, nationalistic different in explicitly or implicitly befound may which values, and norms prescriptive and accepted commonly most society’s tothe here ideology refers term the Gellner (1997), According to individuals collectiveunites take same innation istheircommon ideology.to the decisions didvote)(e.g. will not onthemby accept the decisions imposed what active members. So the in participate members who didnot process political community passiveof the second, the the and society, own their advance to interest common a have that citizens by collectively made sake of the nation’s well–being. This membership has two facets. First, the political decisions are legitimizes politicalthe powerandmobilizes individualsthe toparticipate in lifepublic for the identity collective This belonging. national or citizenship, of in terms articulated community, of sense or sharing, of sense a have a society in individuals that implies representation political of principle The nationalism? and representation political between connection the is exactly what But by people. of majority chosen the made by they were representatives because citizens forbinding all become madebystate decisions the words in other of representation; political idea the from legitimacy its drives state the that means This unity. national and political between intersection the at situated principle political a is nationalism 9), (1997, Gellner Ernest For (1) individuality; The isworld composed out of nations,its eachhaving own destiny, history, specific and , aspirations. Gellner rightfully summarizes the core of the nationalistic ideology inthe ideology nationalistic the of core the summarizes rightfully Gellner aspirations. , 15 cognitive elements expressed in every– CEU eTD Collection discusses the consensus between the between discusses consensus individual the andtheform choice whichof isgovernment, of Mill Stuart John self–determination. national and self–determination individual of principles The challenge ofliberal nationalism is apparentthe contradictory betweenrelationship the several peoples having a common scope, higher than one nation acting for its own sake. of purpose incipientthe illustrates thesis this it phasenationalism as engaging a sense of the for is relevant view Mazzini’s Monarchy. Habsburg the counterbalance to purpose intended an international the “Youngendeavor, formed Europe”, by11independentnations with the internationalist” ideal. His domestic program, militating primarily for the unification of Italy, had political movementwas founded and by guided Giuseppe Mazzini’s (1805–1872)“humanistic Italia) Giovine (La Italy” “Young the when Enlightenment, in the originates nationalism Liberal them.between exist liberal and traditional of kinds nationalism, due too, to multiplethe associations inseparable that the discuss marginally will I nationalism, of types ethnic and civic the explore widely will thesis four most discussed most four the Nevertheless, contexts. historical from different the emerge will assumptions more relative nationalistic rhetoric,Although is this a very wide definition referringto mostthe general behindassumptions the it will be narrowed subsequently in the analysis on Catalonia, when the (4) (3) (2) world. in canbe areensuredthe if Nations andpeace everywhere free safe only justice and Liberty and personaldepends development ontheidentification with nation;the toany prior individual obligation; is loyalty national the therefore power, political and social of source is the nation The types of nationalism are: liberal, traditional, civic, and ethnic. Although the Although ethnic. and civic, traditional, liberal, are: nationalism of 16 CEU eTD Collection was threatening thehistorical continuity evolution.of Edmund Burkeand Joseph de Maistre that rigidthe rationalism andto (1789–1799) Revolution French the to areaction appeared as Traditional or conservative nationalism was inspired by the cultural themes of Romanticism, and valuesaccepted thatcan never bequestioned. (Tamir6–14, 33) 1993, commonly aresome there wouldthat claim nationalist person while a convictions anytime, their reconsider to free are people that believe always will spirit liberal A anybody. for points reference necessarily absolute not become forthey butdo some, are extremely important that sentiments nationalist certain are Indeed, there andsolidarity. loyalty attachment, the emphasizes individual of choice,with focuses respectnationalistthe autonomy and onthe tradition, which that even determine ones, personal the to superior ones), national (the values other are there time, samethem. at the that, Yael Tamir proposes haveindividualsistheir it values choose hardly therightand attachments, own to acceptable a reconciliationbased of the onliberal assumptions tradition,In words, the 138). other betweenindividualconnection is andthe national self–determination that which are different individualthe within thenational outside reside context,norcanhe/she nation. the (Beram 1987, for the person and