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Home , Haojing, Shangdu, Winter solstice

and Sunset Azimuths in the Planning of Ancient Chinese Towns Amelia Carolina Sparavigna

To cite this version:

Amelia Carolina Sparavigna. Sunrise and Sunset Azimuths in the Planning of Ancient Chinese Towns. International Journal of Sciences, Alkhaer, UK, 2013, 2 (11), pp.52-59. ￿10.18483/ijSci.334￿. ￿hal- 02264434￿

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1Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Italy

Abstract: In the planning of some Chinese towns we can see an evident orientation with the cardinal direction north-south. However, other features reveal a possible orientation with the directions of sunrise and sunset on too, as in the case of Shangdu (), the summer capital of Kublai . Here we discuss some other examples of a possible solar orientation in the planning of ancient towns. We will analyse the plans of Xi’an, Khanbalik and Dali.

Keywords: Satellite Imagery, Orientation, ,

1. Introduction different from a solar orientation with sunrise and Recently we have discussed a possible solar sunset directions. The north-south direction is the orientation of Shangdu, also known as Xanadu, the projection on the surface of the “axis mundi”, summer capital of [1]. Xanadu has an which is the cosmic axis connecting Heaven and evident orientation along the north-south cardinal Earth and passing through the celestial poles. This direction; however, the remains of the walls seem to direction can be easily determined using the shadow have some features, planned according to the of a gnomon, which is a vertical pole on a horizontal directions of sunrise and sunset on the solstices. Their plane, as told in the De Architectura written by azimuths are formed by the vector from the observer Vitruvius, or by observing the azimuths of rising and to the rising or setting on the horizontal plane and setting of some stars [6-8]. Both methods were well a reference vector on this plane. To know the known during ancient times. azimuths and the noon altitude of the sun at a specific location on a given day of the year we can use Orienting temples, monuments or towns due North software provided by Sollumis.com. This software is could mean an orientation with the axis about which also drawing on the Google satellite maps some lines all the world is rotating (to ancient people the world showing the direction and height of the sun was the physical universe). In the case of a solar throughout the day. Thicker and shorter lines mean orientation, the plan of buildings or towns has a the sun is higher in the sky. Longer and thinner lines direction usually inclined with respect the cardinal mean the sun is closer to the horizon. Using directions, because the solar azimuth at sunrise or Sollumis.com for instance, we can easily find solar sunset changes during the year (see for instance the orientations in the layout of some Chinese Pyramids orientations of ancient Roman towns or of the Gothic burial complexes, as discussed in the Reference 2. cathedrals of France [9-11]). However, the two Here, let us try to find some other examples of solar orientations can be combined: in the planning of orientation in planning of ancient Chinese towns. Xanadu we can find the north-south orientation with Heavens, and also an orientation with the solar As told in [1], the ancient Chinese urban planning azimuth on solstices. For instance, from the center of included some symbolisms concerning cosmology, the imperial palace, looking at the south gate, on the geomancy, astrology and numerology [3,4], with the , the sun was rising and setting in aim of maintaining a local harmony and balance. One correspondence of two bastions of the walls (Figure of the most evident features of this urban planning is 1). Then, a solar orientation is appearing, created by a grid having a north-south orientation, since the Qi some elements of the walls, which became like the flows along this direction [4]. In traditional Chinese boundary of a local symbolic horizon. culture, Qi is an active principle forming part of any living creature, that is, a natural energy flow [5]. This The town of Xanadu was planned by the architect Liu north-south orientation was already found in a very Bingzhong (1216–1274), the Kublai’s adviser [1], old settlement, at Banpo, near Xi’an. Banpo who suggested a calendar reform. And in fact, in is representing what was probably a typical 1276, according to this advice of , settlement of , five or six thousand years Kublai Khan decided the reform ordering to build ago [3]. Let us note that a north-south orientation is several astronomical observatories throughout China.

Amelia Carolina Sparavigna (Correspondence)   [email protected], [email protected]

DOI: 10.18483/ijSci.334

Sunrise and Sunset Azimuths in the Planning of Ancient Chinese Towns

We could tell that the Khan and his architect had a common deep interest in astronomy.

