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America by Air Content Document

Gallery #2 Working Title: America By Air Target Opening Date: 1/2021 Duration of Exhibition: permanent Size of Gallery: 12,112 sq. ft., ceiling height 50 ft. Gallery Location: NMB Gallery 102 Subject Areas: Technology, business, culture, power, and people Target Audience: General Target “Design-to” number: $4,289,689.00 Needed Services: Exhibition Design NASM Project Number: E-061-15-028 America by Air

Exhibition #2 – America by Air Currently, The National Air and Space Museum (NASM) has an exhibit called “America by Air” in gallery 102. This gallery gives visitor a look into the progression of in America. The Gallery is set up in different units. Each unit focuses on a different time period starting from the early days of flight to present day. This gallery houses many large commercial from the 20th century, but also models of , towers and the culture during this time period. Exhibition Space Gallery 102 has an open concept. It is surrounding on two side with glass (curtain wall and skylight). This gallery is approximately 12,000 square feet with a 50 ft. ceiling. All galleries will be delivered by the Revitalization project to the design team as black boxes with open ceilings and a lighting grid. The electrical and IT will be updated facilitating more cutting edge interactive and visitor experiences. Final electrical capacity and specific material finishes have not been defined and the contractor will be responsible to coordinate with the COTR the final black box details which are being developed. Contractor shall be responsible for verifying that they have the latest version of the Black Box description. Exhibition Scope The National Air and Space Museum seeks the services of talented and creative exhibit design professionals to assist in the updating of the existing America by Air exhibition. As part of the revitalization of NASM, “America by Air” will have many different portions updated. The exhibit will stay in gallery 102 but many of the artifacts will be removed and stored. This exhibition is deemed a “turn key” space in which the current overall look, feel, style and exhibition components will remain but be upgraded, refurbished, repaired and items replaced as required. “America by Air” is a very large exhibit in gallery 102 and needs a lot of work to be updated. In order to update everything most artifacts will be taken out and the structures will be redone. Work needs to be done on the exhibit while everything is taken out. Some of the areas are dated and require new graphics. The interactives also need to be looked at, updated and re-done in some cases. While it is anticipated that some of the exhibitry will remain in place (i.e. Ford wall, Hangar) we have budgeted as if we are replacing with “new”. In certain instances where we can salvage components, they will be refurbished for the gallery re-installation. All of the cases will be re-furbished and re-installed for the new space. All of the cased artifacts will require removal for conservation and temporary storage.

The artifacts that are anticipated to remain in place are the hanging (Pitcairn PA-5 Mailwing, Fairchild FC-2, Ford 5-AT Tri-Motor, Northrop Alpha, 247-D, Douglas DC-3) and one two large engines (Rolls Royce RB.211 and the General Electric CF6). A pre- inspection of each hanging artifact should occur. This inspection and light cleaning will provide us with any additional requirements that each object may require. These early determinations can better inform our timeline for any hanging aircraft removals and conservation work. While we expect that the Rolls Royce RB.211 and General Electric CF6 to remain in place, we have included the assembly and reinstallation, of these objects in the budget as well. The nose displays of the and the DC-7 will require external and internal work and will require transportation to UHC or receive contracted services to repaint and refurbish these object. From the NASM collection we plan to display a new aircraft, the J-1 Standard. This aircraft requires significant restoration. The current time estimate for the restoration is three years. Given this duration the work should begin in 2017 if installation prior to opening is desired. The material cost is provided for in the gallery budget and labor cost is identified in the program plan as a support activity. This exhibit does not require any artifact incoming loans or gifts. The interactives require updating. Some of the Mechanical interactives aren’t working properly and all of the Computer Interactives require upgrades. Some of the CI’s just need to be updated to the latest software and hardware specifications, but some of the other ones need to be redesigned to work better. All of the computer hardware will be replaced and many of the Computer Interactives (CI) will be updated. The Mechanical Interactives (MI) will also be fixed and upgraded as some of them are not working currently.