the collectivity. If one agrees that its relation to individualits establish relation liberal Inessence, notnationalism to does options. the in superiorregarding place nation as the collectivewithout takes self–determination individual to from transition the how mention not does it as incomplete, be to seems explanation this However, self–determination. national to right the have nations constitute that groups therefore self–determination; alsoto havetheright groups the personal Consequently, self–determination. Harry Beram, structure the of syllogismthe is thefollowing:“Individuals have therightto individual self–determination to the upperlevel national and justifying For self–determination. naturebe andcollectiveby decided needsto governedtransferringthe (Mill1861,9),thus the 17 locus of CEU eTD Collection abstract deontological laws. (Rorty 1989) 2 options individual for abasis as criteria and scopes some establish to intention the is exactly share projects nationalistic What priorities. validatein establish their choose traditiontheir which the wayand cannot people preferences afeasible constitute cannot but fordaily carrying criterion andinfallible out life. Furthermore, necessities Tradition past behavioral maybe than inrather events. useful defining certain types, current from force nationalism its should derive ofview, point from cultural especially the is essential context social the that While Iagree times. thepresent of priorities the ignoring too strong emphasis on the past, tradition has a differentiated significance for the individual, thus particular a for with project social as any other Just project. collective abstract an of affirmation the tradition objective: employs nation the while identities, constituting in factor important an represents Tradition terms. very two distinct are nationalism and tradition associated, Although of nations. role in essential emergence the Of great importance oflanguage,mythology”. cultural nation the andFichte, of“purity popular wastheexpression was “corpus of citizens with equal rights”. Initsthe variant, German under influence the of Herder and reinforcementmere toa organic opposed community, an of expression superior asa considered nation the of old customs and traditions, which played an ix). Many scholars argued,in accordance with the above distinction, that as a result of the lack of and on otherthe hand abackward whose nationalism East barbarism borders (Auer 2004,viii– liberal advancing naturally more towards as progressive, and civilized democracy, something divisionthe into, on of Europe onethe hand,whose nationalismWest, acivilized wasregarded with worked often politics culture and European its and nationalism roleinEastern Studies on See Richard Rorty’s idea of modern anti–fundationalism, whichclaims that practical judgments cannot rely on 2 . 18 CEU eTD Collection sacred. Another important elementis the associated with territory.the Thus,nations own a well–defined territory, whichis historical and historicalmodel civic orcultural. ForAnthonyD.Smith, is nation the of the predominantly institutions thattie the members of community the atypearound of authority from different political and laws rules, of set a implies This community”. “political so–called a of existence the sense, (conservative) traditional its in nationalism, of understanding common the beyond moreconfer this nationalism in (and literature popularity of asittype suggests, superiority) the single voice and political will expressing common goals and political interests. The political The interests. political and goals common expressing will political and voice single national self–determination andindividual self–determination. Thedenominator of principles the combine to tries it as nationalism, liberal with associated is nationalism Civic its own history characterized by non–liberal (Auerregimes 2004,viii–ix). in a region trapped about narratives arebased on Europe embrace Eastern to countries Western Kundera agreements)(Yalta (e.g. In this 2000). presentstereotypes context,the of and reluctance an event historical unfavorable identity due to only nations real of their robbed European Eastern the myth"about conviction widespread –the nationalist a"new of emerges There their cultures. arepart values liberal and democratic that Westbyprotesting tothe alleged) allegiance (actual or their stress They Balkans). the recently and Russia, modern Stalinism, Russian by symbolized European nations,many of which often try to distance themselves from the "barbaric" East (often even by has been toEurope”. Eastern “return Ironically,the accepted stamina division this to and the liberal install order a stable, democratic chanceto (Linz the 1996) and andStepan democracy jeopardize to thisnationalism processthe both of type wouldof transition seriously was thought that extremist1992, SchöpflinIt nationalism (Greenfeld 2000,52). "by definition" in areespecially democratic Europe strong traditions, people inclinedtowhatisEastern fatherland 19 , a community