The Australian Wine A W R I Research Institute

Technical Review

No 208 February 2014

Registered by Australia Post PP 531629/00034 Table of contents

In this issue 1 Technical notes 6

Measuring oxidative aroma compounds in wines 6

Napping – a rapid method for sensory analysis of wines 10

Current literature 15 AWRI publications 62 AWRI events calendar 67

Editor: Michael Major, Michael Major Media All enquiries: Ella Robinson; email: [email protected] Copyright: Reprints and quotations of articles published herein are permitted on condition that full credit is given to both The Australian Wine Research Institute Technical Review and the author/s, and that the date of publication and issue number are stated.

Cover photograph courtesy of Michael Major

ISSN 0816-0805

Cnr Hartley and Paratoo Rd PO Box 197 T +61 8 8313 6600 Published by The Australian Urrbrae Glen Osmond F +61 8 8313 6601 Wine Research Institute South Australia 5064 South Australia 5064 [email protected] ABN 83 007 558 296 Australia Australia www.awri.com.au In this issue

Technical notes Measuring oxidative aroma compounds in wines A new suite of analyses for oxidation-related aroma compounds has been developed and applied to a set of aged wines from a closure trial. Results suggest that phenylacetaldehyde and methional are particularly important contributors to oxidative off-flavour in this set of white wines.

Napping – a rapid method for sensory analysis of wines A number of alternative methods have been developed which can be used to assess a set of wines more rapidly. One such recently developed method is ‘napping’. Napping is a way of evaluating a group of samples, with individual assessors arranging them in a two-dimensional space according to how similar or different they consider samples to be from one another.

Current literature

Oenology

General (page 15) I have a dream

Juice and wine handling (page 15) Effect of aeration treatments prior to/during fermentation Here’s a hot idea straight out of the microwave Influence of winemaking procedure and grape variety on the colour and composition of young red wines A great tradition looking for that next cutting edge Co-fermentation of Syrah with various additions of Viognier: effect on colour and phenolics during winemaking and bottle ageing Effects of extended grape ripening with or without must and wine alcohol manipulations on Cabernet Sauvignon wine sensory characteristics Potato, a new source of vegetal protein for allergen-free fining of juice and wine White wine aroma optimisation Flash détente an explosive option for winemakers Development of a deacidification process for wine by electrodialysis utilising a bipolar membrane: Results from a laboratory scale feasibility study

Microbiology (page 19) Behaviour during malolactic fermentation of three strains of Oenococcus oeni used as direct inoculation and acclimatisation cultures Impact of volatile phenols and their precursors on wine quality and control measures of Brettanomyces/Dekkera yeasts Microbial succession in spontaneously fermented grape must before, during and after stuck fermentation

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 1 Analysis and composition (page 21) Quantitative survey of 3-alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines and first confirmation of 3-ethyl-2- methoxypyrazine in South African Sauvignon Blanc wines Reactions involving iron in mediating catechol oxidation in model wine Impact of dissolved oxygen at bottling on sulfur dioxide and sensory properties of a Riesling wine Detecting the addition of sugar and water to wine Determination of isotope ratios of the main components in wine by HPLC-co-IRMS: An approach to developing authenticity markers The content and origin of Manganese in wines Effect of metal chelators on the oxidative stability of model wine A new method for protein extraction from red wines

Marketing and packaging (page 24) The wine headache: consumer perceptions of sulfites and willingness to pay for non-sulfited wines Why are discounted prices presented with full prices? The role of external price information on consumers’ likelihood to purchase Why do people avoid consuming wine?

Environment (page 25) Adaptions to climatic impacts on vineyard and wine cellar practices in recent vintages for Super-Tuscan and Bordeaux reds Global warming and impact on the world of viticulture Safety of GM crops: compositional analysis The viticultural system and climate change: coping with long-term trends in temperature and rainfall in Roussillon, France

Sensory (page 27) The influence of the senses on the consumption and purchase of wine Effects of ethanol, tannin, and fructose concentrations on sensory properties of model red wines

Viticulture

General (page 28) Stability of ampelometric characteristics of Vitis vinifera L. cv. ‘Syrah’ and ‘Sauvignon Blanc’ leaves: impact of within-vineyard variability and pruning method/bud load Wine sector attitudes to the adoption of Precision Viticulture Wine aroma and grapevine berry ripening: how to capture the complexity Simulating three-dimensional grapevine canopies and modelling their light interception characteristics Grapegrowers refused to be crushed Comparison of sensory attributes of fresh and frozen wine grape berries using berry sensory assessment Dealcoholisation can be controlled from the vine to wine ASEV symposium explores tannin management strategies Measurement of grapevine canopy leaf area by using an ultrasonic-based method Improving Eastern industry profitability

2 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 Physiology and biotechnology (page 32) Understanding plant hormones Get ready to regulate your ripening Impact of preharvest and postharvest treatment combinations on increase of stilbene content in grape HPLC-DAD detection of changes in phenol content of red berry skins during grape ripening Biochemically induced variations during some phenological stages in Thompson seedless grapevines grafted on different rootstocks Effect of sunlight exclusion at different phenological stages on anthocyanin accumulation in red grape clusters Postharvest dehydration of Nebbiolo grapes grown at altitude is affected by time of defoliation Berry characterisation of cv. Shiraz according to position on the rachis Low temperature exposure of root system and inflorescence affected flowering and fruit set in ‘Chardonnay’ grapevines (Vitis vinifera)

Climate and soils (page 36) Does soil temperature restrict outdoor viticulture in southern Finland? Does the answer lie in the soil? Review: soil biological properties as indicators of soil quality in Australian viticulture Global climate analogues for winegrowing regions in future periods: projections of temperature and precipitation Biochar applications in a King Valley Vineyard Conservation tillage of cover crops in vineyard soils to improve carbon sequestration and diminish greenhouse gas emissions

Vineyard management systems (page 39) Pellenc Optimum: A more productive and economical range (of machine harvesters) ‘Opti-grape’ A very selective harvesting and sorting system When management is all about measurement Delaying berry ripening through manipulating leaf area to fruit ratio Postveraison application of antitranspirant di-1-p-menthene to control sugar accumulation in Sangiovese grapevines Influence of mechanical postveraison leaf removal apical to the cluster zone on delay of fruit ripening in Sangiovese (Vitis vinifera L.) grapevines Late leaf removal aimed at delaying ripening in cv. Sangiovese: physiological assessment and vine performance Cluster thinning reduces the economic sustainability of Riesling production Cakebread Cellars gives new life to old vines Can catalytic water conditioners benefit vineyards? Temporal and spatial relationships of vine pruning mass in Concord grapes

Pests and diseases (page 44) Simple and fast test kit for the detection of grey mould in grapes Highlights of a newly-emerging grapevine virus: grapevine red blotch-associated virus Understanding fungicide resistance in Australian vineyards Late harvest as factor affecting esca and Botryosphaeria dieback prevalence of vineyards in the Alsace region of France First detection of tomato black ring virus (TBRV) in a French vineyard An overview of the vine mealybug (Planococcus fìcus) in South African vineyards and the use of entomopathogenic nematodes as potential biocontrol agent Organic inputs for disease management in organic blocks

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 3 Gypsophila paniculata root saponins as an environmentally safe treatment against two nematodes, natural vectors of grapevine fanleaf degeneration Rising to the challenge of bird control Researchers turn technology on phylloxera threat Vitis vinifera canes, a new source of antifungal compounds against Plasmopara viticola, Erysiphe necator, and Botrytis cinerea Grapevine canes as new source of antifungal compounds It’s all in the way you spray Options to control powdery mildew Potential efficiency of grapevine leafroll disease management strategies using simulation and real spatio-temporal disease infection data Managing powdery mildew under threat of fungicide resistance Seven things you always wanted to know about fungicide resistance

Vine improvement and varieties (page 50) Breeding breakthroughs just around the corner Mount Etna: The awakening of the volcano Divico, a first new grape breeding of Agroscope resistant to the main fungal diseases It all tastes Greek to me — or will soon Me llamo Graciano, señor Comparative study of the resveratrol content of twenty-one Italian red grape varieties In search of lost vines

Water and nutrition (page 52) Effect of different irrigation strategies on vine physiology, yield, grape composition and sensory profile of Sauvignon Blanc Vitis( vinifera L.) in a cool climate area Mapping grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) water status during the season using carbon isotope ratio (δ13C) as ancillary data Comparison of three different fertigation strategies for drip irrigated table grapes. Part II. Soil and grapevine nutrient status Screening the Vitis genus for tolerance to boron with and without salinity Can petiole analysis help improve wine quality? Grapevine leaf uptake of mineral elements influenced by sugar foam amendment of an acidic soil Vineyard irrigation, the Smart way Pressure-volume analysis of two grapevine cultivars (‘Kékfrankos’ and ‘Portugieser’, Vitis vinifera L.): Water deficit, osmotic conditions and their possible relations with drought tolerance

Wine and health

Animal research (page 56) Prenatal ethanol exposure disrupts intraneocortical circuitry, cortical gene expression, and behavior in a mouse model of FASD

Epidemiology (page 56) Solitary alcohol use in teens is associated with drinking in response to negative affect and predicts alcohol problems in young adulthood Who suggests drinking less? Demographic and national differences in informal social controls on drinking Alcohol-attributable and alcohol-preventable mortality in Denmark: an analysis of which intake levels contribute most to alcohol’s harmful and beneficial effects Mental disorders across the adult life course and future coronary heart disease: evidence for general susceptibility

4 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 Energy drinks and alcohol: links to alcohol behaviors and consequences across 56 days Who is not drinking less in Sweden? An analysis of the decline in consumption for the period 2004–2011 Hospital admissions for alcohol use disorders before, during, and after pregnancy: a study based on linked population data in New South Wales, Australia

Genetics (page 57) Integrating GWASs and human protein interaction networks identifies a gene subnetwork underlying alcohol dependence Alcohol, DNA methylation, and cancer Alcohol metabolism and epigenetics changes

Human clinical (page 59) Pathways to alcohol-induced brain impairment in young people: a review Sulforaphane accelerates acetaldehyde metabolism by inducing aldehyde dehydrogenases: relevance to ethanol intolerance

Public health policy (page 60) ‘Something’s brewing’: the changing trends in alcohol coverage in Australian newspapers 2000–2011 Alcohol use in pregnancy: prevalence and predictors in the longitudinal study of Australian children Alcohol policy changes and trends in adolescent drinking in Finland from 1981 to 2011 Enhanced labelling on alcoholic drinks: reviewing the evidence to guide alcohol policy A new scale of the U.S. alcohol policy environment and its relationship to binge drinking Legislation: allergens, ingredients, nutritional declaration and GMO – a jurisprudence approach

AWRI Publications (page 62) Effects of red wine on established markers of arterial structure and function in human studies: current knowledge and future research directions Ask the AWRI: Understanding the ABCs of CMCs in solution Effect of wine pH and bottle closure on tannins The effect of water stress on the reproductive performance of Shiraz (Vitis vinifera L.) grafted to rootstocks Not your ordinary yeast: non-Saccharomyces yeasts in wine production uncovered Greenhouse gas abatement in viticulture Optimising fermentation through simulation Schönburger Effects of five metals on the evolution of hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, and dimethyl sulfide during anaerobic storage of Chardonnay and Shiraz wines Fascinating story to tell Ask the AWRI: If the grape fits then you can grow it There’s gotta be a buck in those organic by-products Planning for the future (2013 Report) How does CMC behave in NZ wines?

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 5 Technical notes Measuring oxidative aroma compounds in wines Oxidation is one of the most common wine faults and can occur at different stages of the winemaking process, as well as after a wine has been bottled. ‘Honey’, ‘sherry’, ‘cardboard’, ‘cooked vegetable’, ‘cider’, ‘woody’, and ‘hay’ are some of the characteristic aroma descriptors of oxidised wines. Alongside the development of these aromas, the oxidation of major wine compounds can also result in significant undesirable colour changes. It is commonly believed that acetaldehyde is the main aroma compound generated during wine oxidation. Acetaldehyde is found in wines at concentrations around 80 mg/L in whites and 30 mg/L in reds, and is by far the most abundant aldehyde in wines (McCloskey and Mahaney 1981). A high concentration of acetaldehyde is a particular feature of sherry wines, where it commonly found at around 300 mg/L (Cortes et al. 1998), well above its reported aroma threshold of 0.5 mg/L (Guth 1997) and it can be produced at relatively high levels during fermentation. However, although acetaldehyde plays an important role in the oxidation process, notably in further reactions with other compounds, its direct sensory contribution seems to be rather insignificant (Escudero et al. 2002).

On the other hand, other aldehydic compounds such as phenylacetaldehyde and methional have been shown to be important in the aroma of oxidised wines. Their aromas are described as ‘honey- and potato- like’ respectively, and their odour thresholds are as low as 1 and 0.5 µg/L (Escudero et al. 2000), up to 1000 times lower than that of acetaldehyde. In addition to those two compounds, several long chained aldehydes such as (E)-2-nonenal, (E)-2- octenal, (E)-2-hexenal, as well as benzaldehyde, furfural, hexanal and some alcohols have been found in increased concentration in wines exposed to oxygen (Balboa-Lagunero et al. 2011; Escudero, Cacho and Ferreira 2000; Escudero et al. 2002). The (E)-2-alkenals, with their ‘green’, ‘fatty’, and ‘nutty’ odour descriptors, are all characterised by having very low odour thresholds, with (E)-2-nonenal (the one described as ‘sawdust’) having a threshold as low as 0.17 µg/L (Chatonnet and Dubourdieu 1998). In addition, the aroma of aged fortified wines has been shown to be related to increased concentrations of the compound sotolon, which seems to be most closely related to the ‘rancio’ (nutty-like) flavour descriptor (Collin et al. 2012; Martin et al. 1992; Silva Ferreira, Barbe and Bertrand 2003).

The formation of these oxidation-related aroma compounds generally occurs well before any colour changes. Hence, measuring these compounds can be an indication of the onset of oxidation at earlier stages. For most research studies involving oxidative effects, indirect measures such as loss of sulfur dioxide or spectral measures to assess the extent of browning have been used. Until recently, analytical methods for oxidative aroma compounds have

6 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 not been available at the AWRI. Since these compounds generally occur in wines at very low concentration and are difficult to quantify it is essential to use a highly sensitive and selective analytical method.

A comprehensive new GC-MS/MS method has recently been developed through a collaboration with Agilent Technologies which allows the simultaneous quantification of 18 volatile compounds involved in wine oxidation. The compounds include the (E)- 2-alkenal compounds that occur at trace concentrations ((E)-2-hexenal, (E)-2-heptenal, (E)-2-octenal, (E)-2-nonenal), various ‘Strecker aldehydes’ (methional, phenylacetaldehyde, 3-methylbutanal, 2-methylpropanal), methionol, eugenol, maltol and furans (sotolon, furaneol and homofuraneol).

Samples from a trial where a Semillon wine was bottled under different closures (two natural corks, two synthetic closures and a screw cap) and stored at approximately 15°C for 14 years, were recently analysed using the new method. The colour differences observed among the samples clearly showed a range of levels of oxidation, with the wine colours ranging from a light yellow in the case of those sealed with screw caps, to a dark brown for wines under the synthetic closures.

Most of the oxidation-related compounds analysed were found to vary significantly among the wines bottled with different closures. Figure 1 shows the concentrations of methional and phenylacetaldehyde in the wines. The concentrations of these aldehydes were highest in the most oxidised wines (under synthetic corks) and lowest in the least oxidised wines (under screw cap), with greater variation in the wines under the natural corks, as indicated

Methional Phenylacetaldehyde ) ) L L / / g g µ µ ( (

c c n n c o c o

p 1 2 1 2 p 1 2 1 2 a a c rk rk re re c rk rk re re o o u u o o u u w c c s s w c c s s re l l lo lo re l l lo lo c c c s ra ra c c s ra ra c tu tu c c tu tu c c a a i ti a a ti ti n n et e n n e e th th th th n n n n y y y y s s s s

Figure 1. Concentration (µg/L) of methional and phenylacetaldehyde in white wines bottled under different closures after 14 years of storage.

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 7 by the larger error bars. The levels of these two compounds in the wines under cork and synthetic closures were significantly greater than their aroma thresholds, suggesting a likely contribution to the aroma of these wines.

The concentration of 3-methylbutanal, a malt-smelling compound, was also measured (Figure 2) and found to vary greatly depending on the type of closure used. In particular, when the wines were sealed with screw cap there was a very low concentration of this compound, while higher concentrations were found in the other wines, particularly when a synthetic closure was used.

Other measured compounds, including the (E)-2-alkenals with different chain lengths, were also found to vary in agreement with the degree of oxidation observed in the wines sealed with the different closures. In particular concentrations of (E)-2-hexenal and (E)-2-nonenal were found to vary across the wines however their overall levels were relatively low compared to the aroma thresholds, suggesting that their sensory significance is likely to be negligible.

Another compound measured was sotolon, the key odorant of aged sherry wines, ports and botrytised wines, that has also been reported as a contributor to the oxidative off-flavour of table wines (Escudero, Cacho and Ferreira 2000; Martin et al. 1992). Despite the high degree of oxidation in the wines analysed, sotolon was only detected in the wines sealed with synthetic closures, where it was found in concentrations around its odour threshold (15 µg/L). In the less oxidised samples it was detected at concentrations below its quantification limit, suggesting that in this set of wines it is not a major contributor.

3-Methylbutanal ) L / g µ (

c n c o

Figure 2. Concentration (µg/L) of 3-methylbutanal in white wines under different closures after 14 years of storage.

8 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 In summary, the newly developed GC–MS/MS method has been used to simultaneously quantify 18 oxidation-related compounds in wines at mg/L, µg/L and ng/L levels. By analysing a set of white wines characterised generally by pronounced oxidation but also by large differences in the levels of oxidation, the role of a range of flavour compounds contributing to oxidative aroma has been investigated. The compounds phenylacetaldehyde and methional, two compounds described in the literature as important in oxidised wines, were detected at high concentrations in the most oxidised samples, indicating them as key contributors to oxidative off-flavour in this set of white wines. The new method for oxidation-related compounds will be published shortly in a peer-reviewed journal, and will then be available to the Australian wine sector through AWRI Commercial Services.

References Balboa-Lagunero, T., Arroyo, T., Cabellos, J. M., Aznar, M. (2011) Sensory and olfactometric profiles of red wines after natural and forced oxidation processes. Am. J. Enol. Viti 62(4): 527–535. Chatonnet, P., Dubourdieu, D. (1998) Identification of substances responsible for the ‘ sawdust ’ aroma in oak wood. J. Sci. Food Agric. 76(2): 179–188. Collin, S., Nizet, S., Claeys Bouuaert, T., Despatures, P.-M. (2012) Main odorants in Jura flor-sherry wines. Relative contributions of sotolon, abhexon, and theaspirane-derived compounds. J. Agric. Food Chem. 60(1): 380–387. Cortes, M.B., Moreno, J., Zea, L., Moyano, L., Medina, M. (1998) Changes in aroma compounds of sherry wines during their biological aging carried out by Saccharomyces cerevisiae races bayanus and capensis. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46(6): 2389–2394. Escudero, A., Asensio, E., Cacho, J., Ferreira, V. (2002) Sensory and chemical changes of young white wines stored under oxygen. An assessment of the role played by aldehydes and some other important odorants. Food Chem. 77(3): 325–331. Escudero, A., Cacho, J.C., Ferreira, V. (2000) Isolation and identification of odorants generated in wine during its oxidation: a gas chromatography—olfactometric study. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 211(2): 105–110. Escudero, A., Hernández-Orte, P., Cacho, J., Ferreira, V. (2000) Clues about the role of methional as character impact odorant of some oxidized wines. J. Agric. Food Chem. 48(9): 4268–72. Guth, H. (1997) Quantitation and sensory studies of character impact odorants of different white wine varieties. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45(8): 3027–3032. Martin, B., Etibvant, P.X., Luc, J., Qubr, L., Schlich, P. (1992) More clues about sensory impact of sotolon in some flor sherry wines. J. Agric. Food Chem 40(3): 475–478. McCloskey, L.P., Mahaney, P. (1981) An enzymatic assay for acetaldehyde in grape juice and wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 32(2): 159–162. Silva Ferreira, C., Barbe, J.-C., Bertrand, A. (2003) 3-Hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone: a key odorant of the typical aroma of oxidative aged Port wine. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51(15): 4356–63.