Figure 1 - The ruins of Xanadu as seen in the Google Maps. The walls have two gates oriented north-south and circular protruding structures, some round bastions. From the center of the imperial palace, looking at the south gate, on the , the sun is rising and setting in correspondence of two bastions of the walls. This orientation according to the solar azimuth is rendering the walls like the limit of a local symbolic horizon (probably Kublai Khan and his architect shared a common interest in astronomy). The direction of the sun during the winter solstice is given by Sollumis.com (http://www.sollumis.com/). This site provides a polar diagram, overlaying a satellite map, showing the directions of the sun for any day of the year. The lines on the drawing show the direction and height (altitude) of the sun. Thicker lines mean the sun is higher in the sky. Longer and thinner lines mean the sun is closer to the horizon.

The orientation of buildings to cardinal directions is Khanbalik are cases where, as we have already found considered one of the general characteristics of the in Xanadu, the solar orientation is combined with the Chinese imperial urbanism [3], such as the regular cardinal orientation. However, before their subdivision of the urban plan. This fact was remarked discussion, let us shortly report some parts of the by Francis John Haverfield (1850-1919), British Appendix written by Haverfield in his book [12]. historian and archaeologist [12]: in his book (1913) on the planning of ancient towns, he proposed that 2. Haverfield’s discussion on the Chinese town- the Chinese towns were laid out in a fashion planning connected with a very old agrarian system. A link Haverfield tells the following: “Many towns in China between town-planning and agrarian system can also and also in show more or less definite traces of be found for the ancient Roman towns, whose chess-board planning which recall the customs of the planning had based on a “centuriation”, a ritual of Macedonian and Roman worlds. The outlines of such land orientation and subdivision; the orientation was towns are sometimes rectangular, though sometimes obtained from a central viewpoint, looking towards wholly irregular as if the sport of local conditions; the rising sun [9,10]. Therefore, several Roman their streets, or at least their main streets run colonies have the main street, the decumanus, generally straight and at right angles to one another oriented with the sunrise azimuth on the day of their and end at symmetrically placed gateways. This is no foundation. Let us stress that a “pure” solar modern device. Probably it goes back two thousand, orientation is given according to the “orientem” (in or even three thousand, years. The illustration which I Latin “oriens” is the rising sun), whereas an (F.J. Haverfield) give here, in fig. 36 (the map is orientation with the cardinal north-south direction is reproduced here in the Figure 2, where it is compared according to the “cardo” of the world, the pivot on with satellite Google Maps), showing one of the which the world turns, that is, the pole of the sky. Chinese military colonies planted in Turkestan in the eleventh or twelfth century, is selected not as the F.J. Haverfield is dating back the Chinese town- oldest, but as the best example which I can find of planning to two or three thousand years ago. But, one more or less ancient Chinese planning. There seems of its features, the north-south orientation, is quite no doubt that the system itself is very much more older as demonstrated by the Banpu settlement. In ancient than this instance. Even in Japan, which Refs. 3-5, solar orientations are not considered. Here, probably copied China in this respect, towns were we will show some examples of this orientation in the laid out in chess-board fashion long before the urban plan of Xi’an, Khanbalik and Dali. Xi’an and twelfth century; such are the former capitals, Kioto