of laws and institutions with a civic seems to CEU eTD Collection already formed in already 18 the In Kohn’s vision, ideology the behind civicnationalism is productthe of a dominantmiddle class 2004, 134). nationalismpoint, themechanics of provides achieving a (Heywood peaceful, stable worldorder of From nations. of conceptabovethe vantage this andsupports all equality of another those is clear by now that this brand of nationalism does not attemptIt to put nationalism. the interestsliberal of aforementioned one the nationwith replaceable iseasily nationalism civic Therefore, enemy. real or imaginary any of existence the by be strengthened to need not does that the national nationalism to community (Michnikand asapositive relation sawcivic 1993,151) from is of perspective nationalism civic the nation notidealized, the butcritically evaluated (Druckman Michnikargues that groups other correspondinghostility without the 1994). toward group own toone’s loyalty attachments and as strong nationalism civic characterizes Druckman an original territory, ora region unjustly lostin the past. territorial disputes are still current, there is a different type nationalismof which usually reclaims would tothe national where need of correspond from In countries unity.Eastern Europe, England France,and and for which onlyproblemthe ideology was creating acommon that typenationalism of developed especiallyin countries with relatively stable like territories, This culture. a civic plus equality, judicial and political community, certain a territory, historical the are nation a of concept Western the of elements standard the Smith, A.D. to according aspirations, sentimentsThe ultimate and ideas expression that hold of society. the rights andeconomic judicial civic equality, of substance the community represents peopleof this togethercommunity on isa historicala set of values territory. and common Therefore, cultural traditions, th century century expressing anideal of civic politics merging individual 20 CEU eTD Collection “them” and sometimes this split is carried to the extreme as “they” are the foes that need to be to need that foes the are “they” extreme as the to is carried split this sometimes and “them” and “us” between division sharp is a There xenophobia. and racism to legitimacy of a semblance leastgiving at thereby promoting or athreat, andstrangersperceiving as immigrants leadto also this idea insist on needthe maintaining of cultural purity and traditions, something whichmay one’s and groups owngroup disliking certain (Druckman Theother pursuersof 1994, 63–64). Ethnicnationalism andbecan dangerously misinterpreted attitudes encourage involving liking compare. glorious pastwiththepresent cannot which for thesakeof a national theneedaffirmation it of in capitalizes and sense this rich impressively anonymous balladshistorical about heroes saving thecountry isappeared. The ideology and myths national for fascination the ishow This nation. the called community” “imagined an formation to the of whichcontributed customs, and model, traditions vernacular popular cultures rhetoric moral and role (Gellner1969,330).Also, idea the equality is of by replaced the a hasboth mobilization popular therefore people”, of “will the by functionsthe state laws, the of institutions 2000).Instead of of 1991,Horovitz set common and ethnic community (Smith the idea centers nationalism thisbrandof thus family, seenasalarge nation the of characteristic essential is the descend common the Here, born. was he/she where community tothe connected Regardless of is culture. lives, he/she and inescapably individual the where organically native the and community (natal) birth the emphasizes strongly nationalism ethnic contrast, In past(Kohnattachments tothe 329–331). 1967, effort tocreatea nation “political of out andrealities any presentstruggles without sentimental liberties “rational cosmopolitanism”with (seeConversi 1997,3).Thisconceptemerged from the 21 CEU eTD Collection moderate, and Eastern being more ethnic and bellicose, this thesis argues that Catalan that argues thesis this bellicose, and more ethnic being andEastern moderate, and civic more being Western nationalism, Eastern and Western between differentiation Kohn’s is nationalism of classifications influential most the of one though Even interesting. particularly nationalism. However, their specific articulation in the Autonomous Region of Catalonia is four types of of these overlapping aspects numerous restate are there that to is it important Now, instances. their collective Middle Ages,hence the essentialist nationalist rhetoric in individualswhich identified only with universalism longerthe forof a inthe abstract remained time Eastern anchored Europe turn, In secularization. and rationalism individualism, specific their with Reformation the undergo experience these nordidthey did not the Renaissance, countries Europe, Unlike inWestern unity be hadamission that couldunderstoodonlyby that Kohn intellectuals (see the 1955). response