Christine Mayr, Research Scientist Dimitra Capone, Research Scientist, [email protected] Cory Black, Research Scientist Leigh Francis, Research Manager – Sensory and Flavour

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 9 Napping – a rapid method for sensory analysis of wines

The method of quantitative descriptive sensory analysis has been used for many years to discover the most important sensory characters for a group of wines. This method involves a trained sensory panel rating defined characters for their intensity in each wine, so that the presence and intensity of wine descriptors can be compared to give an overall picture of the similarities and differences among a group of wines. This is a very sensitive and reproducible method and gives a great deal of information about the individual wines and how they compare to others in the group tested. The data can also be compared to wine chemical measures or preference and quality data. The method can be used, for example, to see the sensory effect of a new yeast strain for winemaking, or to examine the effect of grape ripeness on wine sensory properties.

However, to apply this method a highly trained panel of sensory assessors is required, with specific training for each group of wines the panel assesses. This can be both time-consuming and expensive. A number of alternative methods have been developed which can be used to assess a set of wines more rapidly. Several papers have been written about the different methods, their similarities and their differences, their weaknesses and their strengths (Varela and Ares 2012, Dehlholm et al. 2012, Hopfer and Heymann 2013, Valentin et al. 2012, among others). One such recently developed method is ‘napping’. The name ‘napping’ comes from ‘nappe’ or tablecloth in French, a term used originally by French researchers working with this method. It is a type of projective mapping which may also include sorting tasks.

Napping is a way of evaluating a group of samples, with individual assessors arranging them in a two-dimensional space according to how similar or different they consider samples to be from one another. Samples which are most similar are placed close together and samples which are very different are placed well apart. This sample placement can be made on a sheet of paper on a flat surface like a table or bench (hence ‘nappe’) or on a computer screen, using the horizontal and vertical axes on the computer screen in the same way as an assessor would use the two dimensions of a paper sheet on a bench. At the AWRI, the use of sensory software allows data to be recorded immediately and means that samples can be evaluated in sensory booths in a controlled environment (Figure 1). One disadvantage of this approach is that it may be difficult for some assessors to think in terms of a vertical screen space rather than a flat bench space in making their placements.

Assessors may be instructed to assess the wines separately by appearance, aroma, or palate (partial napping), or overall, using all aspects (global napping). Assessors use their own criteria and their own experience to decide whether samples are similar or different. In this

10 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 way each assessor places the wines according to what is important to them, not according to a group consensus. Each assessor receives their coded wines in a different, randomised order, like any other sensory assessment, removing the effect of tasting order. In general only a single replicate of each wine is used but there have been some explorations regarding the use of replication in napping, with either whole sample sets or selected samples within a set (Hopfer and Heymann 2013). The number of samples that can be assessed is still a matter for debate, but a set of up to 18 samples has been found to be practical using the AWRI’s facilities. This is an important constraint as it limits the number of samples which can be assessed in a single study.

To gain more information, assessors can be asked to write a few words describing each wine or group of wines. This can be performed using any words the assessor chooses (free-choice) or by choosing words from a prepared list.

The most important factor for assessors using napping is that they understand the task. A single training session is generally enough to explain the method and to give assessors an opportunity to try it. Samples for training do not need to be related to the test samples to be assessed later. If assessors are using computer screens, a session to familiarise them with the task of placing their samples on a vertical screen rather than a horizontal bench is helpful. One great advantage of this method is that once assessors are familiar with the method they do not require training for each study. Assessors for napping do not have to be experts in a particular product or even in sensory assessment, and it could be interesting to assess consumers’ responses using this method. Studies by researchers who have explored napping with consumers or assessors with no previous sensory analysis experience (Risvik 1997, Barcenas 2004, Kennedy & Heymann 2009, Valentin et al. 2012, among others) have concluded that consumers could generally complete the task satisfactorily and provide

a b

Figure 1. An example of wines placed in the napping space after assessment, where a) shows the wines placed on the bench in an AWRI sensory booth; and b) shows the subsequent placement of wines on the screen with Fizz sensory software.

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 11 important information, although some have suggested that other rapid methods would be easier for consumers to understand (Veinand et al. 2011) or might provide more accurate profiling of products (Moussaoui and Varela 2010). Used in conjunction with a descriptive analysis study by a trained panel assessing the same wines, it could help to better understand consumer perceptions of the wines. So far the AWRI has not used the method in this way. Currently it is members of the AWRI sensory descriptive panel that have also been used to generate napping data.

Napping provides a rapid snapshot of a group of samples – how similar or how different they are. With the use of descriptive terms, information about the nature of the differences can be gained. It provides a picture – a consensus map – of how the wines sit in a two dimensional space, using the data from all assessors to make this picture. While the panel provides two dimensional data, after analysis the results generated are in multiple dimensions, similar to Principal Component Analysis (PCA) plots, usually viewed two dimensions at a time. Results from napping can be related to PCA plots generated from descriptive analysis. The two methods give closely similar results, as assessed by a multivariate correlation coefficient called the RV coefficient. Figure 2 shows the results of a napping exercise for a set of white wines.

The positions of the wines in Figure 2 indicate the similarities among the wines, based on where the assessors placed the wines in their individual nappings. The attributes in the napping figure are also shown, based on how often they were chosen to describe the wines. This gives information about which words are closely associated with particular wines or groups of wines, but the attributes do not influence the position of the wines. A consensus map looks similar to a PCA plot generated as part of descriptive analysis, but in PCA, the intensity scores of the attributes are used to make the map of samples; they influence the

F3 (15.2%) F2 (22.5%) 3 3

a b Riesling 1

2.5 Sauv. Blanc 2 Viognier box hedge capsicum 2 2 confection Sauv. Blanc 1 passionfruit grassy apricot Sauv Blanc 1 Riesling 2 floral 1.5

sweaty 1 Sauv. Blanc 3 honey tropical cat pee Chardonnay 1 peach Chardonnay 1 Chardonna1y 2 nutty oak box hedge passionfruit cheesy Sauv Blanc 3 nutty green beans cat pee butter apricot 0.5 0 toasty F1 (25.1%) -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 c2 itrus 3 oak tropical capsicum toasty butter 0 F1 (25.1%) Riesling 3 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 Chardonnay 3 Sauv. Blanc 3 flint lemon honey -1 pineapple Pinot Gris -0.5 citrus pungent grassy green beans sweaty flint

-1 Riesling 1 Viognier pungent Semillon Riesling 3 cheesy -2 Chardonnay 2 peach pineapple Pinot Gris confectio-1.n5 Riesling 2 Chardonnay 3 lemon Semillon floral -2 -3 Figure 2. Consensus map of twelve commercial white wines generated by napping – aroma only. a) dimensions 1 and 2; b) dimensions 1 and 3.

12 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 position of the samples. Figure 2 shows that separation along the horizontal axis (dimension 1) mostly separates the Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc and Semillon wines on the right, from two of the Chardonnays, the Pinot Gris and Viognier on the left. The wines on the right are closer to citrus fruit, grassy, tropical fruit and capsicum terms, while wines on the left are closer to oak, butter, nutty, cheesy and flint. The wines are distributed along the second dimension (vertical axis, Figure 2a), but not strongly grouped within varieties along this axis. In Figure 2b, the Sauvignon Blanc wines are separated on the third (vertical) dimension from the Rieslings, Pinot Gris and Viognier. Sauvignon Blanc wines had higher frequency of terms such as box hedge, capsicum, and passionfruit while lemon and floral were more important to the Rieslings and one of the Chardonnay wines.

There are many potential applications for this method at the AWRI. These include: • evaluating effects of treatments or production variables • assessing differences among a set of commercial wines • conducting an objective preliminary screening for a group of wines to decide whether to proceed with more in-depth sensory or chemical analysis • screening for a set of experimental wines to decide which might be of interest for further work • selecting wines of interest from a larger group of wines, for example for consumer studies • comparing winemaker tastings with descriptive analysis results • assessing consumer perceptions compared to experts or trained panels.

Some advantages of napping in comparison to descriptive analysis: • it is more rapid, often requiring only a single session • it is less expensive to run • it does not require expert sensory assessors • assessors evaluate the samples based on what is important to them • the data from the analysis can be acquired quickly using computers with sensory software • it gives an overall snapshot of a group of wines.

Some disadvantages of napping in comparison to descriptive analysis: • the method is not always as sensitive as descriptive sensory analysis and panel performance is harder to analyse • the number of samples is limited as they must all be assessed in a single session • preparation and statistical analysis of the data can be more difficult than analysis of data from traditional methods and requires specialised software • it requires training and experience in analysing and interpreting the data

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 13 • some assessors may find the method difficult to understand and may find it difficult to place samples on the computer screen space • it is not possible to assess statistical significance regarding attribute intensities.

In summary, this method, like any other sensory method, has advantages for specific types of study depending on the aim of the project. It is particularly useful in screening studies. It is rapid, less expensive and generally easier to use than conventional sensory methods. It is very helpful for projects, including contract or commercial studies, where timeframes are tight and budgets are limited. Overall, it is a valuable new addition to the suite of sensory analyses at the AWRI.

Acknowledgements Thanks to Pascale Deneulin, visiting scientist to the AWRI in 2012 from Ecole d’Ingénieurs de Changins, Nyon, Switzerland, for helpful advice on napping and analysis of data. Thanks to the members of the AWRI descriptive analysis panel.

References Barcenas, P., Pérez Elortondo F.J., Albisu, M. (2004) Projective mapping in sensory analysis of ewes milk cheeses: A study on consumers and trained panel performance. Food Res. Int. 37(7): 723–729. Dehlholm, C., Brockhoff, P.B., Meinert, L., Aaslyng, M.D., Bredie, W.L.P. (2012) Rapid descriptive sensory methods – Comparison of free multiple sorting, partial napping, napping, flash profiling and conventional profiling. Food Qual. Pref. 26(2): 267–277. Hopfer, H., Heymann, H. (2013) A summary of projective mapping observations – The effect of replicates and shape, and individual performance measurements. Food Qual. Pref. 28(1): 164–181. Kennedy, J., Heymann, H. (2009) Projective mapping and descriptive analysis of milk and dark chocolates. J. Sens. Stud. 24(2): 220–233. Moussaoui, K.A., Varela, P. (2010) Exploring consumer product profiling techniques and their linkage to a quantitative descriptive analysis. Food Qual. Pref. 21(8): 1088–1099. Pagès, J. (2005) Collection and analysis of perceived product inter-distances using multiple factor analysis: Application to the study of 10 white wines from the Loire Valley. Food Qual. Pref. 16(7): 642–649. Risvik, E., McEwan, J.A., Redbotten, M. (1997) Evaluation of sensory profiling and projective mapping data. Food Qual. Pref. 8(1): 63–71. Valentin, D., Chollet, S., Lelièvre, M., Abdi, H. (2012) Quick and dirty but still pretty good: a review of new descriptive methods in food science. Int. J. Food Sci. Tech. 47(8): 1563–1578. Varela, P., Ares, G. (2012) Sensory profiling, the blurred line between sensory and consumer science. A review of novel methods for product characterization. Food Res. Int. 48(2): 893–908. Veinand, B., Godefroy, C., Adam, C., Delarue, J. (2011) Highlight of important product characteristics for consumers. Comparison of three sensory descriptive methods performed by consumers. Food Qual. Pref. 22(5): 474–485.

Helen Holt, Research Scientist Wes Pearson, Scientist Leigh Francis, Research Manager – Sensory and Flavour, [email protected]

14 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 Highlights this issue

Measuring oxidative aroma compounds in wines...... 6

Napping – a rapid method for sensory analysis of wines ...... 10 Photocopy requests

Please supply a copy of the following papers from Technical Review No. 208 for the purpose of: □ Research □ Study □ Other The cost of each article is included in the square brackets. A service fee of $7.00 and appropriate overseas postage, copyright and GST costs might also apply. Please note photocopy requests for research and study purposes must be accompanied with a completed and signed copyright declaration form located on the back of this tear-out page.

Current literature (circle the required papers) 208.01 [0.20] 208.02 [1.20] 208.03 [0.60] 208.04 [0.80] 208.05 [0.40] 208.06 [0.70] 208.07 [1.40] 208.08 [0.40] 208.09 [0.60] 208.10 [0.20] 208.11 [2.20] 208.12 [0.90] 208.13 [1.70] 208.14 [1.10] 208.15 [1.40] 208.16 [0.90] 208.17 [0.80] 208.18 [0.70] 208.19 [0.60] 208.20 [0.30] 208.21 [0.80] 208.22 [0.80] 208.23 [0.90] 208.24 [1.20] 208.25 [0.40] 208.26 [0.30] 208.27 [0.30] 208.28 [0.50] 208.29 [1.60] 208.30 [0.30] 208.31 [0.70] 208.32 [0.90] 208.33 [0.50] 208.34 [0.40] 208.35 [1.30] 208.36 [0.20] 208.37 [0.90] 208.38 [0.20] 208.39 [0.40] 208.40 [0.70] 208.41 [0.90] 208.42 [0.40] 208.43 [0.30] 208.44 [1.00] 208.45 [1.00] 208.46 [1.00] 208.47 [0.80] 208.48 [1.10] 208.49 [0.80] 208.50 [0.50] 208.51 [0.20] 208.52 [0.30] 208.53 [1.30] 208.54 [1.10] 208.55 [0.70] 208.56 [0.90] 208.57 [0.30] 208.58 [0.20] 208.59 [0.40] 208.60 [0.60] 208.61 [0.80] 208.62 [0.90] 208.63 [1.00] 208.64 [0.90] 208.65 [0.50] 208.66 [0.40] 208.67 [0.80] 208.68 [0.70] 208.69 [0.20] 208.70 [0.30] 208.71 [0.80] 208.72 [0.40] 208.73 [1.10] 208.74 [0.20] 208.75 [0.70] 208.76 [0.20] 208.77 [0.30] 208.78 [0.90] 208.79 [0.70] 208.80 [0.30] 208.81 [0.10] 208.82 [0.80] 208.83 [0.60] 208.84 [0.30] 208.85 [0.10] 208.86 [0.20] 208.87 [1.20] 208.88 [0.40] 208.89 [0.20] 208.90 [0.60] 208.91 [0.80] 208.92 [2.30] 208.93 [0.90] 208.94 [1.10] 208.95 [1.10] 208.96 [0.20] 208.97 [0.80] 208.98 [0.50] 208.99 [0.20] 208.100 [1.30] 208.101 [1.00] 208.102 [0.80] 208.103 [1.20] 208.104 [3.40] 208.105 [0.60] 208.106 [-49.40] 208.107 [0.70] 208.108 [0.80] 208.109 [1.20] 208.110 [1.20] 208.111 [1.50] 208.112 [0.90] 208.113 [0.70] 208.114 [0.80] 208.115 [0.70] 208.116 [0.60] 208.117 [0.70] 208.118 [1.00] AWRI publications (circle the required papers)

1569 [1.30] 1570 [0.10] 1571 [1.00] 1572 [3.40] 1573 [2.30]

1574 [0.40] 1575 [0.60] 1576 [0.10] 1577 [1.20] 1578 [0.10]

1579 [0.10] 1580 [0.30] 1581 [0.40] 1582 [0.30]

Payment details

Cost of photocopies for all articles requested $...... (refer to square bracketed figures on previous page) No. of Articles Postage 1-5 $A3.00 + Service Fee $7.00 6-10 $A8.00 + Postage (Overseas only - see chart opposite) $...... 11-15 $A13.00 + Copyright ($5 per article) $...... 16+ $A18.00 (Copyright fee is exempted for research and study purposes) Include postage only if articles need to be sent overseas Total $...... Add 10% for GST (Australian residents only) $...... TOTAL to be forwarded with request A$______

I enclose my cheque for $A ...... payable to The Australian Wine Research Institute or charge my: Visa [ ] Mastercard [ ] Card No.

Cardholders Name______

Expiry Date _____/_____ Signature______

Important note regarding payment of GST (Goods and Services Tax): 1) GST is payable by Australian residents only and does not apply to residents who live outside of Australia, and 2) A tax invoice will be forwarded with the articles requested, showing The Australian Wine Research Institute’s ABN, and the total amount paid (including GST). 3) Copyright does not apply to Australian wineries and grapegrowers who pay the Winegrapes Levy or Grape Research Levy Copyright declaration under section 49 (1) of the Copyright Act 1968

I declare that: (i) I require the copies for the purposes of research or study, and that I will not use them for any other purpose, and (ii) I have not previously been supplied with a copy by an authorised officer of the library, and (iii) I acknowledge that I may be held personally liable for any breach of the Copyright Act with respect to a false or misleading declaration.

Signed ______Date ______

NAME ______

COMPANY ______

ADDRESS ______

______

POSTCODE ______

PLEASE RETURN to:

AWRI Library The Australian Wine Research Institute PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064 T: (08) 8313 6600 F: (08) 8313 6628 E: [email protected] Current literature

Copies of all articles listed in this section are available for private study on

request from the AWRI. Please use the request form provided in the centre pages of this issue. Currently a service charge of A$7.00 per request is applicable, plus a supply charge of 10¢ per page, plus postage will apply (inclusive of GST).

In compliance with copyright legislation, abstracts are reproduced here exactly as originally printed.

Oenology General

208.01 Schmidt, B. I have a dream. WBM October, 34–35; 2013.

This article summarises remarks by Nobel Prize-winning astronomer Brian Schmidt, made at the recent AWITC. Schmidt argues for continuing Australia’s research and innovation traditions.

© Reprinted with permission from Schmidt, B. I have a dream. WBM October, 34–35; 2013. Copyright 2013 Free Run Press Pty Ltd.

Juice and wine handling

208.02 Bisson, L.F., Schwartzburg, L.A., Waterhouse, A.L. Effect of aeration treatments prior to/ during fermentation. Wines Vines 94(10), 65–76; 2013.

This article discusses the growth and metabolic activities of microorganisms impacting microbial contribution to wine aroma and flavor. The authors give conclusions on both enzymatic and non-enzymatic oxidation.

© Reprinted with permission from Bisson, L.F., Schwartzburg, L.A., Waterhouse, A.L. Effect of aeration treatments prior to/during fermentation. Wines Vines 94(10), 65–76; 2013. Copyright 2013 Wine Communications Group.

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 15 L 208.03 Carew, A. Here’s a hot idea straight out of the microwave. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 58–63; 2013.

Researchers at the Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture (TIA) have been investigating a ‘controlled phenolic release’ where Pinot Noir must is microwaved. The TIA team found this unconventional approach produced Pinot Noir wines that were around three times higher in tannin and had double the anthocyanin concentration of the control Pinot Noir.

© Reprinted with permission from Carew, A. Here’s a hot idea straight out of the microwave. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 58–63; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.04 González-Neves, G., Gil, G., Favre, G., Baldi, C., Hernández, N., Traverso, S. Influence of winemaking procedure and grape variety on the colour and composition of young red wines. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 138–145; 2013.

The influence of winemaking procedure and grape variety on the colour and composition of young red wines was evaluated. For this purpose, Tannat, Syrah and Merlot wines were elaborated in Uruguay in 2011. Traditional maceration (TM), the addition of pectolytic enzymes (ENZ) and cold pre-fermentative maceration before traditional maceration (CPM) were the alternative procedures of winemaking tested. Two batches of grapes (70 kg each) were employed for each winemaking procedure. Tannat wines had the highest colour intensity, red colour (a*), and anthocyanin, proanthocyanidin and alcohol content, and the lowest luminosity (L*) and pH values. CPM increased the colour intensity and total polyphenol, anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin content in Tannat and Merlot wines. Pectolytic additions enhanced colour intensity and red colour and decreased the luminosity in all wines. Meanwhile, enzyme additions enhanced proanthocyanidin content in all cases. Pectolytic enzymes significantly increased the methanol levels of the wines. Nevertheless, the amounts of this compound are far within maximum acceptable limits. Principal component analysis of the data shows significant separation between the wines of each variety, since the colour and composition are largely related to the cultivar and the vintage, despite the effect of the winemaking procedures.

