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Nationalism and Identity

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Nationalism and Identity Nationalism and identity Dr. Sylvie Bernard-Patel [email protected] Nationalism Both of the 'great discourses of modernity, liberalism and Marxism, led people to expect not the revival but the gradual disappearance of the nationalist passion' (Stuart Hall, 1992) Contemporary sociologists claim that a process of globalisation has been taking place National boundaries becoming less significant in social life: Communication systems (e.g. internet) transcend such boundaries World's financial market linked by technology Resurgence of nationalism in recent debates - individuals identify more with their nation than with any other grouping: Demands for independence by the Scottish and Welsh in Britain – the Basques in Spain and the Breton in France Nationalism was important following the collapse of the USSR with demands for independence for Lithuania, Estonia, Ukraine among all other countries Former Yugoslavia saw violent civil war as Croatians, Serbs and Bosniacs fought for territory in future independent states Since World War II, every conflict defined itself in nationalist term – the end of the era of nationalism so preconided is not remotely in sight! Nationalism is the most universally legitimate value claimed in the political of our time Importance of nationalism cannot be neglected in social theory, as it becomes an important feature of social life and one that shows little sign of becoming less important! Definition of Nationalism A nation can be defined as a imagined political community, both inherently limited and sovereign: Imagined because members of a nation never all meet/hear one another, yet, they feel they all belong to one community Limited in the sense that nations include people who are regarded as 'belonging' while excluding others regarded as outsiders Sovereign because nationalism seeks or celebrates independence and self-government, exercising supreme and permanent authority in the name of the people Robert Miles (1989): common historical origin in ideologies of racism and nationalism Racism used to justify exploitation of non-Europeans in various parts of the world With the end of colonialism, came the emergence of nationalism, replacing in some extend racism seen as distinct biological groupings of humanity Similarities between two concepts as they both claim existence of a natural division of the world's population into groups BUT one important difference Ideology of nationalism specifies a national self- determination – a belief that a group of people should have a sovereign state Thomas Eriksen (2002): relationship between ethnicity and nationalism Both based upon belief that a group of people is distinctive and has a shared culture Nationalist ideology can be understood as an 'ethnic ideology' demanding a state on behalf of the ethnic group Nationalism used to unite diverse ethnic groups by stressing shared civil rights rather than shared cultural roots Marginal cases of nationalism or ethnicity: group members wanting full independence while others want greater independence (Scottish and Basque nationalism) Nationalism: David McCrone No single theory can account for the diverse forms nationalism takes Number of theories can contribute to understanding the phenomenon Distinction between civic nationalism, ethnic nationalism, state and nation Civic nationalism: nationalist sentiments tied to belonging to a nation – in USA, different ethnic groups share (to some degree) sense of loyalty to the nation Common citizenship is what unites a group of people rather than a common ethnic background Ethnic nationalism: nationalist sentiments focused on ethnicity rather than on citizenship – in former Yugoslavia, Serbs and Croats united because belief in a common ethnic origin Even if civic nationalism is dominant, ethnic groups sharing a common civic nationality may be hostile to one another - ethnic pluralism can sometimes be at odds with civic nationalism Distinction between the nation and the state, often seen as one and the same thing as in the term nation- state State is essentially a political and administrative unit Case of stateless nations where groups in particular regions seek greater autonomy – Scotland in the UK, Catalonia in Spain, Quebec in Canada Relationship between state and nation, territory and ethnicity are complex – there can be no single theory of nationalism Distinction between four types of nationalism: Nationalism and development of the modern nation-state Colonialism and nationalism Neo-nationalism Post-communist nationalism Nationalism and the development of the modern nation-state Related to development of nation-state in Western society – UK, France, USA Type of nation-state seen as product of modernity (linked with the period of Enlightenment) Birth of nation-state emerged with decline of dominant religious thinking and greater acceptance of secular authority Nation-state also connected with break-up of empires (Austrian, Ottoman and Russian empires) Territorial boundaries of nations demarcating important political units - with political divisions, nationalist sentiments became more significant Development of nation-state also related to growth of industrialism and that of capitalism - economic changes played an important part Cultural and ethnic differences highlighted by those trying to create nation-states The more implicit and embedded nationalism is, the more powerful it can be Civic nationalism much more powerful mobiliser in the long term than its 'ethnic' variant Colonialism and Nationalism Type of nationalism developed in colonies and post- colonial societies Opposition to colonial rule appealing to a national identity in trying to mobilise opposition to colonial powers such as Britain and France Anti-colonial movements often advocate and achieve secular states With poor economic development, nationalism in some post-colonial societies become more associated with ethnicity and religion Post-colonial societies have ambiguous identities with nationality, religion and ethnicity all making claims on their loyalty: e.g. post-colonial Egypt, people could think of themselves as Arab, Islamic or Egyptian Issue of different identities being in competition for allegiance India and Algeria: nationalist movement achieved independence with little appeal to religion or ethnicity When economic, social and cultural liberation fail to be delivered (though promised) that counter-risings take place mobilising culture and religion Key component of post-colonial nationalism is the way nationalists define their nation in terms of difference from colonial power Relationship between colonialism and post- colonialism can explain the changing nature of nationalism Though nationalism emerged in opposition to colonialism, it often takes the form of a mirror image While opposing colonialism and asserting difference between colony and colonial power, nationalism often takes on the type of state structure and ideology of nation-state introduced by the coloniser Neo-nationalism Neo-nationalism refers to nationalist independence movements in Western stateless societies like the Basque country, Scotland and Quebec Difficult to explain in terms of conventional theories: most theories of Western nation-states assumed that established and distinct nations would make regional differences disappear as time progresses Neo-nationalism develops when set of circumstances coincide, usually in areas with a strong civil society Key features of civil society are the economy and family/domestic sphere Neo-nationalism develops in regions with strong economies – e.g. Scottish nationalism boosted by discovery of North Sea oil Neo-nationalism develops in areas where people have multiple national identities – e.g. Scots identifying also as British, Catalans as Spanish Neo-nationalism occurring in nation-states belonging to supranational organisation like the European Union Neo-nationalism largely civic rather than ethnic in nature – seen as a multifaceted ideology linking issues of identity to issues of economic and cultural power Post-communist nationalism The collapse of Communism in the USSR and Eastern Europe led to major changes: Some states disappeared: Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia (divided into Czech Republic and Slovakia) East and West Germany fused together Poland, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia regained their independence Ukraine, Georgia and various central Asian republics emerged out of what was the Soviet Union Great deal of dissatisfaction with communist regimes - nationalism became the focus of opposition to communism Under totalitarian communist regimes, deep-seated, historic ethnic divisions were held in check When Communism broke up, opposition became possible and traditional rivalries between ethnic groups reappeared – e.g. appeal of Serbian nationalism Roger Brubaker (1996): three types of post- communist nationalism: Nationalising of state National minorities National homelands Nationalising state: form of nationalism in which a state (often a new one) tries to persuade its citizens to share a common identity based on citizenship National minorities: groups having a primary allegiance to another, often neighbouring state – e.g. significant groups of ethnic Hungarians in Romania and vice versa. National minorities not so significant in Western Europe National homeland: territories in which people claim particular nationalistic ethnicities – e.g. Romania is the national homeland for ethnic Romanians in Hungary The case of former Yugoslavia Under communist regime, Yugoslavia failed to become established
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