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and Nara, the latter of which is said to have been to China or from China to , nothing happened founded as early as AD 708. Probably the custom is in consequence. Chinese coins are unknown in the connected with a very old agrarian system, , and Roman coins are exceedingly sometimes known as the Tsing system, according to rare in China or anywhere east of Cape Comorin. The which land was divided into square parcels and each Roman geographers, who knew the coasts of Asia to parcel was subdivided into nine equal squares. The Ceylon, knew little beyond it, and Ptolemy failed to origin of this system has been ascribed to the twelfth see that the overland route to the far east and the sea- and even to the eighteenth century BC … It seems route led to the same country. The early Chinese had that this system may be closely connected with the no doubt heard of the Roman Empire, just as the system of laying out settlements and towns, which Romans had heard of China; such hearsay does not developed collaterally with it and produced Chinese produce any great effect on the civilization of either town-planning. In China, as at Rome, it would appear side. The Chinese doubtless knew much more of that the technical principles on which town and Bactria; and Greek, or rather Graeco-Buddhist art, country were laid out were intimately akin. One has left abundant traces in the desert cities of central item in the Chinese ‘chess-board' plan is curiously Asia as far as the Chinese Wall. But a town-plan is parallel to a feature which occasionally occurs in too complex a thing to travel well. It is plainly more Roman towns. In many Chinese cities, where the likely that east and west reached their similar results streets are straight and run at right angles to one quite independently. …” And with this Haverfield’s another, the gates towards which they point are conclusion, let us stop reporting the appendix of his nevertheless not vis-à-vis, but the main thoroughfares book. between the gates make two right-angled turns at some point in their otherwise straight course. Thus The site shown is the Figure 2 is that of Khara-Khoto travellers do not pass through the town in one (Eji Nai City or Heishui City). According to [13], the continuous straight line, and, as in fig. 36, the east town was founded in 1032 and became prosper gate is not just opposite the west gate but a short trading center in the 11th century. There are remains distance to the right or left. … For ordinary European of high and thick outer walls. Inside there was a readers this town-planning of ancient China raises the walled fortress, first taken by in 1226; interesting, if unprofitable, question of the intercourse the city continued to flourish under Mongol rulers. In between ancient China and ancient Europe. The the Figure 3 we can easily see that the town was Chinese scholar Terrien de la Couperie once larger than its citadel (the satellite image was suggested that Chinese civilization was derived from processed as discussed in [14,15]). Kublai Khan Babylonia somewhere about 2600 BC. Arguments ruling, the city was expanded, reaching a size three concerning that period are perhaps dangerous, but it times larger the original one. The city was located on is hardly probable that the Babylonians used town- the crossroads connecting , Xanadu and planning so long ago. Whatever connexion there may Kumul. visited a city called Etzina or have been in ancient times between eastern and Edzina, which has been identified with Khara-Khoto western town-planning must be more recent. Our [13]. knowledge of these more recent times, however, does not make a connexion seem probable. Not only are From Figure 2 and 3, we see that Khara-Khoto has an the physical obstacles plain enough - the long axis on the east-west direction. Karakorum has not perilous seas that wash the coasts of southern Asia the streets oriented with the east-west cardinal and the immense deserts and immense mountains of direction, but with an azimuth angle of approximately the central continent - but satisfactory proof of real 115 degrees, as we can easily see using Google Earth. intercourse is wanting. If, as one recent writer This angle corresponds to the sunrise azimuth on the emphasizes, the spheres of Roman and Chinese beginning of February or November. It is, more or influence, about AD 100, were divided only by the less, the same orientation of Torino, the Roman Julia waters of the Caspian, if Chinese silk was brought to Augusta Taurinorum [9]. Rome, and two or three embassies set out from Rome

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Figure 2 – On the left, the illustration given by F. Haverfield of Khara-Khoto. On the right, the Google Map of the site.

Figure 3 - Khara-Khoto was larger than its fortified citadel, as we can see in the satellite maps. The map has been processed using AstroFracTool and GIMP [14].

3. Xi'an length and 12–16 m in thickness at the base. Xi'an has a rich and culturally significant history. As Chang'an was devastated by wars at the end of the previously told, the 6,500 year old Banpo Neolithic Tang Dynasty in 904 CE and the residents were village was discovered on the outskirts of the city forced to move to the new capital . The [3,16,17]. Xi'an became a political center of China in town-planning of Chang'an during the Tan dynasty is the 11th century BCE, with the . The given in Ref.18. It is possible to see the subdivision capital of Zhou was established in the twin of the land, according to the rules discussed in [4,5]. settlements of Fengjing and Haojing, located southwest of contemporary Xi'an. After the Warring During the , new walls had been built States Period, China was unified under the in 1370s and we can see them intact today. The walls Dynasty (221-206 BCE) for the first time, with the measure 11.9 km in length, 12 m and 15–18 m in capital located at Xianyang, northwest the modern thickness at the base; a moat was also built outside Xi'an. The first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang has the perimeter. his mausoleum near Xi'an. Xi'an has both cardinal and solar orientations. Using In 202 BCE, the emperor Liu Bang of the Han the satellite maps, we can easily see that the town has Dynasty established his capital in Chang'an County, a main street oriented with the cardinal north-south and this is traditionally considered the founding date axis (see Fig.4), and the walls have two gates on this of Chang'an, that is, Xi'an. The original Xi'an city axis. The walls have east and west gates, which are walls creation started in 194 BCE and took four years on a perpendicular street of course; however, if we to be completed. The walls measured 25.7 km in use Sollumis.com software, as we did for Xanadu, we

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see that these gates can be seen from the crossing of west gates were arranged according to the sunrise and two main roads with the same azimuths of sunrise sunset azimuths of the sun on the winter solstice. and sunset on winter solstice. It seems then that, Again, the walls could represent the boundary of a together with the cardinal orientation, the east and local symbolic horizon, as in the case of Xanadu.