© Reprinted with permission from González-Neves, G., Gil, G., Favre, G., Baldi, C., Hernández, N., Traverso, S. Influence of winemaking procedure and grape variety on the colour and composition of young red wines. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 138–145; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.05 Hanel, B. A great tradition looking for that next cutting edge. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 85–88; 2013.

This article discusses the installation of the Della Toffola CFKN170 ceramic crossflow filter at Angoves Wine Cellar in Renmark. Blair Hanel interviews Renmark chief winemaker Tony Ingle and operations general manager Jim Godden about the benefits of the new filter.

© Reprinted with permission from Hanel, B. A great tradition looking for that next cutting edge. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 85–88; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

16 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.06 Casassa, F.L., Keirsey, L.S., Mireles, M.S., Larsen, R.C., Harbertson, J.F. Co-fermentation of Syrah with various additions of Viognier: effect on colour and phenolics during winemaking and bottle ageing. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 45–51; 2013.

The impetus for the study described in this article was to assess the effect of co-fermentation of Syrah and Viognier in the phenolic chemistry and colour stability of the resulting wines and to document potential benefits of this practice on wine colour, anthocyanins and tannins.

© Reprinted with permission from Casassa, F.L., Keirsey, L.S., Mireles, M.S., Larsen, R.C., Harbertson, J.F. Co- fermentation of Syrah with various additions of Viognier: effect on colour and phenolics during winemaking and bottle ageing. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 45–51; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.07 Heymann, H., LiCalzi, M., Conversano, M.R., Bauer, A., Skogerson, K., Matthews, M. Effects of extended grape ripening with or without must and wine alcohol manipulations on Cabernet Sauvignon wine sensory characteristics. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 86–99; 2013.

This study attempts to clarify the consequences for wine flavour that result from harvesting fruit at different maturities. The grapes were harvested from a single vineyard in Paso Robles, and the samples spanned maturity levels from what would be considered early harvest (about 21 °Brix) to late harvest (about 30° Brix). The wines made from these grapes were analysed using descriptive analysis to investigate the relationships between fruit maturity and wine sensory attributes. In addition, musts and/or wines were chaptalised and/or fortified or watered back to determine the effect of these manipulations on wine sensory properties. This research showed that the sensory attributes of wines made from grapes at different stages of maturation, from about 20 to 30 °Brix, varied in a systematic fashion. Specifically, the wines made from the grapes with a lower Brix were more sour and had more fresh vegetative flavours, while the wines made from the fruit with a high Brix were more hot and bitter and in some cases had more dark fruit flavours and sweetness. Fortifying wines made from lower Brix musts changed the perceptions of the wine sensory profiles more than chaptalising the musts. On the other hand, adding water to higher °Brix musts to mimic 24 °Brix musts resulted in wines with similar sensory profiles to wines made from grapes picked at a sugar content of close to 24 °Brix. This study shows that wine sensory attributes differ more when grapes are picked early in ripening rather than after 24 °Brix.

© Reprinted with permission from Heymann, H., LiCalzi, M., Conversano, M.R., Bauer, A., Skogerson, K., Matthews, M. Effects of extended grape ripening with or without must and wine alcohol manipulations on Cabernet Sauvignon wine sensory characteristics. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 86–99; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 17 L 208.08 Moine, V., Iturmendi, N., O’Kennedy, K. Potato, a new source of vegetal protein for allergen- free fining of juice and wine. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 67–70; 2013.

Pure potato protein, patatin, is being investigated for winemaking to see if it can be a more effective alternative to pea proteins. In some instances it performs better than animal product and allergen alternatives and at a lower dosage.

© Reprinted with permission from Moine, V., Iturmendi, N., O’Kennedy, K. Potato, a new source of vegetal protein for allergen-free fining of juice and wine. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 67–70; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.09 O’Kennedy, K., Ehsani, M., Renouf, V. White wine aroma optimisation. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 77–82; 2013.

The challenge for a winemaker is to allow a specific quality of grape juice to achieve its full potential as a wine and to maintain this potential for as long as possible during its life span. Throughout the winemaking process, winemakers can combine their expertise with a range of oenological products in order to achieve the best result possible. Not all grapes are of equal quality, however, so while it is true the best grapes in the world need little intervention, others may require more ‘work’ in order to express magic in a bottle. This article highlights five key decisions winemakers can make and which can have a significant influence on the final quality of white wine.

© Reprinted with permission from O’Kennedy, K., Ehsani, M., Renouf, V. White wine aroma optimisation. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 77–82; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.10 Price, G. Flash détente an explosive option for winemakers. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 74–75; 2013.

Geoff Price discusses the take-up of ‘flash détente’ technology, especially among winemakers from South America, South Africa and the ‘Old World’. The technology can allow dramatic increases in wine quality and consistency.

© Reprinted with permission from Price, G. Flash détente an explosive option for winemakers. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 74–75; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.11 Rozoy, E., Bazinet, L., Gagné, F., Bouissou, D., Escudier, J.-L., Le Gratiet, Y., Lutin, F., D’Hauteville, J., Bes, M. Development of a deacidification process for wine by electrodialysis utilising a bipolar membrane: Results from a laboratory scale feasibility study. Bull. OIV 86(986-988), 187–208; 2013.

[French] The Frontenac wine grape variety introduced in Quebec produces red wines with interesting aromatic characteristics, but with a high acidity rate. It would be advantageous to decrease this acidity and the bipolar-membrane electrodialysis technology seems to be an

18 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 interesting alternative. Two chemical deacidification treatments: one with calcium carbonate (TS1) and a second with calcium carbonate and doubles salts (TS2), as well as two deacidification treatments by electrodialysis to reach final pH values of 3.55 (TE1) and 3.70 (TE2) were carried- out. These treatments were compared to a control wine without any treatment (Control) and a control that passed through the electrodialysis system without current (TC). It resulted from these chemical and electrodialysis treatments a pH increase, with a decrease in total acidity. The volatile acidity was increased in chemical processed wines, involving an increase in their acetic acid contents. The alcohol by volume (ABV) rate appeared slightly lower for the second electrodialysis level, associated with a low evaporation during the tests. The chromatic characteristics were very similar between controls and wines deacidified by electrodialysis. The chemically treated wines had a different color. The total polyphenol and anthocyanin contents were identical for all treatments and controls, so they were not affected by electrodialysis or chemical deacidification. The chemically treated wines had higher contents in lactic and acetic acids, and lower contents in malic, tartaric and citric acids than control and TC. The electrodialysed wine generally presented the lowest concentrations in organics acids compared to controls, demonstrating the efficiency of this method. The minerals values were similar between electrodialysed wines and controls, except for calcium; in fact, crystallizations of calcium tartrate were observed in TE bottles. Whereas, the chemically deacidified wines presented higher potassium content and lower magnesium content. From the Mextar® data modeling, all wines had a tartaric instability. At the light of these results, the electrodialysed wines seemed to present chemical characteristics more interesting than chemically deacidified wines, looking more like control wine, as well as being less acidic. Finally, the electrodialysis process studied will allow oenologists to more accurately reach the desired finished wine pH and acidity than with chemical methods.

© Reprinted with permission from Rozoy, E., Bazinet, L., Gagné, F., Bouissou, D., Escudier, J.-L., Le Gratiet, Y., Lutin, F., D’Hauteville, J., Bes, M. Development of a deacidification process for wine by electrodialysis utilising a bipolar membrane: Results from a laboratory scale feasibility study. Bull. OIV 86(986-988), 187–208; 2013. Copyright 2013 Organisation International de la Vigne et du Vin.

Microbiology

208.12 Izquierdo Cañas, P.M., García Romero, E., Pérez Martin, F., Seseña Prieto, S., Heras Manso, J.M., Palop Herreros, M.L. Behaviour during malolactic fermentation of three strains of Oenococcus oeni used as direct inoculation and acclimatisation cultures. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 1–9; 2013.

The behaviour in malolactic fermentation (MLF) of an autochthonous strain of Oenococcus oeni, C22L9, isolated from a winery in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain), and of two other commercial strains of O. oeni, PN4 and Alpha (Lallemand Inc.), inoculated by direct inoculation (MBR®) and after a short acclimatisation phase (1-STEP®) was studied. Strain C22L9 carried out MLF slightly faster than the two other commercial strains, leading to a lower increase in volatile acidity and in 2,3-butanedione and 3-hydroxy-2-butanone concentrations, a higher lactic acid content, lower degradation of citric acid and increased degradation of ethanol. No great differences were C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 19 L observed in the duration of MLF, although the acclimatisation cultures were slightly faster, or in the composition of the wines when using the O. oeni strains in the form of MBR® or 1-STEP® cultures. The tasters did not detect significant differences in the wines obtained from the same strain of O. oeni in the two inoculation formats.

© Reprinted with permission from Izquierdo Cañas, P.M., García Romero, E., Pérez Martin, F., Seseña Prieto, S., Heras Manso, J.M., Palop Herreros, M.L. Behaviour during malolactic fermentation of three strains of Oenococcus oeni used as direct inoculation and acclimatisation cultures. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 1–9; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.13 Kheir, J., Salameh, D., Strehaiano, P., Brandam, C., Lteif, R. Impact of volatile phenols and their precursors on wine quality and control measures of Brettanomyces/Dekkera yeasts. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 237(5), 655–671; 2013.

Volatile phenols are aromatic compounds and one of the key molecules responsible for olfactory defects in wine. The yeast genus Brettanomyces is the only major microorganism that has the ability to covert hydroxycinnamic acids into important levels of these compounds, especially 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol, in red wine. When 4-ethylphenols reach concentrations greater than the sensory threshold, all wine’s organoleptic characteristics might be influenced or damaged. The aim of this literature review is to provide a better understanding of the physicochemical, biochemical, and metabolic factors that are related to the levels of p-coumaric acid and volatile phenols in wine. Then, this work summarizes the different methods used for controlling the presence of Brettanomyces in wine and the production of ethylphenols.

© Reprinted with permission from Kheir, J., Salameh, D., Strehaiano, P., Brandam, C., Lteif, R. Impact of volatile phenols and their precursors on wine quality and control measures of Brettanomyces/Dekkera yeasts. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 237(5), 655–671; 2013. Copyright 2013 Springer.

208.14 Ultee, A., Wacker, A., Kunz, D., Löwenstein, R., König, H. Microbial succession in spontaneously fermented grape must before, during and after stuck fermentation. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 68–78; 2013.

The microbial succession in spontaneously fermenting Riesling must was investigated from the beginning (pressing) until the end (sulphuring) of the fermentation in two harvest years (2008 and 2009) at a Moselle winery (Germany). In both years, the fermentation was interrupted by a stuck period. The length of the stuck period varied considerably (20 weeks in 2008 and one week in 2009). Different yeasts (Candida, Debaryomyces, Pichia, Hanseniaspora, Saccharomyces, Metschnikowia, Cryptococcas, Filobasidium and Rhodotorula) and bacteria (Gluconobacter, Asaia, Acetobacter, Oenococcus, Lactobacillus, Bacillus and Paenibacillus) were isolated successively by plating. The main fermenting organism was Saccharomyces uvarum. Specific primers were developed for S. uvarum, H. uvarum and C. boidinii, followed by the determination of the total cell counts with qPCR. The initial glucose concentration differed between the two years and was 116 g/L in 2008 and 85.4 g/L in 2009. Also, the fructose concentrations were different in both years (114 g/L in

20 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 2008 and 77.8 g/L in 2009). The stuck period appeared when the glucose/fructose ratio was 0.34 and 0.12 respectively. The microbiota changed during the stuck period.

© Reprinted with permission from Ultee, A., Wacker, A., Kunz, D., Löwenstein, R., König, H. Microbial succession in spontaneously fermented grape must before, during and after stuck fermentation. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 68–78; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

Analysis and composition

208.15 Alberts, P., Kidd, M., Stander, M.A., Nieuwoldt, H.H., Tredoux, A.G.J., de Villiers, A. Quantitative survey of 3-alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines and first confirmation of 3-ethyl-2- methoxypyrazine in South African Sauvignon Blanc wines. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 54–67; 2013.

3-Alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines are important aroma components in Sauvignon Blanc wine, contributing to the typical vegetative character associated with the cultivar. The analysis of methoxypyrazines is highly challenging and, as a result, limited quantitative data are available for South African Sauvignon Blanc wines. In this study, liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry was applied for the sensitive quantification of the three principal methoxypyrazines in 881 South African Sauvignon Blanc wines. The total wine methoxypyrazine concentration exceeded the combined recognition threshold for the vegetative aroma in more than 60% of the samples, demonstrating the involvement of these compounds in the typical aroma of the cultivar. The analytical method was adapted to allow the accurate quantitation and spectral confirmation of 3-ethyl-2-methoxypyrazine in Sauvignon Blanc wines for the first time. Concentrations ranged between 1.1 and 4.9 ng/L. Statistically significant relationships between wine methoxypyrazine concentrations and parameters related to the maturity of the grapes and to the climate, as well as geographical origin and vintage, were found.

© Reprinted with permission from Alberts, P., Kidd, M., Stander, M.A., Nieuwoldt, H.H., Tredoux, A.G.J., de Villiers, A. Quantitative survey of 3-alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines and first confirmation of 3-ethyl-2- methoxypyrazine in South African Sauvignon Blanc wines. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 54–67; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.16 Danilewicz, J.C. Reactions involving iron in mediating catechol oxidation in model wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 316–324; 2013.

Studies in wine and model systems have established that iron is an essential catalyst that mediates the reaction of polyphenols with oxygen. This investigation examined how this metal exerts its action. When wine is protected from air, iron exists in its reduced ferrous state, Fe(II), which is rapidly oxidized to the ferric state, Fe(III), on exposure to oxygen. This rapid transformation is observed when Fe(II) is added to model wine saturated with aerial oxygen, but the reaction slows to a very slow rate before completion due to the inhibitory action of Fe(III). 4-Methylcatechol was found not to be oxidized by Fe(III) or as Fe(II) was reacting with oxygen. It was apparent, C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 21 L therefore, that the catechol did not react with intermediate oxygen radicals. Consequently, it is proposed that hydroperoxyl radicals are not produced in wine conditions and a revised mechanism for the reaction of Fe(II) with oxygen to produce hydrogen peroxide is proposed. However, sulfite addition, which is known to promote catechol oxidation, resulted in rapid Fe(III) reduction and attainment of an Fe(III)/Fe(II) redox equilibrium. Benzenesulfinic acid, which does not react with oxygen, produced the same effect and it is proposed that nucleophiles, which react rapidly with quinones, allow the oxidation of catechols to proceed. Examination of the Fenton reaction showed that the reaction of Fe(II) with hydrogen peroxide was rapid and resulted in the uptake of oxygen. A comparison of the rates of Fe(II) oxidation and Fe(III) reduction in the presence of different ligands showed a dependence on reduction potentials.

© Reprinted with permission from Danilewicz, J.C. Reactions involving iron in mediating catechol oxidation in model wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 316–324; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.17 Dimkou, E., Ugliano, M., Diéval, J.-B., Vidal, S., Jung, R. Impact of dissolved oxygen at bottling on sulfur dioxide and sensory properties of a Riesling wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 325–332; 2013.

A Riesling wine was bottled with different levels of dissolved oxygen and sealed with two different coextruded closures and one screwcap closure in order to investigate the impact of dissolved oxygen and of closure oxygen transfer rate on wine evolution. Dissolved oxygen introduced at bottling influenced sulfur dioxide decline during bottle storage, especially during the first three months. However, the loss of sulfur dioxide was more strongly correlated with the total amount of oxygen consumed by the wine rather than with the evolution of dissolved oxygen. Closure oxygen transfer rate also influenced sulfur dioxide loss, and this effect became greater with time in the bottle. Although closure was an important factor influencing sensory attributes of bottled wine, within each closure, dissolved oxygen accounted for significant differences across the wines. Wines bottled with high dissolved oxygen showed significantly higher ratings for oxidation, confirming the influence of dissolved oxygen management on the evolution of wine over time.

© Reprinted with permission from Dimkou, E., Ugliano, M., Diéval, J.-B., Vidal, S., Jung, R. Impact of dissolved oxygen at bottling on sulfur dioxide and sensory properties of a Riesling wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 325–332; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.18 Dordevic, N., Camin, F., Marianella, R.M., Postma, G.J., Buydens, L.M.C., Wehrens, R. Detecting the addition of sugar and water to wine. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 324–330; 2013.

Background and Aims: Wine fraud has been practised since ancient times, continuing up to the present day and taking many forms. In this study, detection of the addition of unpermitted sugar and water to wines was evaluated using a univariate method, officially adopted, and several more effective multivariate methods. Methods and Results: The results are based on 5220 Italian wine samples belonging to the European Union (EU) Wine Databank Collected in the period

22 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 2000–2010. This databank contains stable isotope ratios for wine samples from many regions over many years. The addition of variable amounts of sugar and water was simulated according to experimental results, and univariate and multivariate methods were compared. It was shown that this type of fraud can be discovered much more easily by the application of multivariate methods. Conclusions: It can be difficult to detect the addition of unpermitted sugar and water to wines. With multivariate tests based on the EU Wine Databank, the likelihood of detecting this kind of fraud is significantly increased. Significance of the Study: This research evaluates and proposes a more efficient method for statistical interpretation of the EU Wine Databank for evaluation of wine authenticity.

© Reprinted with permission from Dordevic, N., Camin, F., Marianella, R.M., Postma, G.J., Buydens, L.M.C., Wehrens, R. Detecting the addition of sugar and water to wine. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 324–330; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

208.19 Guyon, F., Gaillard, L., Salagoïty, MH., Médina, B. Determination of isotope ratios of the main components in wine by HPLC-co-IRMS: An approach to developing authenticity markers. Bull. OIV 86(986-988), 181–186; 2013.

[French] Isotopic analysis of sweet wine main components was performed by HPLC-co-IRMS. For the majority of the wines under study, δ13C values of glucose, fructose, glycerol and ethanol were determined in a single run. These δ13C isotope ratios are variable form one sample to another according to their vintage and geographical origin. Nevertheless, the study of 20 authentic wines showed that ratios of isotope ratios, R13C, lead to a constant, within the uncertainty range, for all the samples. Using R13C, this technique was applied to commercial samples. Among 18 commercial wines under study, 3 samples showed ratios of isotope ratios outside the constant range considering the uncertainty; that could be an indication of a fraudulent post fermentation treatment, like sweetening.

© Reprinted with permission from Guyon, F., Gaillard, L., Salagoïty, MH., Médina, B. Determination of isotope ratios of the main components in wine by HPLC-co-IRMS: An approach to developing authenticity markers. Bull. OIV 86(986-988), 181–186; 2013. Copyright 2013 Organisation International de la Vigne et du Vin.

208.20 Kalanquin, D., Coste, M., Paricaud, T., Dubernet, M., Fil, J., Fourment, J-D., Prabonnaud, S., Thomas, G. The content and origin of Manganese in wines. Rev. Oenol. 149, 33–35; 2013.

[French] Abstract not available for reproduction

208.21 Kreitman, G.Y., Cantu, A., Waterhouse, A.L., Elias, R.J. Effect of metal chelators on the oxidative stability of model wine. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61(39), 9480–9487; 2013.

Oxidation is a major problem with respect to wine quality, and winemakers have few tools at their disposal to control it. In this study, the effect of exogenous Fe(II) (bipyridine; Ferrozine) and Fe(III) chelators (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, EDTA; phytic acid) on nonenzymatic wine oxidation was examined. The ability of these chelators to affect the formation of 1-hydroxyethyl radicals (1- C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 23 L HER) and acetaldehyde was measured using a spin trapping technique with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and by HPLC-PDA, respectively. The chelators were then investigated for their ability to prevent the oxidative loss of an important aroma-active thiol, 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol (3MH). The Fe(II)-specific chelators were more effective than the Fe(III) chelators with respect to 1-HER inhibition during the early stages of oxidation and significantly reduced oxidation markers compared to a control during the study. However, although the addition of Fe(III) chelators was less effective or even showed an initial pro-oxidant activity, the Fe(III) chelators proved to be more effective antioxidants compared to Fe(II) chelators after 8 days of accelerated oxidation. In addition, it is shown for the first time that Fe(II) and Fe(III) chelators can significantly inhibit the oxidative loss of 3MH in model wine.

© Reprinted with permission from Kreitman, G.Y., Cantu, A., Waterhouse, A.L., Elias, R.J. Effect of metal chelators on the oxidative stability of model wine. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61(39), 9480–9487; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Chemical Society.