uneasy Probably tothe iswhythenationpresent. this wasconceived asan organic had by tobe determined that culture an underdeveloped substituted mythshistorical asa Theculture found inWestern hardshipeconomic andEurope. in social Europe Eastern modernity “rational” the and to elites’ response cultural asthe nationalism”, as“cultural regarded nationalism Thisis 330). isoften why ethnic 1967, soon had become reality apolitical to (Kohn dreams ideal an myths andnational from created historical the intellectuals seize nationalist The wished it. but to nationalism was the creation of the elitesAs Kohn in argues, Central and Eastern Europe, where there areis nosignificantmiddle class, or groups of intellectuals that had no access to power and are theidentities experienced 2004, with moreintensity 138). (Heywood “us” isstrengthened about awareness the identified, “they” areclearly ridiculed. Once or hated fatherland powerfully linked powerfully and pastthe to marginally tothepresent, which 22 CEU eTD Collection centuries the Castilian Empire took over the entire peninsula, Cataloniamanaged tokeep its own violentthrough revolutions butthrough Although peaceful consensus. the following during imposed not was in 1350s, the already system, representative the Interestingly, region. the today including territories,Sardinia Sicily, other and becamein and thelargest prosperous most than larger whichwasmuch state, Catalan–Aragonese the Soon, Sea. Mediterranean at the power The Catalan state was formed between 12 the between wasformed state The Catalan called aso– enforcing theopposite, butquite andanti–capitalism, separatism lineof continue onthe differentfrom Catalonia’s own story, the Basque which Country,unlike for example didnot were historiesthe regions of these However, 1994). immigration (Beltran and industrialization inmovements also erupted endof Catalonia nineteenthcentury the atthe due to greatly nationalist ethnic Country, Basque the Valencia, Andalucía, with Along centuries. eighteenth and seventeenth, sixteenth, the from domination Castilian the during extinct go not did that language nationalism isbecause ithas an extremely andlong eventful history, unique culture, and despite insightful Kohn’svery So for classification, why ethnic Cataloniacase study a represents Chapter. this of part last the in briefly review will I that history region’s in the lie nationalism ethnic benationalism essentially usedto it graduallyethnic but civic. into transformed The origins of 1. 2. The Origins of Nationalism in 2. of Catalonia The Origins Nationalism 1. policy of consensus policy of and economic prosperity, asIwill show throughout the thesis. th 23 and the 14 and the th centuries as a powerful economic asapowerful centuries CEU eTD Collection landscape by landscape of beginning the 20 the Catalan andimmigration the changed power with economic together nationalism of The revival progressive Cataloniawouldlead that Spain. 1999,319–322) (Edles, federal a democratic republicanism which proposed andsecular nationalism,modern a and symbols of the Church. inspired structure by traditional the state hierarchical recreate the MiddleAgesand tryingthe to The second source ofby in legitimizedpopularity its is tradition Catholic Thefirstsource theconservative nationalism. nationalism at this namely independence (Kaplan 1992). Edles identifies twodifferentsources stage for firstthe revival of finds its origins Catalan the wasenhanced byrapidandfavorableculture growth context, historical economic in the mid Between auspices Institute. Catalan the Studies of 19 publishedby Fabrathe book under Pompeu and Grammar newspaper, first Catalan the first The standardization languageCatalan of in started 19 the been independentand Spanish the under occupation intermittently. 1996) (Balcells has Catalonia level. finances early ataregional the Sincethen and until administration 1800s, managed to stop the strikes and overmanyEventually, take region, the restoreafter scandals Parliament andattempts to Catalan the equilibrium and peace. However, the consequence autonomy from Spain. (Smith 1996, 179) was its and weakened system Catalonia of political the powerfully unbalanced that Barcelona itsurprisingiscontext workers’ betweennumerous in not strikes1919 and1923 that erupted insuchasocial Of course, class. working the and society bourgeoisie Catalan the between struggle”, “class warwasthe second The one. elitist arather from Madrid, power centralist “nationalist was firstinthis struggle” happeningwar against the the The Catalonia. time at th century. As Angel Smith argues, there were two “wars” two were there Smith Angel argues, As century. 