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Human Dietary Change on the Central Plains of China from 770 BC to 220 AD

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Human Dietary Change on the Central Plains of China from 770 BC to 220 AD From State to Empire: Human Dietary Change on the Central Plains of China from 770 BC to 220 AD by Ligang Zhou A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology University of Alberta © Ligang Zhou, 2016 Abstract This study is designed to investigate human dietary features on the Central Plains of China during the social transition from regional states to centralized empire, which occurred during the period from the Eastern Zhou to the Han Dynasty (770BC-220 AD). Human remains from four sites and animal remains from one site dated within this period were sampled for stable isotope analysis. The faunal isotope data reflect variable animal husbandry strategies, probably corresponding with the economic values of different species. The animal remains included pig, dog, cattle, and sheep, all of which were the possible meat resources for both the Zhou and Han people, while pigs and dogs were the most common ones. The human isotopic data reveal different dietary practices between the Eastern Zhou rural and urban areas. The urban diet featured limited meat and a significant amount of wheat, and it was further stratified by social status: poor individuals in the city consumed more wheat than the wealthy. In contrast, contemporary rural people ate millet as their staple food and included slightly more meat in their diet. This likely indicates that Eastern Zhou urban diets suffered from constant warfare and the concentration of population in the city, while those of the contemporary rural people remained stable and similar to traditional diets before this era. The Han Dynasty witnessed significant changes in human diet, reflected in a substantial increase in the dietary proportions of wheat and meat. The most apparent feature of human diet during this transforming period is that status- related differences were reflected in the amount of wheat rather than meat in the diet. This change was the first significant human dietary transition on the Central Plains since Late Neolithic times, and had profound influences on human diet and health in the following dynasties. ii Along with the investigation of dietary change, this study also discusses several topics that the literature has, thus far, debated or addressed insufficiently. Based on temporal comparisons of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values, the “bottom-up model” (from low social class to upper class) of wheat’s expansion in human diet on the plains is supported, and the long-held belief by many experts regarding soybeans as a staple food has been rejected. Additionally, the possibility of manuring effects on human collagen isotopic values on the plains has been excluded. A comparison in the context of published data has revealed a unidirectional dietary difference between males and females in agricultural societies of the Zhou and Han dynasties, probably related to sexual division of labour. Dietary isotopes’ potential as preliminary indicators of human mobility in China have been evaluated for the first time and the results are exciting. They demonstrate that distinctive dietary features are not only able to reveal possible individual immigrants, but are also capable of identifying possible moving populations. In conclusion, the drastic social changes from state to empire affected human diets significantly. However, suffering during these chaotic times triggered a significant dietary change, which eventually benefited both individuals and society in ancient China. This study demonstrates the value of expanding the research aspects of dietary isotopes by re-analyzing the published data. It reveals the considerable potential of historical stable isotope studies to illuminate details of human diets previously invisible to other methods. iii Preface This thesis is an original work by Ligang Zhou. No part of this thesis has been previously published. The research project, of which this thesis is a part, received research ethics approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board, Project Name “Dietary study on ancient people living on the Central Plains of northern China from the eighth century BC to third century AD”, Study ID “Pro00042774”, September 20, 2013. iv Acknowledgements This study is funded by the China Scholarship Council (CSC), Henan Provincial Founding for Archaeological Research on the South-to-North Water Transfer Project, and Annual Founding for Cultural Heritage Preservation in Henan Province (2015). I would like to thank all the following individuals from different organizations in China, this project would not be possible without their assistance. Director Ms. Chen Ailan, deputy director Dr. Ma Xiaolin, and division head Prof. Zhang Zhiqing from Henan Provincial Administration of Cultural Heritage, retired director Prof. Sun Xinmin and director Prof. Jia Lianmin from Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology (HPICHA), offered great support to my study in Canada. My MA supervisor Dr. Xu