208.22 Silvestri, A.-C., Sabatier, J., Ducruet, J. A new method for protein extraction from red wines. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 47(3), 213–220; 2013.

Abstract not available for reproduction

Marketing and packaging

208.23 Costanigro, M., Appleby, C., Menke, S.D. The wine headache: consumer perceptions of sulfites and willingness to pay for non-sulfited wines. Food Qual. Pref. 31, 81–89; 2014.

A panel of 223 alcohol consumers recruited in a liquor store participated in a survey/best–worst experiment investigating perceptions on sulfites and willingness to pay for non-sulfited wines. We find that 34% of our sample experiences headaches after consuming moderate amounts of wine, and sulfites are the most frequently attributed cause. Based on a rank ordered logit estimation of best–worst choices, headache syndrome sufferers are willing to pay a ceteris paribus premium of $1.23 per bottle to avoid added sulfites. However, results from a (logit) model of purchase intentions suggest that quality and price are most important, with differentiating labels (no sulfite added, organic) playing only a marginal role. Marketing implications for the wine industry are offered, and negative perceptions toward sulfites are contextualized within the hypothesis of a ‘‘lightning rod’’ effect induced by the ‘‘contains sulfites’’ warning label.

© Reprinted with permission from Costanigro, M., Appleby, C., Menke, S.D. The wine headache: consumer perceptions of sulfites and willingness to pay for non-sulfited wines. Food Qual. Pref. 31, 81–89; 2014. Copyright 2014 Elsevier Science.

24 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.24 Panzone, L.A. Why are discounted prices presented with full prices? The role of external price information on consumers’ likelihood to purchase. Food Qual. Pref. 31, 69–80; 2014.

Apart from being a cost, prices inform consumers on the quality of goods. To retain informative power, discounted prices are often presented together with their original value as an External Reference Price (ERP). Observing the impact of the ERP on consumer preferences using two contingent valuation surveys to wine consumers, the paper observes that the presence of both prices and ERPs guide consumer choices. In particular, ERPs shift the attention of consumers towards expensive products and high discounts, by providing information on quality and allowing for time-efficient decisions. Results show that ERPs: (a) have a positive impact on preferences, but less (in absolute value) than prices; (b) stimulate the choice of items with high price and large discounts; (c) make consumers revise their choices. The presence of an ERP can, in certain conditions, lead to a positive response to high prices.

© Reprinted with permission from Panzone, L.A. Why are discounted prices presented with full prices? The role of external price information on consumers’ likelihood to purchase. Food Qual. Pref. 31, 69–80; 2014. Copyright 2014 Elsevier Science.

208.25 Saliba, A., Ovington, L., Gunaratne, C. Why do people avoid consuming wine? Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 79–82; 2013.

CSU researchers have investigated the reasons why individuals prefer not to purchase or drink wine, despite opting for other alcoholic beverages. This article reports on the outcomes from the initial qualitative component.

© Reprinted with permission from Saliba, A., Ovington, L., Gunaratne, C. Why do people avoid consuming wine? Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 79–82; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

Environment

208.26 Schuster, D. Adaptions to climatic impacts on vineyard and wine cellar practices in recent vintages for Super-Tuscan and Bordeaux reds. Wine Technol. NZ 11(3), 3–5; 2013.

Abstract not available for reproduction

208.27 Schuster, D., Paoletti, A., Bernini, L. Global warming and impact on the world of viticulture. Wine Technol. NZ 11(3), 7–9; 2013.

Abstract not available for reproduction

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 25 L 208.28 Brune, P.D., Culler, A.H., Ridley, W.P., Walker, K. Safety of GM crops: compositional analysis. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61(35), 8243–8247; 2013.

The compositional analysis of genetically modified (GM) crops has continued to be an important part of the overall evaluation in the safety assessment program for these materials. The variety and complexity of genetically engineered traits and modes of action that will be used in GM crops in the near future, as well as our expanded knowledge of compositional variability and factors that can affect composition, raise questions about compositional analysis and how it should be applied to evaluate the safety of traits. The International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI), a nonprofit foundation whose mission is to provide science that improves public health and well-being by fostering collaboration among experts from academia, government, and industry, convened a workshop in September 2012 to examine these and related questions, and a series of papers has been assembled to describe the outcomes of that meeting.

© Reprinted with permission from Brune, P.D., Culler, A.H., Ridley, W.P., Walker, K. Safety of GM crops: compositional analysis. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61(35), 8243–8247; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Chemical Society.

208.29 Lereboullet, A.-L., Beltrando, G., Bardsley, D.K., Rouvellac, E. The viticultural system and climate change: coping with long-term trends in temperature and rainfall in Roussillon, France. Reg. Environ. Change DOI: 10.1007/s10113-013-0446-2, 1–16; 2013.

Mediterranean viticulture could suffer from hotter and drier growing seasons over the coming decades. The present article focuses on the wine-producing area Côtes-du-Roussillon-Villages near Perpignan, in Southern France. We used observational daily data (1925–2010) from Perpignan weather station and daily outputs (2001–2060) of the regional climate model ARPEGERETIC-V4 from Météo-France with scenarios A2, A1B and B1, to assess the exposure of the regional wine system to changes in temperature and precipitation, both in the recent past and the coming decades (1925–2060). Temperatures during the growing season and summer temperature extremes have been increasing continuously since the mid-1980s and are projected to increase faster from the mid-2040s. Precipitation is highly variable and very low in summer, and projections suggest greater uncertainty, and more extreme drought events could be expected. The analysis of climate data was complemented by thirty-two in-depth interviews with local actors of the wine industry to assess the impacts of climate change on their activities and potential adaptive options. Producers reported negative impacts of recent changes in climate in conjunction with a difficult economic situation. Analyses of historical, social and economic backgrounds are important to fully conceptualize the nature and extent of climate change risks in the region. This case study provides important insights into the roles of non-climatic factors in the generation of vulnerability for Mediterranean agricultural systems facing rapid climate change.

© Reprinted with permission from Lereboullet, A.-L., Beltrando, G., Bardsley, D.K., Rouvellac, E. The viticultural system and climate change: coping with long-term trends in temperature and rainfall in Roussillon, France. Reg. Environ. Change DOI: 10.1007/s10113-013-0446-2, 1–16; 2013. Copyright 2013 Springer Science + Business Media.

26 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 Sensory

208.30 Spence, C. The influence of the senses on the consumption and purchase of wine. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 86–88; 2013.

Drawing on his intriguing presentation at the recent Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference in Sydney, Charles Spence explores how drinking wine involves not only the senses of smell and taste, but also visual, oral-somatosensory, and possibly even auditory cues as well, which not only influence the multisensory interactions taking place in the mouth but also the environments in which wine is purchased and consumed.

© Reprinted with permission from Spence, C. The influence of the senses on the consumption and purchase of wine. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 86–88; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.31 Villamor, R.R., Evans, M.A., Ross, C.F. Effects of ethanol, tannin, and fructose concentrations on sensory properties of model red wines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 342–348; 2013.

The effects of ethanol (0, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16% v/v), tannin (500, 1000, and 1500 mg/L), and fructose (200 and 2000 mg/L) on 20 sensory attributes of model wines were investigated in a full-factorial design. Descriptive profiling of the 36 model wines was performed by a trained panel. Analysis of variance showed few significant interaction effects dominated largely by the main effects. Generally, an increase in ethanol concentration had significant effects (p ≤ 0.05) on a majority of the attributes by either increasing (chemical, woody, spicy aroma and flavor, bitter taste, burning sensation) or decreasing (fruity, floral, caramel aroma and flavor) perception. Similarly, tannin concentration induced significant effects on some (p ≤ 0.05) but not all attributes. Increasing tannin concentration tended to increase woody aroma and flavor, bitter taste, and burning sensation and reduced fruity and spicy aroma and flavor. However, not all of the sensory attributes were significantly influenced by varying fructose concentration (p > 0.05), suggesting that fructose was the least important wine component among the studied variables. These findings provide further information to better understand the changes in the sensory properties of wines brought about by modifications in wine components.

© Reprinted with permission from Villamor, R.R., Evans, M.A., Ross, C.F. Effects of ethanol, tannin, and fructose concentrations on sensory properties of model red wines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 342–348; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 27 L Viticulture General

208.32 Bodor, P., Baranyai, L., Ladányi, M., Bálo, B., Strever, A.E., Bisztray, Gy.D., Hunter, J.J. Stability of ampelometric characteristics of Vitis vinifera L. cv. ‘Syrah’ and ‘Sauvignon Blanc’ leaves: impact of within-vineyard variability and pruning method/bud load. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 129–137; 2013.

Historically, grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) leaf characterisation has been a driving force in the identification of cultivars. In this study, ampelometric (foliometric) analysis was done on leaf samples collected from hand-pruned, mechanically pruned and minimally pruned ‘Sauvignon Blanc’ and ‘Syrah’ vines to estimate the impact of within-vineyard variability and a change in bud load on the stability of leaf properties. The results showed that within-vineyard variability of ampelometric characteristics was high within a cultivar, irrespective of bud load. In terms of the O.I.V. coding system, zero to four class differences were observed between minimum and maximum values of each characteristic. The value of variability of each characteristic was different between the three levels of bud load and the two cultivars. With respect to bud load, the number of shoots per vine had a significant effect on the characteristics of the leaf laminae. Single leaf area and lengths of veins changed significantly for both cultivars, irrespective of treatment, while angle between veins proved to be a stable characteristic. A large number of biometric data can be recorded on a single leaf; the data measured on several leaves, however, are not necessarily unique for a specific cultivar. The leaf characteristics analysed in this study can be divided into two groups according to the response to a change in bud load, i.e. stable (angles between the veins, depths of sinuses) and variable (length of the veins, length of the petiole, single leaf area). The variable characteristics are not recommended to be used in cultivar identification, unless the pruning method/bud load is known.

© Reprinted with permission from Bodor, P., Baranyai, L., Ladányi, M., Bálo, B., Strever, A.E., Bisztray, Gy.D., Hunter, J.J. Stability of ampelometric characteristics of Vitis vinifera L. cv. ‘Syrah’ and ‘Sauvignon Blanc’ leaves: impact of within-vineyard variability and pruning method/bud load. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 129–137; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.33 Bramley, R. Wine sector attitudes to the adoption of Precision Viticulture. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 69–73; 2013.

CSIRO researchers recently conducted an informal survey of wine industry personnel to assess the awareness and adoption rate of Precision Viticulture techniques. The survey covered awareness and adoption of PV, beliefs about benefits and constraints to PV adoption.

© Reprinted with permission from Bramley, R. Wine sector attitudes to the adoption of Precision Viticulture. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 69–73; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

28 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.34 Deloire, A. Wine aroma and grapevine berry ripening: how to capture the complexity. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 65–68; 2013.

Touching on some of his presentation at the recent Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference in Sydney, Alain Deloire describes a collaborative project under way between the National Wine and Grape Industry Centre and The Australian Wine Research Institute to calibrate and improve existing tools and methods and possibly develop new ones to predict an appropriate harvest date to suit wine styles for the Australian wine industry.

© Reprinted with permission from Deloire, A. Wine aroma and grapevine berry ripening: how to capture the complexity. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 65–68; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.35 Iandolino, A.B., Pearcy, R.W., Williams, L.E. Simulating three-dimensional grapevine canopies and modelling their light interception characteristics. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 388–400; 2013.

Background and Aims: The objective of this study was to develop a simplified approach to simulate three-dimensional (3D) grapevine canopies and model light interception. Methods and Results: A re-sampling procedure was developed to generate a set of allometric parameters based on their sample mean and distribution derived from shoots of field-grown vines grown in response to variable amounts of irrigation and N fertiliser. A large number of 3D models of grapevine canopies was reconstructed with the plant architecture model YPLANT based on re-sampled allometric parameters. Approximately 80% of intercepted light by the canopies was shown to be captured by 20–30% of the leaves, with deficit-irrigated and N-stressed plants having a greater proportion of leaf area exposed to high and moderate light intensity throughout the day compared with that of non-stressed vines. The amount of daily absorbed light increased with increasing leaf area per vine and was highly affected by row direction. Conclusions: Model predictions agreed with previously reported and measured amounts and patterns of light interception. Significance of the Study: The approach described here simplifies previous attempts to represent the 3D architecture of a grapevine canopy, provides a good approximation to conditions vines may experience in the field and may be of practical use for field research and/or optimisation of canopy management practices in commercial production systems.

© Reprinted with permission from Iandolino, A.B., Pearcy, R.W., Williams, L.E. Simulating three-dimensional grapevine canopies and modelling their light interception characteristics. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 388–400; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 29 L 208.36 Mole, A. Grapegrowers refused to be crushed. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 15–16; 2013.

This article discusses the experiences of Kondinin Group-ABC Rural Australian Horticulturalist of the Year Ashley Ratcliff. The Ricca Terra Farms owner discusses overcoming the challenges of drought and outlines how he has made economies of scale work for the business.

© Reprinted with permission from Mole, A. Grapegrowers refused to be crushed. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 15–16; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.37 Olarte Mantilla, S.M., Collins, C., Iland, P.G., Kidman, C.M., Jordans, C., Bastian, S.E.P. Comparison of sensory attributes of fresh and frozen wine grape berries using berry sensory assessment. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 349–357; 2013.

Background and Aims: We examined whether a sensory difference between fresh and frozen berries could be detected using Berry Sensory Assessment (BSA). If no sensory difference was detected, then fresh berries could be frozen and assessed later, thus reducing the problem of palate fatigue for assessors. Methods and Results: Twenty-five sensory attributes of fresh and frozen Shiraz berries were evaluated by Descriptive Analysis at three times of harvest, ‘before harvest’, ‘harvest’ and ‘after harvest’. In addition total soluble solids (TSS), pH, titratable acidity (TA) and berry mass were measured for all berry samples. Five sensory attributes were consistently different at the three times of harvest – pulp sweetness, pulp fresh fig flavour, skin colour extraction, skin bitterness and seed astringency. Frozen berries were characterised by having pulp sweetness, pulp fresh ripe fig flavour and seed astringency higher than that of fresh berries. Whereas fresh berries had skin colour extraction and bitterness higher than that of frozen samples, freezing did not affect TSS, but pH in frozen berries was higher than that in fresh berries at each harvest. Titratable acidity was lower in frozen berries at harvest and at after harvest. Freezing reduced berry mass before harvest and at each harvest compared with that of fresh berries. Conclusions: Shiraz berries that are frozen and thawed have a sensory profile different to that of fresh berries. Time of harvest affects the sensory attributes of Shiraz berries, whether they have been frozen or assessed when fresh. Significance of the Study: Freezing and thawing affect grape berry sensory attributes as assessed by BSA and berry composition and, therefore, comparing results from frozen and fresh berries may not be valid. Further work is required to determine the effect of freezing temperature, storage period and thawing procedure.

© Reprinted with permission from Olarte Mantilla, S.M., Collins, C., Iland, P.G., Kidman, C.M., Jordans, C., Bastian, S.E.P. Comparison of sensory attributes of fresh and frozen wine grape berries using berry sensory assessment. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 349–357; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

30 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.38 Pasquier, G. Dealcoholisation can be controlled from the vine to wine. La Vigne 257, 46–47; 2013.

[French] Abstract not available for reproduction

208.39 Rieger, T. ASEV symposium explores tannin management strategies. Vineyard Winery Manage. 39(6), 67–70; 2013.

Ted Rieger reports on tannin management strategies presented by Jim Kennedy, Mark Downey and Jim Harbertson at the American Society for Viticulture and Enology Tannin Symposium, held June 28 in Monterey, CA.

© Reprinted with permission from Rieger, T. ASEV symposium explores tannin management strategies. Vineyard Winery Manage. 39(6), 67–70; 2013. Copyright 2013 Vineyard and Winery Services, Inc.

208.40 Vitali, M., Tamagnone, M., La Iacona, T., Lovisolo, C. Measurement of grapevine canopy leaf area by using an ultrasonic-based method. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 47(3), 183–189; 2013.

Abstract not available for reproduction

208.41 Wolf, T., Hatch, T. Improving Eastern industry profitability. Wines Vines 94(11), 103–111; 2013.

This article summarises the goals of a project to encourage growth in the wine industry of the Eastern United States. The project received $3.8 million of federal funding over a five-year period, and is aimed at improving the eastern wine industry’s production efficiency, productivity and profitability.

© Reprinted with permission from Wolf, T., Hatch, T. Improving Eastern industry profitability. Wines Vines 94(11), 103–111; 2013. Copyright 2013 Wine Communications Group.

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 31 L Physiology and biotechnology

208.42 Cohen, R. Understanding plant hormones. Vineyard Winery Manage. 39(6), 33–36; 2013.

Plant hormones are chemicals that regulate growth and are often referred to as plant growth regulators (PGR). This article discusses various PGRs and outlines the benefits and drawbacks of exogenous PGR application.

© Reprinted with permission from Cohen, R. Understanding plant hormones. Vineyard Winery Manage. 39(6), 33–36; 2013. Copyright 2013 Vineyard and Winery Services, Inc.

208.43 Davies, C., Böttcher, C., Boss, P. Get ready to regulate your ripening. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 38–40; 2013.

CSIRO Plant Industry researchers have been investigating the role of plant growth regulators in the berry ripening process. The authors studied the mechanisms of PGR action in grapes and discuss delayed ripening and PGR effects on wine. Three specific PGRs discussed are the gas ethylene, abscisic acid (ABA) and castasterone (CS).

© Reprinted with permission from Davies, C., Böttcher, C., Boss, P. Get ready to regulate your ripening. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 38–40; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.44 Fernandez-Marin, M.I., Guerrero, R.F., Puertas, B., Garcia-Parilla, M.C., Collado, I.G., Cantos-Villar, E. Impact of preharvest and postharvest treatment combinations on increase of stilbene content in grape. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 47(3), 203–212; 2013.

Abstract not available for reproduction

208.45 Giuffrè, A. HPLC-DAD detection of changes in phenol content of red berry skins during grape ripening. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 237(4), 555–564; 2013.

With increasing concern for a demand from consumers for natural products, there is a wide interest in bioactive substances. The new frontier of dietary quality is the study and promotion of functional foods. Phenols are among the most important functional molecules. Red grape and red wine contain bioactive products as phenols. Changes occurring in the concentrations of phenols, such as hydroxycinnamic tartaric acids (hctas), flavonols, and anthocyanins in berry skins, were measured during growth and ripening of four red grape cultivars, Alicante, Black Malvasia, Nerello, and Prunesta (Vitis vinifera L.), cultivated in a coastal location of the Reggio Calabria Province (Southern Italy). These cultivars are the most popular and are considered to be the most suitable grape cultivars for cultivation in the Tyrrhenian side of the Reggio Calabria Province. Fractioning of three phenolic classes was conducted through the adsorbing resin Serdolit XAD-2. Each single phenolic fraction was analyzed by liquid chromatography with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD). Each cultivar presented a different chromatographic profile particularly for anthocyanins. The

32 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 cultivar Nerello was distinguished from other for its high content of anthocyanins. The rate, at which the concentration of hctas, flavonols and anthocyanins increased, varied greatly among the cultivars. The hydroxycinnamic tartaric acid profile varied in the studied cultivars, in fact in Alicante, Black Malvasia and Prunesta cultivars, the predominant was trans-coumaroyl tartaric acid, while in Nerello cultivar, trans-caffeoyl tartaric acid was the most abundant. In addition, the results showed that amounts of phenolic compounds contained in grape skin changed throughout the grape ripening process.

© Reprinted with permission from Giuffrè, A. HPLC-DAD detection of changes in phenol content of red berry skins during grape ripening. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 237(4), 555–564; 2013. Copyright 2013 Springer.

208.46 Jogaiah, S., Oulkar, D.P., Banerjee, K., Sharma, J., Patil, A.G., Maske, S.R., Somkuwar, R.G. Biochemically induced variations during some phenological stages in Thompson seedless grapevines grafted on different rootstocks. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 36–45; 2013.