24 th th century century and renaissance 1936,the of century with the foundation of the of foundation the with century CEU eTD Collection the fascist government, as well as in other regions of Spain. Although they were generally were they Although Spain. of regions other in as well as government, fascist the impressive volume. Eventually, onehourof school instruction indaily Catalan by was accepted a rather reached soon they so home, at language their use to the able of were region majority the of the inhabitants since and, more, once blossomed activities cultural Catalan totalitarian, then rather authoritarian, more was regime Francoist the that fact tothe Due tooccur. started revival Catalan 1950s, asecond restrictions during the of with government relaxation the However, the total weight of the Catalan economy as part of Spain as a whole. (Payne 1971, 32) to proportionate werenot because its resources weak increasingly finance hasbecome Catalan many Catalans to seek solutions outside their region. Unlike very few times in its history, compete with modernizingthe Spanish forcefully economy implemented in Catalonia, obliging Spanish–Speaking one. Additionally, small–scale the Catalan businessestraditional could hardly in work homogenize factories,Catalan in to the order Catalan–speaking population with the industry from 1950s,alargethe numberof workers especially from Andalucía werebrought to “language of the Empire”. speak in everywherethe to encouraging people bigcities introduced the big were placards Even more profoundly, dueas almost all Catalan public, cultural, and educational institutions were made strictly illegal and to the new boom of the Catalan Catalonia followingIn theperiod severe civilwar the cultural suffered repression, (1936–1939), textile in schools, and Catalonia altogether continued toexpand until 1936. (Payne 1971,24) mandatory be studied to language official declared was of Catalan statute autonomy, granted the the first president of the Catalan regional government, thebecame Marcià Francesc colonel army former The 1931. April in elections the won eventually republicanistthat nationalistsand Catalan more groups more became and powerful and 25 Generalitat . In 1932 Catalonia was . In1932 CEU eTD Collection political after political monarchy stage of reestablishment in the the 1975. the cameto that generation by democratic be the left solved were to that spiritual problems and moral aggravated and crises identity sharpened have century twentieth the of half second the of changes social and cultural the Rather, amplification. its to contributed that variable only the not is it nationalism, Catalan for impulse an represented development economic Although nationalism. Scottish or nationalism Flemish hence vicinity, in their situated identities national especially who smallerfeelwithin groups ethnic endangered somewhat bythemore powerful Such nationalistmovements nations, and in visible European other occurred they too, are nationalism remained rooted in Catalonia and survived until the end of the Fascist regime. ethnic whatsoever, incentives state no with conditions these under Even Country. Basque Catalan language, own institutions,Franco’s policies chose to dismiss the need for at leastpublications, cultural autonomy (referring to seemedbethe to favorable Spain to itsespecially minority usedue to in afterposition 1945, Europe of etc.) for Catalonia, Althoughexist. odds all to still neversized movement Catalan the andstill, were often arrested, as well as Galicia and leaders andtheir the inCatalonia were organized parties regionalist and factions numerous Other inexile” established (Payne1971, 33–37) Paris. the Catalan National Council in Mexico City in parallel with the with parallel in City in Mexico Council National Catalan the of maintain that such “headquarters” they managedto to an extent the have themselves organized home and outside at both opposition political in the active the remained movements region, nationalist regional repressed, in the countries where they were sent into exile. Such dissidents 26 Generalitat ’s “government–in– ’s CEU eTD Collection communities from making Spain, to study mysingle choice possible.Catalonia Thestudy I will its high institutional of autonomy.addition, degree 17autonomous research encompasses In all a ensuring Parliament, the not and Cabinet, Prime–Minister’s the from directly comes funding remodeled in 1977 during the manytransition, and haswon sociological awards ever since.Its reliabilitybeyond is for question The several Centerwas reasons. established 1963and Its identity. national of theme the on centered a survey conducting regularly 1984, since de Investigaciones orCIS–Centro is,The Sociological Spanish Research Center Sociológicas Quantitative Analysis of Catalan Nationalism from 1984 to 2007 2.1. identity. national preserve to goals important more its fit better Catalonia shifted its oneof most enduringpolicies, related totransitional in justice, to order democracy, Here, Iwill years within that, to of show transition Spanish government. the examining the underlyingmechanisms institutions autonomous the of and their relation with the is qualitative, analysis following The statistics. descriptive on based results isof survey one, Catalan people using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Thefirst analysis, the empirical part of identifying