Figure 4 - The East and West gates of Xi’an can be seen from the crossing of two main roads with the azimuths of sunrise and sunset on the winter solstice. We can easily see it by means of the polar diagram at the site Sollumis.com on the Google Maps.

4. Khanbalik were taken into consideration. And this seems the Khanbalik or Dadu refers to a city which is now subdivision of the ancient Roman towns, during the . The city was called Dadu, meaning "great “centuriation” [9]. It is suitable to report here what capital" or "grand capital" of the Reference 20 is telling on the grid-plan of Chinese founded by Kublai Khan, It is known as Khanbalik, towns, about the guidelines written in Kaogongji meaning the ‘great residence of the Khan’, and Marco during the Spring and Period (770-476 BC): Polo wrote of it as Cambaluc [19]. The architect and "a capital city should be square on plan. Three gates planner of Dadu was Liu Bingzhong, the architect of on each side of the perimeter lead into the nine main Xanadu. The construction of the walls of the city streets that crisscross the city and define its grid- began in 1264, while the imperial palace was built pattern. And for its layout the city should have the from 1274 onwards. As told in [19], the design of Royal Court situated in the south, the Marketplace in Dadu followed the rules of 9 vertical axes and 9 the north, the Imperial Ancestral Temple in the east horizontal axes, and “palaces in the front, markets in and the Altar to the Gods of Land and Grain in the the rear”, “left ancestral worship, right god worship” west."

Figure 5 - Khanbalik in Beijing.

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The perimeter of Khanbalik is shown in the Figure 5. having the origin at the crossing of two main roads in This town has a north-south cardinal orientation. the northern part of the city. Using an origin on the However, has it a solar orientation too? Using the Imperial Garden of , we can have a Sollumis.com diagrams for the winter and the polar diagram for the . The winter summer solstice, we can find two interesting facts, and summer sunrise/sunset directions cross at two depicted in Figures 6 and 7. Let us look at Figure 6: points of the perimeter, which determine a line we have a polar diagram for the winter solstice, halving the city.

Figure 6: The direction of the sun during the summer and the winter solstices as given by Sollumis.com. The polar diagram for the winter solstice has the origin at the crossing of two main roads in the northern part of the city. Using an origin on the Imperial Garden of the Forbidden City, we can have a polar diagram for the summer solstice. The winter and summer sunrise/sunset lines cross at two points of the perimeter, which determine a line halving the city.

Figure 7 - The direction of the sun during the summer/winter solstice. The polar diagrams have the same origins as in the Figure 6. The azimuth of sunrise and sunset is passing through the corners of the perimeter.

Moreover, in the Figure 7, we can see that using the 1406 to 1420, and consisting of a large number of same origins of the polar diagrams for the azimuth of buildings [21]. It is remarkable the bilateral the sun during the summer/winter solstice, the symmetry of the plan of this complex. This symmetry directions of sunrise and sunset are passing through signifies balance [22]. And we have the symmetry of the corners of the perimeter. And this is a solar the sun direction too, as shown in the Figure 8. The orientation nested in the cardinal planning of the polar diagrams have origin at the Hall of the Central town, to represent a local symbolic horizon. Harmony in the Forbidden City, which is between the Hall of Preserving Harmony (north) and that of the Inside Khanbalik, we have The Forbidden City. It Supreme Harmony (south). The azimuths of sunrise was the Chinese imperial palace from the Ming and sunset are passing through the corners of the Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty, built from perimeter of the structure. Then, observing the sun http://www.ijSciences.com Volume 2 - November 2013 (11) 57

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from the Central Hall during the year, we have a orientation. It is then quite possible that architects balance of solar directions. had included in their planning, an orientation of some elements with the sunrise/sunset azimuths on These examples proposed in Figures 6, 7 and 8 show solstices. However, the ancient Chinese towns are that the bilateral symmetry, used in the planning of a not only planned on the cardinal orientation. Let us town, had as a consequence the symmetry of solar see a good example of pure solar orientation, as we directions, in the case the town had a cardinal can find for the Roman towns [8,9].