Phenological variation in Thompson Seedless grapevines grafted on different rootstocks and own rooted vines was assessed for two consecutive years and the reasons for such variations were studied through biochemical analysis. Uniform and early bud sprouting was recorded in the vines grafted on 110R rootstock and on own roots, which was attributed to increased peroxidase activity and protein content in the buds before bud burst. Increased fruitfulness on 110R rootstock and own rooted vines was attributed to the increased phosphorus and protein content of those vines and reduced vegetative vigour measured in terms of shoot length, cane diameter and pruned biomass. Thompson Seedless grafted on Dogridge rootstock recorded the highest nitrogen content, increased shoot length, cane diameter and increased rootstock pruned biomass attributing to reduced fruitfulness. The highest concentration of phenolic compounds and amino acids was recorded in the fruits produced on 110R rootstock, while it was least on St. George and own roots. Significant variation in the accumulation pattern of amino acids (especially proline and arginine) was observed, with the least proline/arginine ratio recorded on 110R rootstocks at the time of harvest, indicating the variation in the days taken for fruit ripening on different rootstocks.

© Reprinted with permission from Jogaiah, S., Oulkar, D.P., Banerjee, K., Sharma, J., Patil, A.G., Maske, S.R., Somkuwar, R.G. Biochemically induced variations during some phenological stages in Thompson seedless grapevines grafted on different rootstocks. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 36–45; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.47 Li, J.-H., Guan, L., Fan, P.-G., Li, S.-H., Wu, B.-H. Effect of sunlight exclusion at different phenological stages on anthocyanin accumulation in red grape clusters. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 349–356; 2013.

The influence of sunlight exclusion from grape clusters at different phenological stages on berry composition, especially anthocyanin accumulation in berry skin, was investigated. Sunlight was excluded from clusters at three different stages: fruit set to about 1 week preveraison, about 1 week preveraison to about 1 week postveraison, and about 1 week postveraison to maturity for the red grape cv. Jingxiu (Vitis vinifera L.) over two seasons and three cultivation conditions (in the field

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 33 in 2011 and in the greenhouse and rain shelter in 2012). Sunlight exclusion at the different stages did not consistently affect berry weight, soluble solids content, or titratable acidity at maturity. However, sunlight exclusion from fruit set to 1 week preveraison consistently significantly increased anthocyanin content both at 1 week postveraison and at maturity, compared to the clusters exposed to sunlight throughout fruit development (control). Clusters with sunlight excluded from 1 week preveraison to 1 week postveraison accumulated less anthocyanins than control clusters at 1 week postveraison, while re-exposure to sunlight resulted in recovery of anthocyanin synthesis to a similar total content to control clusters at maturity. The absence of sunlight from 1 week postveraison to maturity did not significantly affect anthocyanin content compared to the control. The increase of anthocyanin content by sunlight exclusion from fruit set to 1 week preveraison might have a practical application for production of more anthocyanins in red grape berry skin.

© Reprinted with permission from Li, J.-H., Guan, L., Fan, P.-G., Li, S.-H., Wu, B.-H. Effect of sunlight exclusion at different phenological stages on anthocyanin accumulation in red grape clusters. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 349–356; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.48 Nicoletti, I., Bellincontro, A., De Rossi, A., De Sanctis, F., Tiberi, D., Pietromarchi, P., Botondi, R., Corradini, D., Mencarelli, F. Postharvest dehydration of Nebbiolo grapes grown at altitude is affected by time of defoliation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 358–368; 2013.

Background and Aims: Sfursat is an Italian wine produced with partially dehydrated Nebbiolo grapes in the Valtellina region which is located at high altitude. The research aims to understand the influence of fruit exposure on the rate of water loss by harvested fruit and the influence of exposure and dehydration on the content of phenolic substances and anthocyanins in the wine. Methods and Results: Clusters of Nebbiolo grapes from control vines (ND) and from vines that were defoliated at fruitset (DFS) or post-veraison (DPV) were harvested at a sugar concentration of about 230 g/L (there was no significant difference among the treatments), and dehydrated at 10, 20 or 30°C and at 60% relative humidity (RH), and air flow. Fruit were sampled at 10 and 20% weight loss (WL). Leaf removal had little effect on the physical characteristics of bunches and on the anthocyanins content and profile of harvested Nebbiolo grapes but affected dehydration. At 10 and 20°C, DFS fruit lost mass more slowly than DPV and ND fruit. In ND fruit, 20% WL reduced anthocyanins from 554 mg/kg fresh mass (FM) at harvest to 458, 432 and 3961ng/kg FM at 10, 20 and 30°C, respectively. In DFS and DPV berries, anthocyanins increased during dehydration at 10°C. At harvest, ND berries had a lower content of total stilbenes than those from defoliated vines. Dehydration (10°C, 20% WL) increased stilbene concentration in ND and DPV fruit. Dehydration at 10°C induced a rise in the flavonol concentration in fruit from defoliated vines. Catechin concentration was 106.5 mg/kg DM (dry mass), the highest value in ND berries at harvest. Wine was produced only from grapes dehydrated at 10°C. Wine from DFS fruit had a higher content of phenolic substances (2704.81 mg/L) and anthocyanins (104 mg/L) than that from DPV (2454.9 and 96.2 mg/L, respectively) and ND (2301.9 and 100.5 mg/L, respectively) fruit. Conclusions: Postharvest dehydration was slower where vines had been defoliated and resulted in changes in the ratios among groups of phenolic substances as well as among single phenolic components. Significance of the Study: In Nebbiolo grapes for Sfursat wine production, defoliation at fruit

34 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 set enables fruit to reach phenolic maturity at a lower sugar concentration allowing dehydration to increase sugar concentration without producing excessively alcoholic wines.

© Reprinted with permission from Nicoletti, I., Bellincontro, A., De Rossi, A., De Sanctis, F., Tiberi, D., Pietromarchi, P., Botondi, R., Corradini, D., Mencarelli, F. Postharvest dehydration of Nebbiolo grapes grown at altitude is affected by time of defoliation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 358–368; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

208.49 Pisciotta, A., di Lorenzo, R., Barbagallo, M.G., Hunter, J.J. Berry characterisation of cv. Shiraz according to position on the rachis. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 100–107; 2013.

In this study, characterisation of the physical and compositional parameters of berries located in different positions on the rachis of Shiraz/R99 bunches was done. Berries were divided according to position on the rachis (apical, median and basal) and berry weight, resulting in four berry weight classes, averaging 0.86 g, 1.29 g, 1.74 g and 2.26 g and 0.74, 1.18, 1.59 and 2.09 cm3 respectively. The berries were analysed individually. The fresh weight of the berries comprised approximately 4% seeds, 20% skin and 76% flesh. Different percentage distributions were found for each class of berry weight and according to position on the rachis. From the top to the bottom rachis position, an increase in skin proportion value and a decrease in flesh and seed proportion value occurred. Skins decreased and flesh increased in proportion from the smallest to the largest berry size. The seed maintained a relatively stable proportion, irrespective of berry size. Larger berries had more flesh compared to skin than smaller berries. A higher level of soluble solids occurred in the shoulder to middle bunch area (28.7 and 28.6 °B, respectively) than in the bottom area (27.6 °B). It is extremely difficult to obtain uniform berry size and composition under field conditions. Continuous efforts are required to reduce variation and the potential negative impact on wine quality and consistency of wine style.

© Reprinted with permission from Pisciotta, A., di Lorenzo, R., Barbagallo, M.G., Hunter, J.J. Berry characterisation of cv. Shiraz according to position on the rachis. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 100–107; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.50 Tabing, O., Tisdal, J.M., Swain, S. Low temperature exposure of root system and inflorescence affected flowering and fruit set in ‘Chardonnay’ grapevines (Vitis vinifera). Vitis 52(4), 165–169; 2013.

The mechanisms by which low temperature affects flowering and fruit set of grapevines are poorly understood, as is the specific response of the grapevine root system and inflorescence to low temperature effects that reduce fruit set. This study aimed to determine the responses of the root system and inflorescence of the grapevine ‘Chardonnay’ to low temperature (10°C) during flowering, and considered the possible mechanisms of low temperature effects on those parts. Temperature treatments of 10°C or 20°C were imposed to potted ‘Chardonnay’ grapevines in a glasshouse for up to two weeks during the early stages of flowering. When the root system alone was exposed to 10°C (with the rest of the plant at 20°C) during flowering, the number of attached berries and percentage fruit set were significantly reduced by 50% than when the root system

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 35 alone was exposed to 20°C. Whereas, exposure of the inflorescence alone to 10°C (with the rest of the plant at 20°C) delayed flowering, allowed rachis to grow longer, and increased both the number of attached berries (from 22 to 62 per vine) and fruit set (from 8% to 20%), than when the inflorescence alone was exposed to 20°C. This study will enhance our understanding of the possible mechanisms of low temperature effects on grapevine fruit set and productivity.

© Reprinted with permission from Tabing, O., Tisdal, J.M., Swain, S. Low temperature exposure of root system and inflorescence affected flowering and fruit set in ‘Chardonnay’ grapevines (Vitis vinifera). Vitis 52(4), 165–169; 2013. Copyright 2013 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

Climate and soils

208.51 Karvonen, J. Does soil temperature restrict outdoor viticulture in southern Finland? Vitis 52(4), 207–208; 2013.

This research note summarises results from a study measuring soil temperatures and depths in Southern and Central Finland. The study gives recommendations for minimum grapevine planting depth.

© Reprinted with permission from Karvonen, J. Does soil temperature restrict outdoor viticulture in southern Finland? Vitis 52(4), 207–208; 2013. Copyright 2013 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

208.52 Lewin, B. Does the answer lie in the soil? World Fine Wine 41, 67–69; 2013.

Abstract not available for reproduction

208.53 Riches, D., Porter, I.J., Oliver, D.P., Bramley, R.G.V., Rawnsley, B., Edwards, J., White, R.E. Review: soil biological properties as indicators of soil quality in Australian viticulture. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 311–323; 2013.

Any reduction in soil quality as a consequence of production practices, through processes, such as erosion, salinisation, sodicity, acidity and structural decline, threatens the long-term sustainability of winegrape production. Monitoring of soil quality is thus needed to identify when degradation is occurring in order to allow management intervention. This review examines the suite of biological indicators available for this purpose and the potential for their adoption as part of a minimum dataset by industry. Physical and chemical indicators are discussed in a companion paper. Many groups of organisms and various biological processes have been used as indicators of soil quality in research programs. There is a lack of consensus, however, on which are the key indicators for extensive monitoring programs, and little information is available on threshold values to aid

36 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 data interpretation. At present, only soil organic carbon (together with labile carbon), potentially mineralisable nitrogen and microbial biomass can be recommended for measuring the biological aspects of soil quality in Australian viticulture. Although molecular methods have been developed to elucidate the community structure and genetic profiles of groups in the soil biota, and thus supplement measurements of microbial biomass, these methods are not readily available through commercial laboratories. Moreover, with the exception of tests for some pathogenic organisms, these measurements have not yet been linked to soil functions influencing grapevine growth and nutrition and so are not suitable for routine monitoring of vineyard soil quality.

© Reprinted with permission from Riches, D., Porter, I.J., Oliver, D.P., Bramley, R.G.V., Rawnsley, B., Edwards, J., White, R.E. Review: soil biological properties as indicators of soil quality in Australian viticulture. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 311–323; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

208.54 Webb, L.B., Watterson, I., Bhend, J., Whetton, P.H., Barlow, E.W.R. Global climate analogues for winegrowing regions in future periods: projections of temperature and precipitation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 331–341; 2013.

Background and Aims: Climate is a key consideration for winegrowers, so information regarding projected climate change and the relative global impacts are of great interest. Methods and Results: This climate analogue approach compares and contrasts future to current climate among the regions. Warming was projected for all regions, with greater warming in Northern Hemisphere continental regions and less for Southern Hemisphere and coastal regions. Projections of annual precipitation varied, with the median result from the range of models indicating a wetter climate for higher latitude regions, such as New Zealand, Mosel Valley and North Oregon, and the Chinese region in this study, while Southern European, Australian and South African winegrowing regions had a projected drier climate. The median model result for winter precipitation indicated a projected decrease for sites in Chile, Greece, Australia and Spain, with other European and American sites experiencing a slight increase in winter precipitation. Shandong, China, was the only region in this study projected to experience increased summer precipitation. Significance of the Study: An estimated future temperature and precipitation climatology centred on 2030 and 2070 for 23 winegrowing regions worldwide is made using results from 23 global climate models. Using these climatologies, along with consideration of length of the planning horizon, legal limitations and inter-regional climate variability, climate analogues can be described. For future planning, winegrape cultivars better suited to the projected climate may then be selected from the range currently growing in identified analogue regions. Alternatively, climatically optimum sites can be identified for growing particular cultivars in future conditions. Conclusion: Future temperature and precipitation projections were made for 23 winegrowing regions worldwide and compared using a climate analogue approach.

© Reprinted with permission from Webb, L.B., Watterson, I., Bhend, J., Whetton, P.H., Barlow, E.W.R. Global climate analogues for winegrowing regions in future periods: projections of temperature and precipitation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 331–341; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 37 L 208.55 Winter, E., Lowe, S., Campbell, L. Biochar applications in a King Valley Vineyard. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 26–32; 2013.

This article discusses the benefits of carbon-rich biochar and its long-term value to the wine industry. The article reports on a trial conducted in a King Valley vineyard in 2012–2013.

© Reprinted with permission from Winter, E., Lowe, S., Campbell, L. Biochar applications in a King Valley Vineyard. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 26–32; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.56 Wolff, M., del Mar Alsina, M., Smart, D.R. Conservation tillage of cover crops in vineyard soils to improve carbon sequestration and diminish greenhouse gas emissions. Wines Vines 94(11), 103–111; 2013.

Carbon budgets that consider fuel use, crop biomass, soil carbon and greenhouse gas emissions will be important metrics of sustainability in the future. In this study, three vineyard floor treatments were maintained for nine years in a Napa Valley vineyard planted to Cabernet Sauvignon on 101- 14 rootstock. Treatments were: 1) annually seeded, minimum-till barley cover crop, 2) annually seeded, incorporated and tilled barley cover crop, and 3) incorporated and tilled resident vegetation. Soil carbon analysis indicated that significant quantities of carbon were stored in the minimum-till treatment, and lowest levels were seen in the twice-yearly-tilled cover crop. Emission of soil CO2 (soil respiration) was lowest from the twice-tilled cover crop. These results suggested that twice- yearly tillage reduces the carbon sequestration benefits of seeding a barley cover crop. However, while a minimum-tilled, permanent cover crop may be preferable for carbon sequestration, vine water stress increased in this treatment, resulting in lower pruning weights and yields. Vine-root presence was higher in surface layers under minimum-till. Growers concerned with their carbon budgets may consider the fuel consumed in agricultural operations such as tillage and seeding, as we have done. In the future it will be important to more closely investigate the frequency with which cover-cropped tractor rows should be tilled in order to optimize both soil carbon sequestration (the building up of soil carbon) and vineyard productivity. The quantity and spatial and temporal distributions of nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions were studied closely. N2O is a greenhouse gas with 298 times higher climate-warming effect than CO2 per molecule. Up to half of global N2O emissions are believed to come from agricultural settings following nitrogen fertilization. Natural

N2O production in the soil is heightened when soil microbes are exposed to sudden influxes of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers. Our results indicated that fertilizer-induced N2O emissions in this wine grape vineyard were small due largely to low inputs (7.5–15 pounds per acre). Differences among tillage treatments were minor, and the majority of emissions followed precipitation. Nevertheless, all fert-irrigation systems should benefit from improved practices in the future. Methane was studied and found to play only a minor role in the carbon budget of the vineyard.

© Reprinted with permission from Wolff, M., del Mar Alsina, M., Smart, D.R. Conservation tillage of cover crops in vineyard soils to improve carbon sequestration and diminish greenhouse gas emissions. Wines Vines 94(11), 103–111; 2013. Copyright 2013 Wine Communications Group.

38 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 Vineyard management systems

208.57 Caillon, M. Pellenc Optimum: A more productive and economical range (of machine harvesters). La Vigne 257, 40–42; 2013.

[French] Abstract not available for reproduction

208.58 Caillon, M. ‘Opti-grape’ A very selective harvesting and sorting system. La Vigne 257, 44–45; 2013.

[French] Abstract not available for reproduction

208.59 Ludvigsen, K. When management is all about measurement. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 52–55; 2013.

Kym Ludvigsen reminds us that what is not measured cannot be managed. This article is about the tools available for managing variation and quality indicators in the vineyard.

© Reprinted with permission from Ludvigsen, K. When management is all about measurement. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 52–55; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.60 Martínez de Toda, F., Balda, P. Delaying berry ripening through manipulating leaf area to fruit ratio. Vitis 52(4), 171–176; 2013.

The viticulture practices have always been focused on the production of grapes with higher sugar level, and this tendency has been pronounced by the climate change. The objective consists on delaying berry ripeness by decreasing the ratio between the leaf area and yield, performing intense trimming treatments after berry set and establishing the consequences on grape-vine productivity in the following years. Severe shoot trimming with two different intensity treatments were done during a 3-year period (2010–2012). Phenological, vegetative and productive parameters were examined. Veraison date was delayed around twenty days. Regarding the same harvesting date, the trim treatments had lower soluble solids level (15% reduction), lower pH (0.1-0.3) and less total anthocyanin content (10–27% reduction). The trim effect was also reflected in berry weight; as a consequence of that, bunch size and yield were also reduced by around 9 and 15%. Overall, single trim treatment was superior to double trim treatment because it can achieve the same results in delayed ripening, reduced °Brix, pH and production but with a smaller reduction in anthocyanin content and without having any negative impact on following years.

© Reprinted with permission from Martínez de Toda, F., Balda, P. Delaying berry ripening through manipulating leaf area to fruit ratio. Vitis 52(4), 171–176; 2013. Copyright 2013 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen. C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 39 L 208.61 Palliotti, A., Panara, F., Famiani, F., Sabbatini, P., Howell, G.S., Silvestroni, O., Poni, S. Postveraison application of antitranspirant di-1-p-menthene to control sugar accumulation in Sangiovese grapevines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 378–385; 2013.

The effectiveness of a postveraison application of the film-forming antitranspirant Vapor Gard (VG, a.i. di-1-p-menthene) was investigated as a technique to delay grape ripening and reduce sugar accumulation in the berry. The study was carried out over the 2010–2011 seasons in a nonirrigated vineyard of cv. Sangiovese in central Italy. Vapor Gard was applied at 2% concentration to the upper two-thirds of the canopy (most functional leaves) and it significantly lowered leaf assimilation and transpiration rates and increased intrinsic water use efficiency. Thev F / Fm ratio was not modified, emphasizing that photoinhibition did not occur at the photosystem II complex, whereas the reduction of pool size of plastoquinone matched well with reduced CO2 fixation found in VG-treated vines. In both years VG treatment reduced the pace of sugar accumulation in the berry as compared to control vines, scoring a -1.2 Brix at harvest and wine alcohol content at -1% without compromising the recovery of concentrations of carbohydrates and total nitrogen in canes and roots. Concurrently, organic acids, pH, and phenolic richness of grapes and wines were unaffected, whereas there was a decrease in anthocyanin content in the berry (-19% compared to control vines) and in the wine (-15% compared to control vines). The application of VG at postveraison above the cluster zone is an effective, simple, and viable technique to hinder berry sugaring and obtain less alcoholic wines. To be effective the spraying should be performed at ~14 to 15 Brix, making sure that the lower leaf epidermis is fully wetted by the chemical.

© Reprinted with permission from Palliotti, A., Panara, F., Famiani, F., Sabbatini, P., Howell, G.S., Silvestroni, O., Poni, S. Postveraison application of antitranspirant di-1-p-menthene to control sugar accumulation in Sangiovese grapevines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 378–385; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.62 Palliotti, A., Panara, F., Silvestroni, O., Lanari, V., Sabbatini, P., Howell, G.S., Gatti, M., Poni, S. Influence of mechanical postveraison leaf removal apical to the cluster zone on delay of fruit ripening in Sangiovese (Vitis vinifera L.) grapevines. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 369–377; 2013.