thesisthe at aims in mainexpressionsthe nationalism of the consciousness of second the nationalism, of concepts for the definitions working the set chapter previous If the Nationalism Civic – ExplainingtheTransitionChapter 2 fromEthnicto Process 27 CEU eTD Collection Archivos/Marginales/2660_2679/2667/e266701.html to civic ornot. is rejected establishpower myto from nationalism whether hypothesis of formsCatalan developing ethnic study longitudinal based years almostandon descriptivedataover has 25 enough explanatory finally is2007 themostyear recent issued whenCIS results on topic.this Therefore this panel year,a decade isafter second and the selected 2002 almost noteworthy, thisseems assumption of validity the testing I and in Catalonia sentiments nationalist the enhance possibly could which survey iswas performed byCIS,1993 theyear the Olympic after Games were held inBarcelona, of type yearthis when firstis the 1984 as follows. are were chosen years these particularly 2002, and why 1984, 1993, 2007. The reasons yearsare line selected the thisresearch. Thus, of with started CIS in since every decade ofthe indicators developingtrend atthe look civic, Iwill In order to reach the conclusion whether Catalan nationalism has, indeed, changed from ethnic to individuals ageof representative overthe sampleof 18. and interviews yearssize inthe 3,213 interviewsin2002 in2007,3,192 two asimilar ona other own point of reference, which is,in this case, the Catalan society. The opinion poll was based on his/her with in relation self the of self–identification of items represent They in. live they society of identification the expressaspects certain with of choice totheindividual indicators these feelings nationalistin the approximating secondcriterion The Catalonia. was thepotential of for tools empirical fairly accurate as they represent literature, the from their emergence was indicators these forselecting criterion first The previously. discussed of nationalism aspects 3 in called refer to, “National Spain” Identity Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (CIS), La identidad nacional en España 3 uses 5 indicators that are expected to reflect all 28 : http://www.cis.es/cis/opencms/– CEU eTD Collection which 0meansyoufeel“notatall” identified and 10 meansthatyou feel “much identified” Which environmentmore youidentify with? Inyouranswer, please use ascale 1to10, from in withwheretied thelocation we live,butsomefeel more related toacertainplacethan another. The question from the survey where thisindicator was extracted from is: nationalism. civic towards inclined more the thus is, person the in them living people and territories other of inclusive more the location, geographical acertain with identifies individual an less The present. are feelings than rather nationalism ethnic that infer can one a whole, as Spain than Catalonia with more identifies individual the If nationalism. discussing when criterion relevant a very region, a certain geographical to attachment lies theperson’s with relevance Its whole. the place where the individual lives currently, either the country or the region, orthe world as a The first employed indicator is the self–identification with orElsewhere Catalonia 2.1.1. Self–Identificationwith a certain territory, the birth place, or fillingat this gap. andexplain cannot feeling the nationalist in Catalonia (seeHjerm 2003) andis this study aimed meaning could be.Unfortunately, in previous the thefieldresearch isinsufficiently developed of this analysis purpose main the context, historical specific in their origin isindicators’ the to explaining than Rather see if there is any pattern in their evolution over the years and what the 29 We all feel more or less . CEU eTD Collection bond is much more powerful, thus more inclined towards ethnic nationalism. The less the less The nationalism. ethnic towards inclined more thus powerful, more much is bond emotional the or loyalty the that infer can one then nationalist, very himself/herself considers more or less nationalist, but referring to their attachment toCatalonia and not Spain.as If the person respondent the of self–perception the defines sentiment”, “nationalist indicator, second The sentiment 2.1.2. Nationalist territories: or to theWorld. Spain,Europe, other to than land own their to attached more been always have Catalans that conclude inthen 2007. Judgingby relatively the higher in averages upperpartthe of table,the can one also consolidation democratic of times the during more Catalonia with themselves identified Catalans that indicator itisfrom this However, inclear 6.2 2002). decreaseto with exceptional an identification evolvedwith onethe Europe 10by from inscale 0 to 6.8 in1984 to 0.5 (6.3 2007, Latin America),humanity (including their self– as a andtheSpanish–Speakingterritories whole, motherland nowadays.Although then people hadroughly the samethe attitudes towards As inshown in felt Table 1, 1984 Catalans approximately one scalelessattached totheir 1:Self–IdentificationTable