Figure 8 - The direction of the sun during the summer/winter solstice as given by Sollumis.com. The polar diagrams have origin at the Hall of the Central Harmony in the Forbidden City, which is between the Hall of Preserving Harmony (north) and that of the Supreme Harmony (south). The sunrise and sunset directions are passing through the corners of the perimeter of the structure.

Figure 9 - Dali, in the Yunnan province of China, as seen in Wikimapia, with its wall and gates. We have the north and south gates, and the east and the “mountain” gates. Note that the town has not a cardinal orientation.

5. Dali and the sun and 9th centuries, and the Kingdom of Dali, which Dali is a town in the Yunnan province of China. It reigned from 937 to 1253. Founded in 937, in 1253 it was the ancient capital of both the Bai kingdom was annexed in the . The Kingdom of Nanzhao, which flourished in the area during the 8th Dali was preceded by the Nanzhao Dynasty, which http://www.ijSciences.com Volume 2 - November 2013 (11) 58

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was overthrown in 902. Three dynasties followed in less. Therefore, a “pure” solar orientation of the quick succession, until Duan Siping became king in town-planning is possible for a Chinese town too. 937, founding Dali. The 11th king of Nanzhao established as the state religion: several of 6. Conclusions the kings of Dali gave up the throne and became In these examples we have seen that, besides the monks [23,24]. In 1274 the Province of Yunnan was cardinal orientation of the town-planning, we can also created by the Yuan Dynasty. The “old city” was have some elements showing a solar orientation, that built during Ming Dynasty emperor Hongwu's reign is, an orientation according to the azimuths of (1368–1398) [23]: Figure 9 shows it, as we can see in sunrise/sunset on solstices. However, other towns can Wikimapia, with its walls and gates. We have north have a pure solar orientation of their streets, as that and south gates, and east and “mountain” gates. Note we can observe for the ancient Roman towns. It that the town has not a cardinal orientation. Using seems then that an investigation of many Chinese Sollumis.com, we have the result in the Figure 10: towns, using satellite maps and software for solar the direction of the streets is the same as that of the analysis, could be interesting to obtain a more sunrise azimuth on 20th of May (or July), more or statistically significant result.

Figure 10 - The direction of the sun on 20th of May given by Sollumis.com.

References [10] G. Magli, On the Orientation of Roman Towns in Italy, [1] A.C. Sparavigna, A Solar Orientation in the Town-Planning of arXiv:physics/0703213 [physics.pop-ph]. Xanadu, Archaeogate, 7 2013. [11] A.C. Sparavigna, Ad Orientem: the Orientation of Gothic [2] A.C. Sparavigna, The Chinese Pyramids and the Sun, Cathedrals of France, arXiv:1209.2338 [physics.hist-ph]. arXiv:1211.0915 [physics.hist-ph]. [12] F.J. Haverfield, Ancient Town-Planning, Claredon Press, [3] Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt, Chinese Imperial City Planning, 1913. 1999, University of Hawaii Press, page 153, ISBN 0-8248-2196-3. [13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khara-Khoto [4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_urban_planning [14] R. Marazzato and A.C. Sparavigna, Astronomical Image [5] Peng Yoke Ho, Li, Qi, and Shu: An Introduction to Science Processing Based on Fractional Calculus: the AstroFracTool, and Civilization in China, 2000, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486- arXiv:0910.4637 [astro-ph.IM]. 41445-0. [15] A.C. Sparavigna, Enhancing the Google Imagery Using a [6] Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c.80–70 BC, died after c.15 BC) Wavelet Filter, arXiv:1009.1590 [physics.geo-ph]. was a Roman architect and engineer, active during the 1st century [16] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi'an BC. He is the author of the “De Architectura”. [17] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banpo [7] Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, The Architecture, Translated by [18] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chang'an Joseph Gwilt, Priestly and Weale, , 1826; Vitruvius, The [19] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanbaliq Ten Books on Architecture, Translated by Morris Hicky Morgan, [20] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_plan Harvard University Press, 1914. [21] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden_City [8] G. Magli, On the Possible Discovery of Precessional Effects in [22] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_architecture Ancient Astronomy, arXiv:physics/0407108 [physics.hist-ph]. [23] Alfred Schinz, Cities in China, 1989, Lubrecht and Cramer [9] A.C. Sparavigna, The Orientation of Julia Augusta Taurinorum Ltd., ISBN 3-443-37009-8. (Torino), arXiv:1206.6062 [physics.pop-ph]. [24] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dali

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