Background and Aims: Postveraison limitation of canopy photosynthesis delays grape berry ripening and reduces sugar accumulation, thus lowering the alcohol content of the subsequent wines. This study was designed to evaluate whether similar results could be obtained by defoliation apical to the bunch zone using a leaf-plucking machine when berry sugar content was approximately 16-17°Brix. Methods and Results: In 2011 and 2012, defoliation treatments were applied postveraison to cv. Sangiovese vines (D) on either side of each row using a mechanical leaf remover, and these D vines were compared to a nondefoliated control (C). The machine removed 35% of the leaves on the vine and created a 50-cm vertical window without leaves above the bunch area, but retained a few leaves at the canopy apex (about 0.50 m2/vine). In both years, leaf removal reduced the rate of berry sugar accumulation and led to a 1.2 lower harvest °Brix and consequently, a lower wine alcohol (-0.6%) content in D relative to that of C vines. In 2012, sugar content of D

40 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 vines, monitored in a group of vines that was not harvested, had recovered to that of C vines 2 weeks after harvest. The concentration of total phenolic compounds in the grapes, the chemical and chromatic characteristics of the wines and the replenishment of soluble sugars, starch and total nitrogen in the canes and roots were similar in the D and C vines. Conclusion: To achieve an effective delay in sugar accumulation in the berries, leaves should be removed at 16–17°Brix and at least 30–35% of vine leaf area should be removed. Significance of the Study: Mechanical removal of leaves postveraison above the bunch zone of Sangiovese can be an easy and economically viable technique for delaying sugar accumulation in the berries and for limiting the alcohol content of wines with no negative impact on desirable composition of either berries or wines.

© Reprinted with permission from Palliotti, A., Panara, F., Silvestroni, O., Lanari, V., Sabbatini, P., Howell, G.S., Gatti, M., Poni, S. Influence of mechanical postveraison leaf removal apical to the cluster zone on delay of fruit ripening in Sangiovese (Vitis vinifera L.) grapevines. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 369–377; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

208.63 Poni, S., Gatti, M., Bernizzoni, F., Civardi, S., Bobeica, N., Magnanini, E., Palliotti, A. Late leaf removal aimed at delaying ripening in cv. Sangiovese: physiological assessment and vine performance. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 378–387; 2013.

Background and Aims: Global warming is inducing a general earliness in the onset of grapevine phenological stages including ripening, a phenomenon that occurs often in the hottest seasons and which leads to unbalanced wines. Our aim was to assess the physiological basis of late leaf removal applied above the bunch area as a tool for delaying ripening. Methods and Results: Potted cv. Sangiovese grapevines were subjected to leaf removal treatments applied preveraison (DEF-I) and postveraison (DEF-II) by pulling out six to seven primary leaves and laterals, if any, above the bunch zone; untouched vines served as the control. Whole-canopy net CO2 gas exchange was monitored seasonally from 9 days before DEF-I to 35 days after DEF-II. Concurrently, single-leaf gas exchange was assessed, and at harvest yield components, grape composition and the leaf-to- fruit ratio were determined. The seasonal carbon/ yield ratio did not differ between treatments because of the high capacity for photosynthetic compensation shown by the DEF treatments and quantified as about a 35% higher net CO2 gas exchange per unit of leaf area per day. While ripening was temporarily retarded in both DEF treatments, with sugar content being lower and titratable acidity higher, a week later both treatments had fully or partially recovered; phenolic ripening was unaffected at either harvest date. Conclusions: Defoliation above the bunch zone applied at lag-phase and postveraison (average 12°Brix) was effective in temporarily delaying technological ripeness without affecting colour and phenolics. This result depended upon the high compensation capacity for photosynthesis shown by vines in both treatments. Significance of the Study: The data provide a preliminary yet robust physiological background for targeting better field application of the technique.

© Reprinted with permission from Poni, S., Gatti, M., Bernizzoni, F., Civardi, S., Bobeica, N., Magnanini, E., Palliotti, A. Late leaf removal aimed at delaying ripening in cv. Sangiovese: physiological assessment and vine performance. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 378–387; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology. C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 41 L 208.64 Preszler, T., Schmit, T.M., Vanden Heuvel, J.E. Cluster thinning reduces the economic sustainability of Riesling production. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 333–341; 2013.

Crop levels of 1 (low), 1.5 (medium), and 2 (high) clusters per shoot established by cluster thinning (CT) were compared to nonthinned (control) Riesling vines over a three-year period. Yields ranged from 5.2 to 12.4 t/ ha in 2008 and from 4.0 to 9.3 t/ha in 2009, while crop loads (yield/pruning weight) ranged from 2.9 to 8.7 in 2008 and 2.9 to 9.9 in 2009. By 2010, yield and crop load (yield/pruning weight) did not differ among treatments. Cluster weight was unaffected by CT in 2008 and 2009 but in 2010 control clusters weighed 39% less than low crop. There was little or no CT effect on berry size, pH, titratable acidity, pruning weight, cluster light exposure, or bud cold hardiness. Soluble solids at harvest ranged from 18.2 Brix in control to 22.3 Brix in low crop in 2008, from 18.9 to 22.1 Brix, respectively, in 2009, and from 20.5 to 22.0 Brix, respectively, in 2010. A consumer wine aroma sorting trial revealed that the low crop wine, and the low and medium crop wines, differed in aromatic attributes from the other treatments in 2008 and 2009, respectively. Grower financial net return per hectare ranged from $2,832 in low crop to $16,055 in control in 2008, from -$115 to $8,596, respectively, in 2009, and from $1,938 to $4,242, respectively, in 2010. Financial losses associated with CT could be recouped only by increases of up to 143% over base market price for grapes.

© Reprinted with permission from Preszler, T., Schmit, T.M., Vanden Heuvel, J.E. Cluster thinning reduces the economic sustainability of Riesling production. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 333–341; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.65 Teichgraber, T. Cakebread Cellars gives new life to old vines. Vineyard Winery Manage. 39(6), 60–64; 2013.

Tim Teichgraeber recounts a visit to Cakebread Cellars in Napa Valley, where he witnessed a novel vine rejuvenation technique. Cakebread’s director of operations Toby Halkovich explains how the winery tries to grow new cordons that have better-placed, healthier spur positions.

© Reprinted with permission from Teichgraber, T. Cakebread Cellars gives new life to old vines. Vineyard Winery Manage. 39(6), 60–64; 2013. Copyright 2013 Vineyard and Winery Services, Inc.

208.66 Teichgraeber, T. Can catalytic water conditioners benefit vineyards? Vineyard Winery Manage. 39(5), 48–51; 2013.

This article discusses a new water conditioner from EcoFlow which promises water savings and decreased soil salinity. Conditioned water may increase soil percolation, help minerals pass through the soil, and decrease soil salinity in the root zone.

© Reprinted with permission from Teichgraeber, T. Can catalytic water conditioners benefit vineyards? Vineyard Winery Manage. 39(5), 48–51; 2013. Copyright 2013 Vineyard and Winery Services, Inc.

42 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.67 Taylor, J.A., Bates, T.R. Temporal and spatial relationships of vine pruning mass in Concord grapes. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 401–408; 2013.

Background and Aims: Studies on vine size variation have generally been limited to small plot studies, particularly for correlation with canopy imaging. Research and anecdotal reports indicate there is a temporal stability in the spatial patterns of imagery of the canopy. This study directly examines and quantifies the spatial and temporal variation in vine size, rather than a canopy sensor response, at a block (~1 ha) level. Methods and Results: The mass of pruned wood for each individual vine was measured for 3 consecutive years in a 0.93-ha vineyard. The spatial and temporal variability in pruning mass was interrogated with geostatistics and map comparison methods. Potential management units were derived from these data and used to verify the temporal response vine size. Conclusions: The majority of variance in pruning mass occurred at a vine- to-vine scale; however, the autocorrelated variance exhibited a strong, stable spatial structure over 3 consecutive years. Map comparison methods were shown to be an alternate and visually demonstrable method of comparing spatio-temporal patterns. Significance of the Study: The temporal stability of spatial patterns in vine size would indicate that it is not necessary to measure vine size annually and that historical information can drive site- or zone-specific management decisions. The large vine-to-vine variation indicates that high spatial resolution, vine-specific sensing and decision support systems are needed if the objective is to manage as much of the variability in vine size as possible.

© Reprinted with permission from Taylor, J.A., Bates, T.R. Temporal and spatial relationships of vine pruning mass in Concord grapes. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 401–408; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 43 L Pests and diseases

208.68 Dienes-Nagy, Á., Belcher, S., Lorenzini, F., Gindro, K. Simple and fast test kit for the detection of grey mould in grapes. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 45(5), 314–320; 2013.

[French] Through rapid immunological tests, the presence of a grey mould infection in grapes can be detected in less than 10 minutes. For a few years, such kits have been commercialized in the United States and Europe. The pertinence of these tests has been studied by Agroscope, in particular on 11 different Swiss grape varieties such as Gamaret, Gamay, Chasselas or Petite Arvine. Our results confirm that the grey mould can be detected in berries as well as in must or wine, independently of the grape variety. However, only active infection is detected, not its latency. A positive correlation was established between the results of the kit tests and the presence of chemical markers for grey mould. The tested kit appears then reliable for characterizing the sanitary conditions of a vintage.

© Reprinted with permission from Dienes-Nagy, Á., Belcher, S., Lorenzini, F., Gindro, K. Simple and fast test kit for the detection of grey mould in grapes. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 45(5), 314–320; 2013. Copyright 2013 Association pour la mise en valeur des travaux de la recherche agronomique.

208.69 Habili, N. Highlights of a newly-emerging grapevine virus: grapevine red blotch-associated virus. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 58–59; 2013.

The recently discovered grapevine red blotch-associated virus (GRBaV) has caused significant issues for US grapegrowers and is a concern for their Australian counterparts should the disease make its way to our vineyards via contaminated imported material. This article contains basic information about the virus to assist grapegrowers.

© Reprinted with permission from Habili, N. Highlights of a newly-emerging grapevine virus: grapevine red blotch-associated virus. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 58–59; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.70 Hall, B. Understanding fungicide resistance in Australian vineyards. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 60–62; 2013.

This article describes a project funded by the GWRDC which aims to understand fungicide resistance through studying three pathogens: Botrytis cinerea, Erysiphe necator and Plasmopara viticola. Basic information about fungicide resistance is provided and contacts are listed for growers wishing to contribute samples.

© Reprinted with permission from Hall, B. Understanding fungicide resistance in Australian vineyards. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 60–62; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

44 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.71 Kuntzmann, P., Barbe, J., Maumy-Bertrand, M., Bertrand, F. Late harvest as factor affecting esca and Botryosphaeria dieback prevalence of vineyards in the Alsace region of France. Vitis 52(4), 197–204; 2013.

The decline of grapevines due to esca and Botryosphaeria dieback (Bot. dieback) is a serious problem in the Alsace region of France. A survey of 82 vineyards over 8 years showed that among a set of agronomical and cultural variables, esca and Bot. dieback prevalence correlated to the harvest dates, especially late harvest dates for the production of sweet wines. The interpretation of this finding that points to the carbon balance of the vine and its reserves status as possible causation is discussed. Under this hypothesis the data also point to climatic variables as factors in the disease epidemiology, with a lag phase of about one year.

© Reprinted with permission from Kuntzmann, P., Barbe, J., Maumy-Bertrand, M., Bertrand, F. Late harvest as factor affecting esca and Botryosphaeria dieback prevalence of vineyards in the Alsace region of France. Vitis 52(4), 197–204; 2013. Copyright 2013 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

208.72 Laveau, C., van Helden, M., Darrieutort, G., Esmenjaud, D., Demangeat, G. First detection of tomato black ring virus (TBRV) in a French vineyard. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 47(3), 191–194; 2013.

Abstract not available for reproduction

208.73 Le Vieux, P.D., Malan, A.P. An overview of the vine mealybug (Planococcus fìcus) in South African vineyards and the use of entomopathogenic nematodes as potential biocontrol agent. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 108–118; 2013.

The vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), which is the dominant mealybug species in South Africa, is a severe wine and table grape pest and disease vector. Their increasing resistance to chemical pesticides and cryptic lifestyles have led to the search for new control methods. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) belonging to the families Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae are deadly insect pathogens. This paper gives valuable background information on P. ficus and EPNs, while paying particular attention to the potential use of South African EPN species as biocontrol agents against P. ficus.

© Reprinted with permission from Le Vieux, P.D., Malan, A.P. An overview of the vine mealybug (Planococcus fìcus) in South African vineyards and the use of entomopathogenic nematodes as potential biocontrol agent. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 108–118; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 45 L 208.74 Leeson, G. Organic inputs for disease management in organic blocks. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 52–53; 2013.

This article discusses the need for timely implementation of disease management strategies, especially in regions coming off warm winters and heading into wet springs. Gary Leeson gives recommendations on spraying and managing botrytis.

© Reprinted with permission from Leeson, G. Organic inputs for disease management in organic blocks. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 52–53; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.75 Pensec, F., Marmonier, A., Marchal, A., Gersch, S., Nassr, N., Chong, J., Henry, M., Demangeat, G., Bertsch, C. Gypsophila paniculata root saponins as an environmentally safe treatment against two nematodes, natural vectors of grapevine fanleaf degeneration. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 439–445; 2013.

Background and Aims: Xiphinema index and X. diversicaudatum are nematodes that transmit the grapevine fanleaf virus and the Arabis mosaic virus, respectively. These viruses are the two agents mainly responsible for the disease that causes the most economic damage to grapevines worldwide. The infectious degeneration of grapevines affects vine performance and grape composition. The control of Xiphinema populations by soil disinfection is now impossible because of the removal from the market of the last available chemical treatments. In this study, saponins are assessed as an alternative treatment to control nematode populations. Methods and Results: The nematicidal effect of saponins fromGypsophila paniculata roots was tested against X. index and X. diversicaudatum. In aqueous media, a concentration of 1 mg/mL was associated with a mortality of greater than 95% in both nematodes, while in rearing soil, 73% of X. index and 85% of X. diversicaudatum were killed by 150 μg of saponins per gram of soil. In addition, an ecotoxicological study was undertaken on two soil bio-indicators (the mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae and soil nitrification) that revealed that they were not affected by Gy. paniculata saponins at a nematicidal concentration. In the soil, investigation of the major Gy. paniculata root saponins revealed that these molecules were completely degraded in the soil within 4 days. Conclusion: We show that Gy. paniculata saponins are an efficient and environmentally friendly treatment against two nematodes that transmit grapevine fanleaf virus. Significance of the Study: This saponin-based alternative to chemical treatments could provide an environmentally safe and efficient solution for vine growers to use against grapevine fanleaf vector nematodes.

© Reprinted with permission from Pensec, F., Marmonier, A., Marchal, A., Gersch, S., Nassr, N., Chong, J., Henry, M., Demangeat, G., Bertsch, C. Gypsophila paniculata root saponins as an environmentally safe treatment against two nematodes, natural vectors of grapevine fanleaf degeneration. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 439–445; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

46 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.76 Logan, S. Rising to the challenge of bird control. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 63–64; 2013.

This article discusses the use of elevator cables by Stuart Bryce of Providence Vineyard to weigh down netting and thus prevent birds from entered netted areas from below.

© Reprinted with permission from Logan, S. Rising to the challenge of bird control. Wine Viti. J. 28(5), 63–64; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.77 Powell, K. Researchers turn technology on phylloxera threat. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 42–44; 2013.

In this article Kevin Powell reports on results presented at the 6th International Phylloxera Symposium in Bordeaux, France. Key points include the economic damage of late detection of the insect, the number of different phylloxera strains identified in Australia, the use of molecular markers, benefits of knowledge of the phylloxera genome and phylloxera’s quarantine risk.

© Reprinted with permission from Powell, K. Researchers turn technology on phylloxera threat. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 42–44; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.78 Schnee, S., Queiroz, E.F., Voinesco, F., Marcourt, L., Dubuis, P.-H., Wolfender, J.-L., Gindro, K. Vitis vinifera canes, a new source of antifungal compounds against Plasmopara viticola, Erysiphe necator, and Botrytis cinerea. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61(23), 5459–5467; 2013.

Methanolic and ethanolic crude extracts of Vitis vinifera canes exhibited significant antifungal activity against the three major fungal pathogens affecting grapevines, Plasmopara viticola, Erysiphe necator and Botrytis cinerea. The active extracts were analyzed by LC-PDA−ESI-MS, and selected compounds were identified. Efficient targeted isolation using medium-pressure liquid chromatography afforded six pure constituents in one step. The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated by NMR and HRMS. Six identified compounds (ampelopsin A, hopeaphenol, trans-resveratrol, ampelopsin H, ε-viniferin, and E-vitisin B) presented antifungal activities against P. viticola. ε-Viniferin also exhibited a low antifungal activity against B. cinerea. None of the identified compounds inhibited the germination of E. necator. The potential to develop a novel natural fungicide against the three major fungal pathogens affecting V. vinifera from viticulture waste material is discussed.

© Reprinted with permission from Schnee, S., Queiroz, E.F., Voinesco, F., Marcourt, L., Dubuis, P.-H., Wolfender, J.-L., Gindro, K. Vitis vinifera canes, a new source of antifungal compounds against Plasmopara viticola, Erysiphe necator, and Botrytis cinerea. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61(23), 5459–5467; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Chemical Society.

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 47 208.79 Schnee, S., Voinesco, F., Dubuis, P.-H., Viret, O., Wolfender, J.-L., Queiroz, E.F., Gindro, K. Grapevine canes as new source of antifungal compounds. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 45(5), 306–312; 2013.

[French] Crude methanolic and ethanolic extracts of Vitis vinifera canes cv. Pinot Noir, Gamaret and Divico, have shown high fungitoxic activities against downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola), powdery mildew (Erysiphe necator) and grey mould (Botrytis cinerea), while aqueous extracts did not show any effect. Extracts have been separated according to their polarity in four fractions by chromatography. The toxicity of each fraction has been analyzed, showing that each exhibits a high activity against downy mildew, three of them against grey mold, while the most apolar fraction is active against powdery mildew. Among all constitutive components of the methanolic extract, six major components have been first identified and their toxicity against P. viticola was calculated (IC50). E-Vitisine B and hopeaphenol are the two most fungitoxic stilbenes with very low IC50 values, respectively 13 and 17µM. However, the components of the crude extract exhibit a high light sensitivity: an exposure of 24h is sufficient to alter them. The opportunity to formulate a stable and innovative antifungal product to protect grapevine is discussed.

© Reprinted with permission from Schnee, S., Voinesco, F., Dubuis, P.-H., Viret, O., Wolfender, J.-L., Queiroz, E.F., Gindro, K. Grapevine canes as new source of antifungal compounds. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 45(5), 306–312; 2013. Copyright 2013 Association pour la mise en valeur des travaux de la recherche agronomique.

208.80 Timotheou, S. It’s all in the way you spray. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 45–47; 2013.

Stephanie Timotheou caught up with Cornell University application technology specialist Dr Andrew Landers during his recent tour in Australia. At GWRDC’s spray application workshop in McLaren Vale, Landers discussed the issue of spray drift, the changes in technology and how growers can get the most out of their spray units.

© Reprinted with permission from Timotheou, S. It’s all in the way you spray. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 45–47; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.81 Tourney, J. Options to control powdery mildew. Wines Vines 94(10), 20–20; 2013.

Jon Tourney summarises results from a field day held August 7 in Courtland, Calif. The purpose of the field day was to inspect results of 90 different fungicide spray treatments to control powdery mildew.

© Reprinted with permission from Tourney, J. Options to control powdery mildew. Wines Vines 94(10), 20–20; 2013. Copyright 2013 Wine Communications Group.

48 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.82 Sokolsky, T., Cohen, Y., Zahavi, T., Sapir, G., Sharon, R. Potential efficiency of grapevine leafroll disease management strategies using simulation and real spatio-temporal disease infection data. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 431–438; 2013.

Background and Aims: Grapevine leafroll disease (GLD) is one of the most widespread viral diseases of grapevine. In the present study, we suggest a methodology that combines real multiyear GLD spatial infection data and simulations of different management strategies to study their impact on GLD spread. Methods and Results: We used real multiyear data on spatial infection of GLD to assess the infection risk to vines adjacent to infected vines. Directly adjacent vines were at significantly higher risk for infection in subsequent years than distant vines. Nevertheless, we found no difference in the absolute number of newly infected vines yearly between the directly adjacent and distant vines, indicating that GLD spread occurs in adjacent vines and randomly throughout the vineyard. We used the real multiyear GLD spatial infection data to simulate control strategies: uprooting; uprooting supplemented with insecticide treatment of neighbouring vines; and treatment of neighbouring vines with no uprooting and to study their impact on GLD spread. Uprooting with and without supplemental treatment to neighbouring vines significantly decelerated infection spread over a 7-year period (from 30 to 8.6%). The combined treatment, however, of infected and neighbouring vines yielded a lower infection level with less uprooting events compared with uprooting alone. Conclusion: Despite the risk of GLD spread to distant vines, the significantly higher risk of directly adjacent vines and their known location make them more relevant to management strategies for the control of disease dissemination. Significance of the Study: The combination of simulations with real data revealed additional information on GLD spread under different management strategies that deviated from the expected dissemination process.