Chengtai from Wuhan University, Prof. Fan Wenquan, Mr. Yang Shugang, and Mr. Xiaolong Chu from HPICHA, generously allowed me to sample their published/unpublished materials for this study, and facilitated my field work in different ways. Dr. Sun Lei, Dr. Wang Juan, and Mr. Hou Yanfeng offered me help in studying the human and faunal samples from different sites; Dr. Chen Jiachang, Ms. Tang Jing, and Mr. Guo Yang kindly assisted me arranging the laboratory space and instruments. Dr. Hu Yaowu from University of Chinese Academy of Sciences recommended to me the stable isotope laboratory in China, and Dr. Li Yuzhong from Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences analyzed my collage samples for stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes. My training for sample preparation was done in University of Alberta. Alvin Kwan from the Biogeochemical Analytical Service Laboratory analyzed the training samples. I also benefited greatly from discussions and talks with my classmate and friend Lacey Fleming, when we were working in the same laboratory. Faun Rice from Department of Anthropology polished the language of my dissertation. Other friends from different departments in U of A, including v Benjamin Osipov, Wang Pengfei, Tang Yao, Lu Lei, Zhang Qi, and many others supported me greatly through the highs and lows of my life and study in Canada. It is my honor to have Dr. Jean DeBernardi, Dr. Robert Losey, and Dr. Lesley Harrington from our department serving in my exam committee, the first two professors are also in my supervisory committee. Their constructive suggestions, as well as the valuable comments from the external reader, helped me greatly to improve my dissertation after the defense. My appreciation to all of them. Special thanks must be given to my supervisor Dr. Sandra Garvie-Lok for her supervision and directions in the past four years. I am thankful for her insightful decision to take a chance on me in 2012, when I had very limited knowledge on SIA and she did not study Chinese archaeology; this has marked the beginning of a new phase in my academia life. It must have cost her much extra time and effort for supervising a student like me with English as a second language, but she has impressed me with her insight, dedication, and patience in her supervisory work. It is my honor, and also a great pleasure to study with her. I am deeply indebted to my wife Ms. Wang Wenjia, whose courage of supporting me to study abroad when our son was just born is admired. After I left China when our son was ten months old, she has experienced a hard time during the past four years taking care of an energetic toddler on her own. However difficult, she has never complained a word and always been supportive of my study. I find myself at a loss to fully express my gratitude to her. Finally, I am grateful to our parents and siblings for their help to my wife and son when I am away studying in Canada. I love you all. In the end, I would also like to thank all the liquor stores close to our campus. Your collections of strong Chinese spirits always boost up my spirit during hard times. vi Table of Contents List of Tables x List of Appendices xi List of Figures xii Glossary of Terms Spelled in Chinese pinyin 拼音 xiv 1. Introduction 1 2. Background 6 2.1 Brief History 6 2.2 Social Structure and Archaeology 10 2.2.1 The Eastern Zhou: sumptuary rules and social hierarchy 10 2.2.2 The Han Dynasty: ranks and social structure 13 2.3 Background Information on Human Diet 18 2.3.1 General background 18 2.3.2 Food and diet in the Eastern Zhou 22 2.3.3 Food and diet in the Han Dynasty 27 2.4 Questions Arising from Previous Works 33 2.5 Study Region: the Central Plains in Northern China 36 3. Background to Stable Isotope Analysis 42 3.1 Stable Isotope Analysis and the Study of Paleodiet 42 3.1.1 Essentials on stable isotopes 42 3.1.2 Stable isotope analysis and paleodietary studies 44 3.2 SIA and Paleodietary Studies in China 53 3.3 SIA and the Research Questions 57 4. Materials and Methods 60 4.1 Human Samples and Archaeological Background 60 4.1.1 Yangdi site 61 4.1.2 Chenjiagou site 62 4.1.3 Ancient Xinzheng city 64 4.1.4 Xuecun site 70 4.2 Animal Samples 76 4.3 Methods 77 4.3.1 Sex and age estimation of human remains 77 4.3.2 Sample preparation and stable isotope analysis 79 4.3.3 Statistical analysis 81 5. Results and Site Level Interpretation 82 5.1 Sample Preservation 82 5.2 Stable Isotope Values of Animals 84 5.3 Human Samples from Yangdi Site 88 5.4 Human Samples from Chenjiagou Site 92 5.5 Human Samples from Ancient Xinzheng City 97 5.5.1 General features 97 5.5.2 Social status and human diet at ancient Xinzheng city 99 5.5.3 Temporal comparison 103 5.5.4 Sex-based dietary comparison 106 5.5.5 Dietary features of distinctive individuals 107 5.6 Human Samples from Xuecun Site 109 5.6.1 General feature 109 5.6.2 Sex-related comparison 112 5.6.3 Economic condition and human diet 114 5.6.4 Grave distribution and diet 117 5.6.5 Temporal comparisons 118 5.6.6 Diets of distinctive individuals 119 5.6.7 Dietary comparison within multiple burials 122 5.6.8 Conclusion of human dietary feature at Xuecun site 124 6.
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