withCatalonia or Elsewhere Humanity as a whole Spanish–Speaking territories Europe Spain Catalan–speaking territories Autonomous community The city/village where you live Locations Averages of self – identification 30 6.9 5.0 6.3 6.7 8.86 8.9 8.60 9.45 8.72 9.2 1984 199320022007 6.8 5.24 5.1 6.77 6.2 6.9 8.55 8.3 7.0 7.1 7.0 7.18 5.45 6.8 7.12 7.12 8.20 CEU eTD Collection were neither extreme, nor minimal, but rather moderate in their feelings of nationalism. nationalists, proving that as much as one third of the Catalans in 2007 with nationalist sentiments extreme as Catalans qualifies that field ifthe literature the of some contradicts finding respondents, 27.4%–33.2%, whoplaced in themselves middlethe of 0–10scale.the This forms toamilder is nature ethnic large of alsonoteworthy of percentage nationalism.the civic It With 2002 beingan exception, general the clearly trend shows that nationalism changed from its Catalans who qualified themselves as “maximal nationalists” in 1984 toless then a fifth in 2007). of the a quarter almost (from analysis of years 23 the over decreased steadily nationalism ininmaximal 15.2% increasedfrom with of2002,11.6% 2007, while 1984 to exception the nationalism, minimal that is observation first the 2, in Table displayed results the to According Table 2:Nationalist sentiment “minimal nationalism”and 10 means “maximal nationalism” nationalist sentiment(Catalan), please place yourself 0to onascalefrom 10, where 0means is:from The tothis indicator question original survey referring the bemorenationalist. liableto civic thus national the context, respondent himself/herself perceives likely nationalist, morethe as person’s the outsideopenness Total No answer DK Maximal 19.3 19.9 nationalism 22.8 (7–8) 24.3 (9–10) (4–6) (2–3) Minimal nationalism (0–1) Scales of Nationalism 31 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.7 3.2 23.021.5 27.1 25.6 38.133.2 27.4 28.9 5.7 9.2 11.6 12.7 1984 199320022007 Percentages of Respondents Percentages 0.6 3.5 5.9 . 0.8 3.6 5.4 0.9 3.6 6.3 15.2 In relation withIn relation the CEU eTD Collection Table 3:Satisfaction with the level ofautonomy these formulations/statements. forms of territorialthe Spanishstate. organization Please of withexpress agreementyour oneof The question inasked survey the yielding is: thisindicator civic. than rather nationalism, ethnic the supporting arguments of is part separation territorial then independence, even autonomy level or increasedor an claiming thus territorial organization, current notneeddo independence from ifSpain.turn, In individualsthe express dissatisfaction with the and perceivemulticultural meaning the inside thattherespondents theirenvironment community necessary, are autonomy increase to steps further no then autonomy, of level the with satisfied the current territorial wellasto as inSpain, enjoys of Catalonia autonomy status that tothe refers indicator The third organization ofautonomy thelevel 2.1.3. Satisfactionwith of the Spanish state. If, on average, the individual is fairly Total No answer DK the possibility to become independent. A state inwhich the autonomous communities would have today. A state of autonomous regions withmore powerthan today. like regions of autonomous state A regions. autonomous A state with aunique central government without autonomy of Levels 32 1984 1993 1984 2007 2002 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 1 2.1 26.8 43.6 21.3 5.2 I will I now some present alternative Percentages of respondents Percentages 1.8 2.9 22.8 25.3 38.2 36 27.4 27.1 6.9 1.4 2.7 7.5 1.4 2.8 8.7 22.5 35,1 29.5 CEU eTD Collection analysis. The having possibility of dualidentity has been discussed butwidely in literature the my in indicators important most the of one probably is ethnicity the with self–identification The vs. Spanish 2.1.4. Self–identificationasCatalan independence. not and autonomy, level of an increased want continuously Catalans agree that is it to safe Instead, status of their region vs.within outside Spain, supporting trend the myhypothesis is visible. still an Catalans’unequivocal conclusion about inclusiveness vs. with exclusiveness regard tothe thispercentageindependent, was higherin4.3% Although is figure1984. this toosmall draw to respondents in astate in2007 wanted which Cataloniahave wouldbecome the possibility to the morethan 20% of Interestingly enough, powerof central the although government. decreasing thus more power, for theirwill expressing autonomy region’s the dissatisfaction with percentage its their showed ofCatalans significant Nevertheless, thirdto one population. a of during the 9years between its1984 and1993Catalonia level increased autonomy at a acceptable 27.4% into stayed sameuntil the percentage the 1993 and meansthat approximately This today. satisfaction with the state of autonomous region on the date of the interview,from 21.3% in 1984 discussedin 1984itisthan today. Thisfinding isconfirmed by dramaticthe change of satisfying more andmore citizens, and second, that