© Reprinted with permission from Sokolsky, T., Cohen, Y., Zahavi, T., Sapir, G., Sharon, R. Potential efficiency of grapevine leafroll disease management strategies using simulation and real spatio-temporal disease infection data. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 431–438; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

208.83 Trainer, S., Armstrong, H. Managing powdery mildew under threat of fungicide resistance. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 46–51; 2013.

Shane Trainer and Hugh Armstrong discuss optimum ways to overcome the growing issue of strobilurin resistance in vineyards. The article reports on Australian and South African trials and gives recommendations based on the conclusions of those trials.

© Reprinted with permission from Trainer, S., Armstrong, H. Managing powdery mildew under threat of fungicide resistance. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 46–51; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 49 208.84 Wilcox, W.F. Seven things you always wanted to know about fungicide resistance. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 48–50; 2013.

Wayne F. Wilcox, Professor and Associate Chair of Cornell University’s Department of Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, has put together his seven key questions – and answers – on fungicide resistance in grapevines.

© Reprinted with permission from Wilcox, W.F. Seven things you always wanted to know about fungicide resistance. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 48–50; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

Vine improvement and varieties

208.85 Anon. Breeding breakthroughs just around the corner. R&D at Work October, p. 2; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://bit.ly/1c0a66N

208.86 Malnic, E. Mount Etna: The awakening of the volcano. La Vigne 257, 84–85; 2013.

[French] Abstract not available for reproduction

208.87 Spring, J.-L., Gindro, K., Voinesco, F., Jermini, M., Ferretti, M., Viret, O. Divico, a first new grape breeding of Agroscope resistant to the main fungal diseases. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 45(5), 292–303; 2013.

A first variety of grape resistant to downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola), powdery mildew (Uncinula necator) and grey mould (Botrytis cinerea) selected by Agroscope has just been approved and released on the market. This red variety resulting from a 1997 crossbreeding between Gamaret and Bronner, was baptized Divico in homage to a mythic Helvetian leader. Its resistance to fungal diseases is high but not absolute. Only one to three chemical treatments during the flowering-to- berry set period are needed for an efficient protection. Divico should be cane-pruned in order to favour fertility. Despite a precoce vegetative cycle, it should be harvested late to insure proper grape maturity. Divico wines are appreciated in tastings: they are coloured, structured with round and soft tannins and are characterized by fruity and spicy bouqets.

© Reprinted with permission from Spring, J.-L., Gindro, K., Voinesco, F., Jermini, M., Ferretti, M., Viret, O. Divico, a first new grape breeding of Agroscope resistant to the main fungal diseases. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 45(5), 292–303; 2013. Copyright 2013 Association pour la mise en valeur des travaux de la recherche agronomique.

50 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.88 Timotheou, S. It all tastes Greek to me – or will soon. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 70–73; 2013.

Stephanie Timotheou talks with Peter Barry, executive winemaker and managing director of Jim Barry wines. Barry discusses their use of Assrytiko and the future of the company.

© Reprinted with permission from Timotheou, S. It all tastes Greek to me — or will soon. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 597, 70–73; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.89 Traucki, D. Me llamo Graciano, señor. WBM November, 32–33; 2013.

This article contains a brief overview of the Spanish variety Graciano.

© Reprinted with permission from Traucki, D. Me llamo Graciano, señor. WBM November, 32–33; 2013. Copyright 2013 Free Run Press Pty Ltd.

208.90 Vincenzi, S., Tomas, D., Gaiotti, F., Lovat, L., Giacosa, S., Torchio, F., Río Segade, S., Rolle, S. Comparative study of the resveratrol content of twenty-one Italian red grape varieties. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 30–35; 2013.

The content of resveratrol and some related stilbenes (piceids and piceatannol) in 21 Italian red grape varieties growing in the same edapho-climatic conditions and at the same stage of ripening was measured. Some varieties, like Barbera, Schiava gentile, Corvina and Marzemino, showed a trans-resveratrol content in the skin two to three times higher than the average content of all varieties. Trans- and cis-piceids were found in concentration higher than that of resveratrol, confirming both to be important contributors to the pool of health-promoting molecules present in grapes. Considering the total amount of stilbenes, the highest content was found in Barbera, Franconia, Negroamaro, Corvina and Marzemino, whereas other varieties, such as Montepulciano, Dolcetto, Croatina, Refosco and Primitivo, seem to synthesise very low amounts of these compounds. Barbera grapes also contain a relatively high concentration of trans-piceatannol, a stilbene with even higher antioxidant properties than resveratrol, which means that it could be an interesting variety as a source of health-promoting molecules.

© Reprinted with permission from Vincenzi, S., Tomas, D., Gaiotti, F., Lovat, L., Giacosa, S., Torchio, F., Río Segade, S., Rolle, S. Comparative study of the resveratrol content of twenty-one Italian red grape varieties. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 30–35; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.91 White, P. In search of lost vines. World Fine Wine 41, 100–107; 2013.

Abstract not available for reproduction

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 51 Water and nutrition

208.92 Balint, G., Reynolds, A.G. Effect of different irrigation strategies on vine physiology, yield, grape composition and sensory profile of Sauvignon Blanc (Vitis vinifera L.) in a cool climate area. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 47(3), 159–181; 2013.

Abstract not available for reproduction

208.93 Herrero-Langreo, A., Tisseyre, B., Goutouly, J.-P., Scholasch, T., Van Leeuwen, C. Mapping grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) water status during the season using carbon isotope ratio (δ13C) as ancillary data. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 307–315; 2013.

Vine water status is a major parameter for vine management because it affects both wine quality and yield. In order to optimize vineyard management and harvesting practices, it is necessary to characterize vineyard water status spatial variability. This work aims at establishing an empirical spatial model for stem water potential (ΨStem) with ancillary data based on vine water status. Carbon isotope ratio (δ13C) measured at harvest was selected as ancillary data because it reflects only the effect of vine water status variations integrated over the season and is not impacted by other factors such as vine nitrogen status. The proposed model was applied at the intrablock level. It is based on the spatial extrapolation of a ΨStem value measured at a reference site using 13 13 δ C values collected over the block. Measurements of ΨStem and δ C were carried out over three consecutive years on 96 locations within the block. ΨStem values obtained with a spatial model were more accurate than ΨStem values obtained with a nonspatial model, indicating the relevancy of δ13C values to account for spatial variability of vine water status. Results show that operational maps of vine water status can be obtained by means of a spatial model, in which δ13C values from a previous season are used as ancillary data. Maps can be updated at any given time during the season by carrying out a limited number of ΨStem measurements in selected locations. This model offers a tool to monitor vine water status and to implement management practices while considering vine water status intrablock variability.

© Reprinted with permission from Herrero-Langreo, A., Tisseyre, B., Goutouly, J.-P., Scholasch, T., Van Leeuwen, C. Mapping grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) water status during the season using carbon isotope ratio (δ13C) as ancillary data. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 64(3), 307–315; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.94 Howell, C.L., Conradie, W.J. Comparison of three different fertigation strategies for drip irrigated table grapes. Part II. Soil and grapevine nutrient status. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 10–20; 2013.

A field trial was carried out in a drip irrigated Dan-ben-Hannah/Ramsey table grape vineyard near Paarl in the Berg River Valley region of South Africa to compare three fertigation strategies. Fertilisers were applied (i) two weeks after bud break, fruit set and post-harvest (LF), (ii) weekly

52 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 from two weeks after bud break until ten weeks after harvest, except during berry ripening (WF), and (iii) in daily fertigation pulses (DF). Grapevines of all treatments received c. 116 kg/ha N, 22 kg/ha P and 92 kg/ha K per season. Grapevines of all the fertigation strategies were thinned to obtain a normal and high crop load, which is 26 and 36 bunches per grapevine respectively for Dan-ben-Hannah under the given conditions. In the case of DF, the soil directly beneath the drippers became acidic after three years. Salt also accumulated on the perimeter of the wetted soil volumes. Petiole P of the DF grapevines was 77% higher than that of the LF and WF grapevines. Daily fertigated grapevines bearing normal crop loads had 20% to 30% higher leaf blade P than the LF or WF grapevines. Leaf blade K of the WF grapevines was lower than in the grapevines bearing a normal crop load of the LF and DF strategies. Grapevines bearing high crop loads tended to have lower juice N than grapevines with a normal crop load. Juice P of the DF grapevines was higher than that of the LF and WF grapevines, regardless of crop load. Daily pulse fertigation promoted the accumulation of N, P and K in the berry skins.

© Reprinted with permission from Howell, C.L., Conradie, W.J. Comparison of three different fertigation strategies for drip irrigated table grapes. Part II. Soil and grapevine nutrient status. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 34(1), 10–20; 2013. Copyright 2013 South African Society for Enology and Viticulture.

208.95 Pech, J.M., Stevens, R.M., Grigson, G.J., Cox, J.W., Schrale, G. Screening the Vitis genus for tolerance to boron with and without salinity. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 446–456; 2013.

Background and Aims: Alternative sources of irrigation water can contain excess boron. Twenty- six grapevine genotypes were assessed for their tolerance to excess boron under non-saline and saline conditions. Methods and Results: Rootling vines received one of three irrigation treatments: Control (B 0.2 mM), Boron (B 0.67 mM) or Boron+Salt [B 0.6 mM, electrical conductivity 4.0 dS/m]. In the Boron treatment, shoot growth ranged from 88 to 14% of that in the Control, and in the Boron+Salt from 58 to 10% of that in the Control. Within genotype comparison showed that the growth of shoots in the Boron and Boron+Salt treatments was equivalent in 24 genotypes. Genotype did not affect the leaf B concentration in the Boron treatment. The addition of salinity did not affect the leaf B concentration in 25 genotypes. In 14 genotypes, the leaf Na+ concentration in the Boron treatment was more than double that in the Control. In the Boron and Boron+Salt treatments, shoot growth was not correlated with B concentration in the leaf, and in the Boron+Salt treatment, it was not correlated with Cl− and Na+ concentration in the leaf. Boron and Boron+Salt treatments reduced the leaf photosynthetic rate and the effective quantum yield of photosystem

II (ΦPSII). Conclusions: There was a large genotypic variation in the tolerance of growth to excess boron. It could not be attributed to the variation in leaf B concentration. Significance of the Study: The shoot growth in 1613 Couderc and Vitis acerifolia under excess boron was equivalent to that in the Control treatment, which indicates that the use of these two genotypes as rootstocks may produce vines with an improved tolerance to excess boron.

© Reprinted with permission from Pech, J.M., Stevens, R.M., Grigson, G.J., Cox, J.W., Schrale, G. Screening the Vitis genus for tolerance to boron with and without salinity. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 19(3), 446–456; 2013. Copyright 2013 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 53 208.96 Howell, G. Can petiole analysis help improve wine quality? Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 40–41; 2013.

The time of year has come when the nutrient levels in grapevines are usually analysed. Greg Howell at Vintessential Laboratories explains the reason behind this widespread practice, how to avoid problems with testing and how this information can be used to improve wine quality.

© Reprinted with permission from Howell, G. Can petiole analysis help improve wine quality? Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 40–41; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

208.97 Pérez-de-los-Reyes, C., Amaros Ortíz-Villajos, J.A., García Navarro, F.J., Bravo Martín- Consuegra, S., Jiménez Ballesta, R. Grapevine leaf uptake of mineral elements influenced by sugar foam amendment of an acidic soil. Vitis 52(4), 157–164; 2013.

The use of sugar foam (industrial waste from sugar beet extraction) as an acidic soil (raña) liming agent has been studied in a singular winegrowing region. The contents of the major elements (Al, Ca, Fe, K, Na, Mg, S, Si) and trace elements (As, Ba, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Ga, Hf, La, Mo, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sc, Sn, Sr, Ta, Th, U, V, W, Y, Zn, Zr) in the original soil, the amended soil and in grapevine leaves has been measured by X-ray fluorescence. The addition of sugar foam modified the agronomic properties of the original soil. The amendment caused a slight increase in major elements (Ca, 10.4 g·kg-1; Mg, 1.9 g·kg-1; and K, 12.9 g·kg-1)and decreased Al (from 62 to 57.8 g·kg-1) and Fe (from 41.2 to 26.5 g·kg-1) content. Regarding trace elements, there was an increase in levels of Ba, Rb and Sr in the amended soil in comparison to the original soil. The major elements that accumulated in the vine leaf were Ca, Mg and S (Biological Absorption Coefficient, BAC, greater than 1). As for trace elements in leaf, Ba and Sr had a ‘medium’ BAC (0.27 and 0.8, respectively) whereas Rb had a ‘slight’ value (0.08). It is worth noting that the bioaccumulation rate of Zn was greater than 1. The use of sugar foam as a liming agent did not have a negative effect on the absorption of major and trace elements in vine leaves and led to improved BAC values for essential elements in the grapevine. The treatment did not increase the amount of trace elements in the soil above the reference levels for the region.

© Reprinted with permission from Pérez-de-los-Reyes, C., Amaros Ortíz-Villajos, J.A., García Navarro, F.J., Bravo Martín-Consuegra, S., Jiménez Ballesta, R. Grapevine leaf uptake of mineral elements influenced by sugar foam amendment of an acidic soil. Vitis 52(4), 157–164; 2013. Copyright 2013 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

54 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.98 Smart, R. Vineyard irrigation, the Smart way. Wines Vines 94(10), 77–81; 2013.

Richard Smart proposes reasons vineyard irrigation is typically poorly done, and discusses techniques of Dr Larry Williams to improve irrigation. Two key conclusions are that vine appearance scorecards should be used to assess water stress, and that irrigation should be practiced with a view of vine water status in mind.

© Reprinted with permission from Smart, R. Vineyard irrigation, the Smart way. Wines Vines 94(10), 77–81; 2013. Copyright 2013 Wine Communications Group.

208.99 Villangó, S., Zsófi, Z., Bálo, B. Pressure-volume analysis of two grapevine cultivars (‘Kékfrankos’ and ‘Portugieser’, Vitis vinifera L.): Water deficit, osmotic conditions and their possible relations with drought tolerance. Vitis 52(4), 205–206; 2013.

This article reports the results of a study which aimed to demonstrate differences in osmotic relations between two grapevine cultivars during progressive drought stress.

© Reprinted with permission from Villangó, S., Zsófi, Z., Bálo, B. Pressure-volume analysis of two grapevine cultivars (‘Kékfrankos’ and ‘Portugieser’, Vitis vinifera L.): Water deficit, osmotic conditions and their possible relations with drought tolerance. Vitis 52(4), 205–206; 2013. Copyright 2013 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 55 Wine and health Animal Research

208.100 El Shawa, H. Abbott, C.W., Huffman, K.J. Prenatal ethanol exposure disrupts intraneocortical circuitry, cortical gene expression, and behavior in a mouse model of FASD. J. Neurosci. 33(48), 18893–18905; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qgk

Epidemiology

208.101 Creswell, K.G., Chung, T., Clark, D.B., Martin, C.S. Solitary alcohol use in teens is associated with drinking in response to negative affect and predicts alcohol problems in young adulthood. Clin. Psychol. Sci. DOI: 10.1177/2167702613512795, 1–10; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qgj

208.102 Dietze, P., Ferris, J., Room, R. Who suggests drinking less? Demographic and national differences in informal social controls on drinking. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 74(6), 859–866; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://bit.ly/1faCIOm

208.103 Eliasen, M., Becker, U., Grønbæk, M., Juel, K., Tolstrup, J.S. Alcohol-attributable and alcohol-preventable mortality in Denmark: an analysis of which intake levels contribute most to alcohol’s harmful and beneficial effects. Eur. J. Epidemiol. DOI: 10.1007/s10654- 013-9855-2, 1–12; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qnd

208.104 Gale, C.R., Batty, G.D., Osborn, D.P.J., Tynelius, P., Rasmussen, F. Mental disorders across the adult life course and future coronary heart disease: evidence for general susceptibility. Circulation DOI: 10.1161/​CIRCULATIONAHA.113.002065, 1–34; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qm4

56 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.105 Patrick, M.E., Maggs, J.L. Energy drinks and alcohol: links to alcohol behaviors and consequences across 56 days. J. Adolesc. Health. DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.09.013, 1–6; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qm2

208.106 Raninen, J., Leifman, H., Ramstedt, M. Who is not drinking less in Sweden? An analysis of the decline in consumption for the period 2004–2011. Alcohol Alcohol. 48(5), 592–597; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qg4

208.107 Xu, F., Bonello, M., Burns, L., Austin, M.-P., Li, Z., Sullivan, E. Hospital admissions for alcohol use disorders before, during, and after pregnancy: a study based on linked population data in New South Wales, Australia. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 37(10), 1706–1712; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qg2

Genetics

208.108 Han, S., Yang, B.-Z., Kranzler, H.R., Liu, X., Zhao, H., Farrer, L.A., Boerwinkle, E., Potash, J.B., Gelernter, J. Integrating GWASs and human protein interaction networks identifies a gene subnetwork underlying alcohol dependence. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 93(6), 1027–1034; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qgh

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 57 L 208.109 Varela-Rey, M., Woodhoo, A., Martinez-Chantar, M.-L., Mato, J.M., Lu, S.C. Alcohol, DNA methylation, and cancer. Alcohol Res. Curr. Rev. 35(1), 25–36; 2013.

Cancer is one of the most significant diseases associated with chronic alcohol consumption, and chronic drinking is a strong risk factor for cancer, particularly of the upper aerodigestive tract, liver, colorectum, and breast. Several factors contribute to alcohol-induced cancer development (i.e., carcinogenesis), including the actions of acetaldehyde, the first and primary metabolite of ethanol, and oxidative stress. However, increasing evidence suggests that aberrant patterns of DNA methylation, an important epigenetic mechanism of transcriptional control, also could be part of the pathogenetic mechanisms that lead to alcohol-induced cancer development. The effects of alcohol on global and local DNA methylation patterns likely are mediated by its ability to interfere with the availability of the principal biological methyl donor, S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), as well as pathways related to it. Several mechanisms may mediate the effects of alcohol on DNA methylation, including reduced folate levels and inhibition of key enzymes in one-carbon metabolism that ultimately lead to lower SAMe levels, as well as inhibition of activity and expression of enzymes involved in DNA methylation (i.e., DNA methyltransferases). Finally, variations (i.e., polymorphisms) of several genes involved in one-carbon metabolism also modulate the risk of alcohol-associated carcinogenesis.

© Reprinted with permission from Varela-Rey, M., Woodhoo, A., Martinez-Chantar, M.-L., Mato, J.M., Lu, S.C. Alcohol, DNA methylation, and cancer. Alcohol Res. Curr. Rev. 35(1), 25–36; 2013. Copyright 2013 National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

208.110 Zakhari, S. Alcohol metabolism and epigenetics changes. Alcohol Res. Curr. Rev. 35(1), 6–17; 2013.

Metabolites, including those generated during ethanol metabolism, can impact disease states by binding to transcription factors and/or modifying chromatin structure, thereby altering gene expression patterns. For example, the activities of enzymes involved in epigenetic modifications such as DNA and histone methylation and histone acetylation, are influenced by the levels of metabolites such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). Chronic alcohol consumption leads to significant reductions in SAM levels, thereby contributing to DNA hypomethylation. Similarly, ethanol metabolism alters the ratio of NAD+ to reduced NAD (NADH) and promotes the formation of reactive oxygen species and acetate, all of which impact epigenetic regulatory mechanisms. In addition to altered carbohydrate metabolism, induction of cell death, and changes in mitochondrial permeability transition, these metabolism-related changes can lead to modulation of epigenetic regulation of gene expression. Understanding the nature of these epigenetic changes will help researchers design novel medications to treat or at least ameliorate alcohol-induced organ damage.

