The Upper Rio

Negro CO - a brief introduction BR

Kristine Stenzel UFRJ Features of the regional system

 Ethnic and linguistic diversity, geographic distribution

 Features contributing to establishing and maintaining multilingualism:  Language-identity link  Shared cultural practices  Essentialist language ideology Ethnolinguistic Diversity and Geographic Distribution Ethnolinguistic groups and languages East Tukano (18) Arawak (7) Tupi-Guarani Arapaso† Baniwa Nheengatú/Língua Geral Barasana Baré† Bará Kabiyari Yanomami (5) Desano Kuripako Ninam Karapanã Tariana Sanuma Kubeo Werekena Yanomami Makuna Yukuna Yanomam Miriti-tapuyo† Yãroamɨ Wa’ikhana/Piratapuyo Nadahup (Makú) (4) Pisamira Dâw Kákua - Nɨkák (2) Retuarã Hup Siriano Yuhup Taiwano/Eduuria Nadëb National Tatuyo Portuguese Tukano/Ye’pa masa Spanish Tuyuka Kotiria/Wanano Yuruti (Cabalzar e Ricardo 1998; FOIRN/ISA 2000; ISA/PIB) Major Shifts

East Tukano (18) Arawak (7) Tupi-Guarani Arapaso† Baniwa (part) Nheengatú/Língua Geral Barasana Baré† Bará Kabiyari Yanomami (5) Desano Kuripako Ninam Karapanã Tariana Sanuma Kubeo Warekena Yanomami Makuna Yukuna Yanomam Miriti-tapuyo† Yãroamɨ Wa’ikhana Nadahup (Makú) (4) Pisamira Dâw Kákua - Nɨkák (2) Retuarã Hup Siriano Yuhup Taiwano/Eduuria Nadëb National Tatuyo Portuguese Tukano/Ye’pa masa Spanish Tuyuka Kotiria Yuruti (Cabalzar e Ricardo 1998; FOIRN/ISA 2000; ISA/PIB) Major Shifts

East Tukano (18) Arawak (7) Tupi-Guarani Arapaso† Baniwa (part) Nheengatú/Língua Geral Barasana Baré† Bará Kabiyari Yanomami (5) Desano (part) Kuripako Ninam Karapanã Tariana Sanuma Kubeo Warekena Yanomami Makuna Yukuna Yanomam Miriti-tapuyo† Yãroamɨ Wa’ikhana (part) Nadahup (Makú) (4) Pisamira Dâw Kákua - Nɨkák (2) Retuarã Hup Siriano Yuhup Taiwano/Eduuria Nadëb National Tatuyo Portuguese Tukano Spanish Tuyuka Kotiria Yuruti (Cabalzar e Ricardo 1998; FOIRN/ISA 2000; ISA/PIB) K-N  map AR ET YN

NE AR

NA Contact, Language and Social Identity Parallels in Cultural and Discursive Practice

(Epps) Types of contact and interaction

General: Frequent interaction in ritual/ceremonial activities Institutionalized exchange of material goods, with trade specializations: Baniwa (Ribeiro 1995) Tukano Tuyuka Nadahup East Tukano and (AR) Tariana, Baniwa: Intermarriage via linguistic exogamy Language - ‘badge’ of social identity

 Individual affiliated to a language group by patrilineal descent;  Reinforced by social practices:  Virilocality  Group – territory association  Exogamic marriage (group=phratry)  Agnates (proscribed) / Affins (cross-cousins preferred)  Principle of ‘sister exchange’  Importance of geographic proximity - formation of ‘in- law’ groups and local linguistic ‘repertoires’ (Sorensen 1967; Jackson 1974, 1976, 1983; C. Hugh-Jones 1979; Chernela 1993; Cabalzar 2000; Stenzel 2005, many others) Linguistic Exogamy

PATRILINEAL DESCENT

REINFORCEMENT CROSS-COUSIN MOTHER’S OFFATHER’S MOTHER’S SISTER’S MARRIAGE BROTHER’S LANGUAGEDAUGHTER DAUGHTER

SISTER EXCHANGE Multilingual Individual Multilingual Community

kotiria tukano tariana masc fem desano baniwa Ideology and language ‘etiquette’ Essentialist language ideology

 Speaking=being  patrilect ‘loyalty’

 Hierarchization of individual’s repertoire: patrilect “language I speak” > matrilect, alterlects “languages I imitate”

 Norms of ‘Language etiquette’:  avoidance and repression of ‘imperfect’ (learner) / ‘mixed’ speech (code-switching, lexical borrowing)  pure ‘monolingual’ speech as ideal

(Chernela 1989, 2003, 2004, 2013; Chernela & Shulist 2014; Aikhenvald 2002; Gomez- Imbert 1991, 1993, 1996) Essentialist language ideology

 System maintenance (Gomez-Imbert 1991):

In a context of intense contact that promotes convergence, speakers make “explicit and conscious efforts” to keep linguistic codes distinct and ‘pure’. Multilingual speech - challenges on the horizon What do we think we know and what do we really know?

 Traditional ‘simultaneous’ multilingualism (ET, AR) (Chernela & Shulist 2014)

 Non-reciprocal bilingualism (NA, KN) (Epps 2008, 2016; Bolaños 2016)

 Permitted code-switching (Gomez-Imbert XX; Aikhenvald 2002)

 Use of national languages

 Special circumstances: quotation, imitation,

 Anything else? Dynamics of ‘small-scale’ multilingual systems (Singer & Harris 2016; Lüpke 2016)

 “Ongoing, balanced multilingualism practiced in regionally confined societies.”