questionthe of autonomy was much more time over autonomy its increased Catalonia that First, trend. this of explanations possible are two There had time. it atthe than havepower more Catalonia to of wanted 43.6% them than shows a numberwhen this clear decreasing 23 yearsago, trendtoday. from However, As Table 3 shows, a bit over one third of Catalans would like their region to have more power 33 CEU eTD Collection comparable with the high level of duality registered in Belgium and Canada, it seems that seems it Canada, and in Belgium registered duality of level high the with comparable 2007, showing identity improved that this dual years. overthe Although are not percentages the respondents whofeel andSpanish has from in Catalan risen equally 34.8% in1984 to40.9% of percentage the one canobserve that identity. Nevertheless, Catalans havingadualnational The in results grouped confirm a large 4seem Table expectationsthe about to numberof Table 4:Self–identification asCatalan vs. Spanish sentiments? illustratingThe is:question thisindicator andnot typical for exclusiveness ethnic the andcloseness nationalism. nationalism, civic of idea the reflect they then Spanish, and Catalans both themselves consider feel equally Canadian and Quebecois2002). It (Mendehlson is clear bynow if that Catalans as much Likewise, asBelgian as Flemish. 79% of Quebecois considerthemselves the ethnics According Belgian the to approximately General Electoral (1995), Study Flemish 85% of the Belgian. and Flemish both themselves consider people Flemish which to degree the not still is it high, quite is Spanish and asCatalans both feeling Catalans of likelihood the that agree 2001,MorenoWhile 1995, Miley I poorly side (McRoberts empirically 2007). proved on either Total No answer above. ofthe None I consider myself only Catalan. Spanish. than Catalan more feel I equally. Catalan and Spanish feel I I feel Spanish more than Catalan. I consider myself only Spanish. Identities Which of the followingWhich statements of bestdescribesyour 34 100 100 100 100 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.5 2.9 3 3.4 14 16.2 14.8 19.5 26.6 27.7 27.5 29.2 40.9 38.6 37.3 34.8 5.7 7 7.6 7.4 7.6 6.9 1984 1993 2002 2007 Percentages of Respondents 9.5 7.5 3.1 CEU eTD Collection Catalans prove have positive attitude towards immigration, then this would be consistentwith the include in society. majority’swilling to If their onthe they them were born depends there, although become Catalans, to possibility immigrants’ Thusthe Africa). North America and Latin attracts that immigrants from both Spain (especially from Andalucía) and (especially worldwide relevance of this indicator lies with Catalonia’s majorimportance in Spain as an economic power The immigration. towards attitude Catalans’ is the analysis myempirical of indicator last The immigration 2.1.5. Attitudestowards is a clear sign of openness and inclusiveness. civicdouble identification from nationalism demonstrates that given trend the to ethnic indicator society happened between 1980sandthe 1990s.In the words,theethnicother self–identification is Catalan the deepestchange the that showing of with 2002, exception constant, the somewhat they remain which after 1993, 1984and between change adramatic experience percentages 9.5. Interestingly, 7.5 %in2007,againwith it anotable rose to exception when unusually all in to from 5.7% increased1985 Catalans and secondary Catalonia) of ethniccomposition to the a slightoscillation in 2002.Incontrast, people the feltwho primarily were less (whoSpanish due 26.6% in with 2007,although of total,the they to decreasedrepresented 29.2% 1984 when from steadily Spanish than more Catalan felt who respondents of number the Thus, secondary. as other the and asprimary identities of their rank one that percentages the concerns stressed population consider themselves only Another (Moreno1995). dimensionScottish shouldbe that Scottish the 37%of much as whereas GreatBritain, than the nationalist ismore civic Catalonia 35 CEU eTD Collection (moderately) disagreed with the statement that immigrants enrich their culture slightly decreased slightly their enrich culture immigrants that statement with the disagreed (moderately) attitudes immigration remainedtowards almost equal. numberof the who Catalans Similarly, gradually increased toovera third,while the number of whoCatalans had extremely positive years percentage later the 23 their culture, canenrich immigrants that believed Catalans acrescendo Ifintrend in immigrants. a of registered respondents accepting the quarter 1984 only Catalonia is disagree immigration with stillare fairly equal in andpercentages, 33.7% 29.1%,showing that a dividedstrongly agreeand (mildly) peoplewho the is that mainobservation 5. The inTable presented society within as interesting case, this kids areparticularly of between attitudes different the The contrasts regard to immigration. Nevertheless, it is clear that Table 5: Attitudes towards immigration the statement
From Ethnic to Civic Nationalism