© Reprinted with permission from Zakhari, S. Alcohol metabolism and epigenetics changes. Alcohol Res. Curr. Rev. 35(1), 6–17; 2013. Copyright 2013 National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

58 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 Human clinical

208.111 Hermens, D.F., Lagopoulos, J., Tobias-Webb, J., De Regt, T., Dore, G., Juckes, L., Latt, N., Hickie, I.B. Pathways to alcohol-induced brain impairment in young people: a review. Cortex 49(1), 3–17; 2013.

Classically, disorders associated with ‘alcohol-related brain damage’ (ARBD) occur as a result of chronic excessive alcohol misuse and confer significant physical and psychological disability to the individual as well as to the community. These phenotypes are often difficult to detect at early stages and therefore early intervention and treatment is limited. It remains unresolved as to whether there are neurobiological markers of the early stages of such brain damage in young ‘at-risk’ drinkers, who probably experience ‘alcohol induced brain impairment’ prior to the onset of ARBD, per se. This review focuses on neurobiological (in particular, neuropsychological and neuroimaging) markers that are associated with alcohol misuse in young people (13–24 years of age). The findings from this review suggest that a clearer understanding of alcohol misuse (particularly with regards to binge drinking) is needed. Despite this, neurocognitive profile along with supporting neuroimaging evidence appears to be particularly important in the early detection of brain changes that result from excessive alcohol use. In young alcohol misusers, these preventable and potentially reversible deficits may be progressive but if left unresolved such deficits eventually become major contributors to poor outcome (long term) and hamper adherence to treatment. We address five key themes in this review: (i) there are specific drinking patterns in young people; (ii) youth represents a critical period in brain development that is particularly vulnerable to alcohol misuse; (iii) the extent to which there are pre-existing versus alcohol-induced neurobiological changes remains unclear; (iv) vulnerability markers may be mediated by mental health and substance use comorbidities; and (v) cognitive remediation would be a likely candidate for early prevention and treatment as it could help to develop efficient meta-cognitive skills to prevent relapse in young drinkers.

© Reprinted with permission from Hermens, D.F., Lagopoulos, J., Tobias-Webb, J., De Regt, T., Dore, G., Juckes, L., Latt, N., Hickie, I.B. Pathways to alcohol-induced brain impairment in young people: a review. Cortex 49(1), 3–17; 2013. Copyright 2013 Elsevier Science.

208.112 Ushida, Y., Talalay, P. Sulforaphane accelerates acetaldehyde metabolism by inducing aldehyde dehydrogenases: relevance to ethanol intolerance. Alcohol Alcohol. 48(5), 526–534; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qg3

C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 59 L Public health policy

208.113 Azar, D., White, V., Bland, S., Livingston, M., Room, R., Chikritzhs, T., Durkin, S., Gilmore, W., Wakefield, M. ‘Something’s brewing’: the changing trends in alcohol coverage in Australian newspapers 2000–2011. Alcohol Alcohol. 49(1), 1–7; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qnt

208.114 Hutchinson, D., Moore, E.A., Breen, C., Burns, L., Mattick, R.P. Alcohol use in pregnancy: prevalence and predictors in the longitudinal study of Australian children. Drug Alcohol Rev. 32(5), 475–482; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qg6

208.115 Lintonen, T., Karlsson, T., Nevalainen, J., Konu, A. Alcohol policy changes and trends in adolescent drinking in Finland from 1981 to 2011. Alcohol Alcohol. 48(5), 620–626; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qg5

208.116 Martin-Moreno, J.M., Harris, M.E., Breda, J., Møller, L., Alfonso-Sanchez, J.L., Gorgojo, L. Enhanced labelling on alcoholic drinks: reviewing the evidence to guide alcohol policy. Eur. J. Publ. Health 23(6), 1082–1087; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qhh

208.117 Naimi, T.S., Blanchette, J., Nelson, T.F., Nguyen, T., Oussayef, N., Heeren, T.C., Gruenewald, P., Mosher, J., Xuan, Z. A new scale of the U.S. alcohol policy environment and its relationship to binge drinking. Am. J. Prev. Med. 46(1), 10–16; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/qm3

60 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 208.118 De Almeida, A.R. Legislation: allergens, ingredients, nutritional declaration and GMO – a jurisprudence approach. Bull. OIV 86(986-988), 171–180; 2013.

Black labels or white labels versus educational labels or marketable labels. Recent developments on the food legislation concerned with consumer information and health issues have created uncertainty on the wine sector. From the famous tobacco court decisions in Australia to the position of the European Court of Justice on Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO), it seems that we will face new challenges on the labelling of wines. Allergens, ingredients, nutritional declaration and GMO are possible new mandatory indications in the wine labelling. Most probably this will be the future. How can we impede a label of a wine bottle from coming to be similar to a pre-cooked soup? How can we avoid a wine label from becoming a black or white label like the tobacco labels in Australia? We must take into account several values. Consumer protection and health safety are, for sure, important values to take into account. We are protecting the human being as absolute value which is absolutely undisputable. However we are also dealing with our culture, our know-how and our tradition. Wine is part of our food diet. Besides, labels are commercial instruments on the market that contain commercial names, trademarks and other intellectual property rights. So, we are dealing also with property rights. Labels are not an educational tool but a marketing tool. We live in a risk society with a different concept of life, safety and self-existence. This demands a different understanding of the information that is provided to the consumers. We live in an increasingly preoccupied society worried with the future and with its safety. Our society has difficulties in dealing with hazards and uncertainties derived from our post-modernization. The today’s dynamism does not have any comparison with past societies: with live in a society worried with the future and the consequences of their actions in the present. This means that we live on the ‘day after’. This means that we have to take into account several constitutional values and make a difficult balance of all of them. This was the difficult task of the court decisions in Australia and also of the European Court of Justice. Demanding the cigarettes packages to be sold with health warnings and on a plain live green background without references to trademarks, that is, not taking into account one of the fundamental rights (intellectual property), means that one fundamental right (consumer’s health) restricts completely another human fundamental right. Is this the right balance? Will the balance apply to the wine sector? Which will be our arguments to avoid an analogy? This demands a profound analysis of these court decisions and also of some decisions of the European Court of Human Rights. Finally the European Court of Justice has taken some decisions that are worrying the wine sector and will have effects on the wine legislation on labelling. We are taking into consideration, specially, the decisions concerning GMO and the need for an authorization to commercialize the products that may incorporate GMO as well as the ECJ decision relating to health claims, forbidding them even if the claims are inherently correct. We need to understand the fundamentals of these decisions and appreciate their consequences on the wine sector.

© Reprinted with permission from De Almeida, A.R. Legislation: allergens, ingredients, nutritional declaration and GMO – a jurisprudence approach. Bull. OIV 86(986-988), 171–180; 2013. Copyright 2013 Organisation International de la Vigne et du Vin. C

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 61 L AWRI publications

1569 Mangoni, A.A., Stockley, C.S., Woodman, R.J. Effects of red wine on established markers of arterial structure and function in human studies: current knowledge and future research directions. Expert Rev. Clin. Pharmacol. 6(6), 613–625; 2013.

Abstract available online at http://doi.org/q7f

1570 Coulter, A. Ask the AWRI: Understanding the ABCs of CMCs in solution. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, p. 72; 2013.

In recent times, the AWRI has received increasing numbers of queries regarding carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and its use in relation to tartrate stabilisation. Some of the questions received and the responses provided are detailed in this Ask the AWRI column.

© Reprinted with permission from Coulter, A. Understanding the ABCs of CMCs in solution. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, p. 72; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

1571 McRae, J.M., Kassara, S., Kennedy, J.A., Waters, E.J., Smith, P.A. Effect of wine pH and bottle closure on tannins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61(47), 11618–11627; 2013.

The impact of wine pH and closure type on color, tannin concentration, and composition was investigated. A single vintage of Cabernet Sauvignon wine was divided into three batches, the pH was adjusted to 3.2, 3.5 or 3.8, and the wines were bottled under screw caps with either SaranTin (ST) or Saranex (Sx) liners. After 24 months, the tannin concentration, tannin percent yield (relating to the proportion of acid-labile interflavan bonds), and the mean degree of polymerization (mDp) had decreased significantly, all of which can contribute to the softening of wine astringency with aging. The higher pH wines contained less percent (−)-epicatechin 3-O-gallate subunits, whereas the Sx pH 3.2 wines were significantly lower in percent yield and mDp than the other wines. Overall, the tannin structure and wine color of the lower pH wines (pH 3.2) bottled under Sx screw caps changed more rapidly with aging than those of the higher pH wines (pH 3.8) bottled under ST screw caps.

© Reprinted with permission from McRae, J.M., Kassara, S., Kennedy, J.A., Waters, E.J., Smith, P.A. Effect of wine pH and bottle closure on tannins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61(47), 11618–11627; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Chemical Society.

62 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 1572 Kidman, C.M., Mantilla, S.O., Dry, P.R., McCarthy, M.G., Collins, C. The effect of water stress on the reproductive performance of Shiraz (Vitis vinifera L.) grafted to rootstocks. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. DOI: 10.5344/ajev.2013.13069, 1–34; 2013.

An experiment was conducted in the Barossa Valley, South Australia to examine the effect of rootstocks on reproductive performance of Shiraz (Vitis vinifera L.) under water stress. Vines were grown on own roots or grafted to 110R, 1103P, 99R, Ramsey, Schwarz or 140Ru and irrigation applied was between 55 mm/ha to 110 mm/ha across three seasons, or unirrigated. Water stress

(Ψpd <0.8 MPa) was exhibited in the unirrigated vines from veraison onwards. The absence of irrigation strongly influenced vine growth and performance. Pruning weight, cane weight and cane number were all reduced as a consequence of zero irrigation. Yields were reduced in unirrigated treatments due to a reduction in cluster number, cluster weight and berry weight rather than fruitset or berry number. Unirrigated Ramsey was the only rootstock able to maintain yield comparable with irrigated rootstocks. Unirrigated own roots performed well in the first season but not in the second and third seasons when water stress had a negative effect on yield. Millerandage, coulure and seedless berry numbers were the main reproductive parameters found to have a negative impact on yield, and both own rooted and grafted vines were as susceptible to these parameters. Season had a greater influence than either rootstock type or irrigation. These findings have significant implications for regions facing future drought and declining water supplies.

© Reprinted with permission from Kidman, C.M., Mantilla, S.O., Dry, P.R., McCarthy, M.G., Collins, C. The effect of water stress on the reproductive performance of Shiraz (Vitis vinifera L.) grafted to rootstocks. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. DOI: 10.5344/ajev.2013.13069, 1–34; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

1573 Jolly, N.P., Varela, C., Pretorius, I.S. Not your ordinary yeast: non-Saccharomyces yeasts in wine production uncovered. FEMS Yeast Res. 1573, 1–23; 2013.

This is the pre-peer reviewed version of the following article Jolly, N. P., Varela, C., Pretorius, I. S. Not your ordinary yeast: non- Saccharomyces yeasts in wine production uncovered. FEMS Yeast Res. doi:10.1111/1567-1364.12111; 2013 which has been published in final form at http://doi.org/qnw.

© Reprinted with permission from Jolly, N.P., Varela, C., Pretorius, I.S. Not your ordinary yeast: non- Saccharomyces yeasts in wine production uncovered. FEMS Yeast Res. 1573, 1–23; 2013. Copyright 2013 Federation of European Microbiological Societies.

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 63 1574 Longbottom, M. Greenhouse gas abatement in viticulture. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 1574, 35–38; 2013.

This article describes an AWRI project to trial and demonstrate vineyard practices which have the potential to reduce N2O emissions and/or increase sequestration of carbon in soil. A research team headed by Mardi Longbottom is working at trial sites across Australia. This project will provide the wine industry with valuable information to assist with the abatement of greenhouse gas emissions from vineyards.

© Reprinted with permission from Longbottom, M. Greenhouse gas abatement in viticulture. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 1574, 35–38; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

1575 Muhlack, R., Scrimgeour, N., Wilkes, E., Godden, P., Johnson, D. Optimising fermentation through simulation. Wine Viti. J. 28(6), 38–43; 2013.

What if winemakers had advance warning of sluggish fermentation? What if winemakers could predict when a wayward ferment might arise and take steps to prevent it, before it happened? The AWRI Ferment Simulator is a powerful new weapon in the winemaker’s arsenal. It can be used to predict ferment behaviour, test and evaluate alternative ferment management strategies, and monitor refrigeration and electricity demand so that corrective action can be taken on time and on target.

© Reprinted with permission from Muhlack, R., Scrimgeour, N., Wilkes, E., Godden, P., Johnson, D. Optimising fermentation through simulation. Wine Viti. J. 28(6), 38–43; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

1576 Dry, P. Schönburger. Wine Viti. J. 28(6), p. 58; 2013.

This article contains a brief overview of Schönburger, a cross between Pinot Noir and Pirovano 1 (Chasselas Rose × Muscat of Hamburg). There are at least six producers of Schönburger in Australia, mostly located in Tasmania.

© Reprinted with permission from Dry, P. Schönburger. Wine Viti. J. 28(6), 58–58; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

64 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 1577 Viviers, M.Z., Smith, M.E., Wilkes, E., Smith, P. Effects of five metals on the evolution of hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, and dimethyl sulfide during anaerobic storage of Chardonnay and Shiraz wines. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61(50), 12385–12396; 2013.

The synergistic effects of Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Al on the evolution of different volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) in a Chardonnay and a Shiraz wine have been investigated. The evolution of

H2S, MeSH, and DMS were influenced by metal addition, and in some instances, a combination of metals was responsible for the largest variation in the concentration of VSCs. The metals and metal combinations associated with significant changes in VSC concentrations in both Chardonnay and Shiraz samples after anaerobic storage were Cu, Fe, Zn, Al, Cu*Fe, Cu*Mn*Al, and Cu*Zn*Al for H2S; Cu, Zn, Fe*Mn, and Cu*Fe*Mn for MeSH; and Al and Zn*Al for DMS. The effect of Cu addition on the evolution of VSCs has previously been shown; however, this investigation has demonstrated that metals other than Cu could also be involved in the catalytic release of VSCs and that the interactions and combinations of metals are important. In some instances, the metal effect was reversed, associated with significant decreases during high oxygen conditions and with significant increases during low oxygen conditions.

© Reprinted with permission from Viviers, M.Z., Smith, M.E., Wilkes, E., Smith, P. Effects of five metals on the evolution of hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, and dimethyl sulfide during anaerobic storage of Chardonnay and Shiraz wines. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61(50), 12385–12396; 2013. Copyright 2013 American Chemical Society.

1578 Johnson, D. Fascinating story to tell. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 599, p. 30; 2013.

AWRI Managing Director Dan Johnson wishes a happy 50th birthday to Australian and New Zealand Grapegrower and Winemaker and reflects on 50 years of shared experience.

© Reprinted with permission from Johnson, D. Fascinating story to tell. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 599, p. 30; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

1579 Dry, P. Ask the AWRI: If the grape fits then you can grow it. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 599, p. 57; 2013.

The AWRI often fields queries about alternative varieties and how they might suit Australian winemaking conditions. In this Ask the AWRI column Peter Dry gives advice on how to source alternative varieties.

© Reprinted with permission from Dry, P. If the grape fits then you can grow it. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 599, p. 57; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 65 1580 Muhlack, R., Forsyth, K., Scrimgeour, N., Godden, P. There’s gotta be a buck in those organic by-products. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 599, 80–82; 2013.

Researchers Richard Muhlack, Karl Forsyth, Neil Scrimgeour and Peter Godden have assessed wastewater sludge, yeast lees, stalks and grape marc and found there is money to be made – although not with all of them…not yet anyway.

© Reprinted with permission from Muhlack, R., Forsyth, K., Scrimgeour, N., Godden, P. There’s gotta be a buck in those organic by-products. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 599, 80–82; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

1581 Johnson, D. Planning for the future (2013 Report). Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 1–4; 2013.

The Australian wine sector continues to show considerable resilience in the face of difficult trading conditions. However, industry bodies, including the AWRI, are not immune from these challenges. Despite this, real solutions have been offered to industry through technical outputs of very high standard and applicability. Active national consultation with industry has produced a research, development and extension plan that will deliver business-changing outcomes over the next five years.

© Reprinted with permission from Johnson, D. Planning for the future (2013 Report). Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 598, 1–4; 2013. Copyright 2013 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

1582 Tran, T., Wilkes, E. How does CMC behave in NZ wines? NZ Winegrower 83, 67–69; 2013/2014.

Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) has now been approved for use in winemaking in Australia and New Zealand. Although many different forms of CMC are available in the marketplace from a range of suppliers, there is limited objective data on the comparative performance of these products and their potential impact on winemaking operations. The AWRI has undertaken a benchmarking trial that will evaluate the performance of a range of CMC products for tartrate stabilising still wines and provide much needed insight into the comparative performance of different CMC products. This article briefly discusses cold stability and impact of CMCs dosage on performance in various NZ Sauvignon Blanc wines.

© Reprinted with permission from Tran, T and Wilkes, E.

66 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014 AWRI events calendar

For details see http://www.awri.com.au/industry_support/courses-seminars-workshops/events/

February 2014 14 February — AWRI Grape & Wine Roadshow Limestone Coast Seminar – Coonwarra Hall, Coonawarra

May 2014 27–30 May — 33rd Advanced Wine Assessment Course (AWAC 33), Australian Wine Research Institute, Urrbrae SA TBA ­— Renmark, SA – Seminar

June 2014 2–5 June — 34th Advanced Wine Assessment Course (AWAC 34), Australian Wine Research Institute, Urrbrae SA

July 2014 TBA ­— Limestone Coast, SA – Measurable Flavours Workshop

September 2014 TBA ­— Mt Barker, WA – Seminar TBA ­— Pemberton, WA – Seminar TBA ­— Margaret River, WA – Seminar TBA ­— Swan Valley, WA – Seminar TBA ­— Griffith, NSW – Adapting to Difficult Vintages Workshop

October 2014 TBA ­— Griffith, NSW – Seminar TBA ­— Geelong, VIC – Seminar TBA ­— Sunbury/Macedon, VIC – Seminar TBA ­— New England, NSW – Adapting to Difficult Vintages Workshop

November 2014 TBA ­— Mornington, VIC – Seminar TBA ­— Gippsland, VIC – Seminar TBA ­— Yarra Valley, VIC – Seminar TBA ­— Bendigo, VIC – Difficult Vintages Workshop TBA ­— Avoca/Pyrenees, VIC – Difficult Vintages Workshop TBA ­— Geelong, VIC – Difficult Vintages Workshop

* Details subject to change without notice. Please visit the AWRI website to view the most up to date copy of this calendar at http://www.awri.com.au/industry_support/courses-seminars-workshops/events/. All information was accurate at time of compilation.

February 2014 Technical Review No. 208 67 The Technical Review is published bimonthly by The Australian Wine Research Institute. It is available free of charge to Australian grape and wine sector members paying a levy under the Wine Grapes Levy Act, however, other interested organisations and individuals may subscribe to Technical Review.

Subscription rates for 2013/2014 • All subscriptions are due on 1 July • Those wishing to subscribe part way through the financial year will be invoiced for subsequent issues up to and including the June issue of that year • Issues published for the current year and prior to the date of subscription, can be ordered separately • Back issues (not the current year) can be ordered separately

12-month subscription from 1 July 2013

Posted to Australia (GST inclusive)

Standard A$90.00 Student* A$50.00

Posted overseas

Standard A$105.00 Student* A$70.00

Subscription after 1 July 2013 up to 30 June 2014

Rate per current year issue

Posted to Australia (GST inclusive) Standard and Student A$15.00

Posted overseas Standard and Student A$20.00

Rate per back issue

Posted to Australia (GST inclusive) Standard and Student A$13.00

Posted overseas Standard and Student A$15.00

*proof of full time student status required.

Cheques and money orders should be made out in Australian currency, payable to ‘The Australian Wine Research Institute’ and forwarded to:

Librarian The Australian Wine Research Institute PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064 Australia

Please direct all subscription enquiries to the AWRI Information Services team. Phone: (08) 8313 6626 | Fax: (08) 8313 6628 | Email: [email protected]

Produced by Michael Major Media Pty Ltd

68 Technical Review No. 208 February 2014