 “[Systems] found in areas with little or only recent exposure to Western language ideologies, but are highly vulnerable to external pressures that can quickly undermine local multilingual patterns”

 “[Systems in which] mismatches between language ideologies - [what speakers say/believe they do] - and actual communicative practices are systematic, necessitating “studies of actual language use in naturalistic (not self- censored) settings” The next big challenge. . .

 Documentation of everyday interaction, CA/IL methodology in conjunction with micro-level grammatical analysis & socioling interviews.

Implications:

better understanding of range of speech modalities: monolingual  multilingual

Role of multilingual elements in social interaction

Language contact, language change References

Aikhenvald, A. 2002. Language Contact in Amazonia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cabalzar, A. 2000. Descendência e aliança no espaço tuyuka. A noção de nexo regional no noroeste amazônico. Revista de Antropologia 43: 61-88. Cabalzar, A. and B. Ricardo 1998. Povos Indígenas do alto e médio rio Negro: uma introdução à diversidade cultural e ambiental do noroeste da Amazônica brasileira. São Paulo/São Gabriel da Cachoeira: Instituto Socioambiental/FOIRN. Chernela, J. 1989. Marriage, Language, and History among Eastern Tukanoan Speaking Peoples of the Northwest Amazon. The Latin American Anthropology Review 1(2): 36-42. _____. 1993. The Wanano Indians of the Brazilian Amazon: A Sense of Space. Austin: University of Texas Press. _____. 2003. Language Ideology and Women’s Speech: Talking Community in the Northwest Amazon. American Anthropologist 105(4): 794-806. _____. 2004. The Politics of Language Acquisition: Language Learning as Social Modeling in the Northwest Amazon. Women and Language 27: 13-21. _____. 2013. Toward an East Tukano Ethnolinguistics: Metadiscursive Practices, Identity, and Sustained Linguistic Diversity in the Vaupés Basin of Brazil and Colombia. In Upper Rio Negro: Cultural and Linguistic Interaction in Northwestern Amazonia, edited by Patience Epps & Kristine Stenzel, 197-244. Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional, Museu do Índio-FUNAI. Chernela, J. and S. Shulist 2014. Designing Difference: Ideology and Language Change in the Northwest Amazon of Brazil. Paper presented at the 113th Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Washington D.C. Epps, P. and K. Stenzel (eds.) 2013. Upper Rio Negro: Cultural and Linguistic Interaction in Northwestern Amazonia. Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional, Museu do Índio-FUNAI http://nupeli-gela.weebly.com/epps--stenzel-2013.html FOIRN (Federação das Organizações Indígenas do Rio Negro) & ISA (Instituto Socioambiental) 2005. Levantamento socioeconômico, demográfico e sanitário da cidade de São Gabriel da Cachoeira (AM). Gomez-Imbert, E. Force des langues vernaculaires en situation d’exogamie linguistique: Le cas du Vaupés colombien, Nord-ouest amazonien. Cahiers des Sciences Humaines 27(3–4):535–59. _____. 1996. When Animals become ‘Rounded’ and ‘Feminine’: Conceptual Categories and Linguistic Classification in a Multilingual Setting. In Rethinking Linguistic Relativity, edited by John J. Gumperz & Stephen. C. Levinson, 438-469. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. References

Hosemann, A. 2013. Women’s song exchanges in the Northwest Amazon: Contacts between groups, languages, and individuals. In Upper Rio Negro: Cultural and Linguistic Interaction in Northwestern Amazonia, edited by Patience Epps & Kristine Stenzel, 245-269. Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional, Museu do Índio-FUNAI. Hugh-Jones, C. 1979 From the Milk River. Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISA (Insitituto Socioambiental) Povos Indígenas do Brasil - online. http://pib.socioambiental.org/ Jackson, J. E. Language and Identity of the Colombian Vaupés Indians. In Explorations in the Ethnography of Speaking, edited by Richard Bauman & Joel Sherzer, 50-64. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. _____. 1976. Vaupés Marriage: a Network System in an Undifferentiated Lowland Area of South America. In Regional Analysis. Vol 2: Social Systems, edited by Carol A. Smith, 65-93. New York, NY: Academic Press. _____. 1983. The Fish People: Linguistic Exogamy and Tukanoan Identity in Northwest Amazonia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lüpke. F. 2016. Pure fiction – the Interplay of Indexical and Essentialist Language Ideologies and Heterogeneous Practices: A view from Agnack. Language Documentation and Description, 10 [Special Publication Series]. Neves, E. 2001. Indigenous historical trajectories in the Upper Rio Negro basin. In Unknown Amazon, eds. Colin McEwan, Christiana Barreto and Eduardo Neves, pp. 266-286. London: The British Museum Press. Ribeiro, B. G. 1995. Os índios das águas pretas: modo de produção e equipamento produtivo. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras/EdUSP. Singer, R, and S. Harris 2016. What practices and ideologies support small-scale multilingualism?: A case study of unexpected language survival in an Australian Indigenous community. International Journal for the Sociology of Language. Sorensen, A. P. Jr. 1967. Multilingualism in the Northwest Amazon. American Anthropologist 69: 670-684. Stenzel, K. 2005. Multilingualism in the Northwest Amazon, Revisited. Paper presented at the II Congress on Indigenous Languages of Latin America CILLA, Austin, Texas. http://www.ailla.utexas.org/site/cilla2_toc_sp.html Stenzel, K. and V. Khoo. 2016. Linguistic hybridity: a case study in the Kotiria community. Language Ideologies and Multilingualism, special volume of Critical Multilingualism Studies 4.2: 75-110.