Panels have been damaged or faded over the years and some could use redesigning to get the point across more clearly. The cases and lighting will be reused but the cases need to be updated and the lighting may be reconfigured. Some of the cases are also receive a lot dust inside or in some cases in between the glass and a panel which blocks some of the view. This may require some modification to prevent this in the future but the cases are currently planned to be refurbished and reused for the revitalized display. All of the Intro pylons require audio labels to make the audio buttons more obvious. Plex barriers will be added in certain areas to provide additional protection to the artifacts and to prevent visitors from touching some objects. This protection will be required especially when the J-1 is installed in the gallery. Our visitors have a tendency to leverage coins, etc from the balcony level onto our artifacts resting below on the first floor. Measures will need to be taken to provide this protection.

Below is a representative list of some the items that require maintenance and redesign objectives:

• Replace damaged laminate on pylon of exhibit introduction panel • Replace damaged text label on exhibit introduction panel • Replace carpet and set a new floor tile layout • Redo all flip panels in Wild Bill section with better hinge mechanism and custom high laminate • Refurbish hut and areas around the hut • Liberty V-12 engine leaking on stand and floor of hut • Recreate working knee board map interactive to be more durable • Redo Agent desktop so people cannot slide things under plex, seal edges of glass or create graphic tabletop • Redo flip damaged flip book “Airports of Tomorrow”, custom high pressure laminate • Interior and exterior of DC-7 needs thorough clean-up maintenance • Replace turn style on exiting DC-7 • Refurbish luggage pile • Refurbish exterior of airbus • Replace all speakers throughout gallery • Seal light attic in cases to eliminate dust • Add environmental monitoring and/or security to cases • Replace lighting in all cases, check lighting levels on all cases that face outside light • Upgrade family label materials to solid surface such as Corian

Below is a representative list of some of the graphic items that require a redesign or touch up:

• Delete "You Are Here" on graphic image collage of Exhibit Introduction Panel • Add audio description label under button of exhibit introduction panel • Use existing supports (on tops of unit 100 pylons to place J-1 where Jenny was supported, may need some modification and shifting of pylons • Add clear glass to 2nd floor balcony to protect J-1 artifact • Create new labels for J-1 to replace Jenny labels • Redo hut mural with correct sepia tone color • Recreate working knee board map interactive to be more durable • Angle top of knee wall so it's not used as a bar during special events • Add new case wedge graphic to large model case on back side (airplane labels, photos) • Redo damaged graphic panel Visionary Reforms • Redo damaged graphic panel Scandal • Redo Travel Agent desktop so people cannot slide things under plex, seal edges of glass or create graphic tabletop • Redo flip damaged flip book “Airports of Tomorrow”, custom high pressure laminate • Redesign and replace damaged “Who’s Flying” flip panel with addition of Mickey Mouse on answer panel • Move Lucille Ball name down on “Flying Stars” wall mural so not as obvious • Add photo of in case with globe (new wedge at bottom of case) • Replace match books (on loan) in "At Your Service" case, redesign graphic label • Add interior plex barrier to DC-7 seating area • Re-design mural in the back of "At Your Service" case to prevent reflection and dust buildup between case and mural • Add engine label to fill in empty space, right of 747 • Move railing out farther away from Rolls Royce engine, left of 747 to prevent people from touching it, will need to modify design of powder coated railing • Redo damaged graphic rail "Aviation Technology" • Change gold plating on piston engine interactive to aluminum • Update graphics for Price Master interactive • Add light shining into 747 lower door • Create new mural, both braille and text labels for 3D tactile models wall

Below is a representative list of some of the updates required for the interactives:

• All computer interactives will need to be digitized with updated software • Remake tea cup and saucer shake table so it shakes properly (2nd motor has failed), vitrine with tea cup has crack and needs replacing • Redesign “Around the World” interactive as digital with a large monitor • Fix Piston engine interactive (currently not working) • Change gold plating on piston engine interactive to aluminum • Update graphics for Price Master interactive • Airbus software update to flight simulation (not over the white house) • Monitors inside airbus cockpit need to be replaced • Update mechanisms and labels for all flight controls • Replace all monitor hardware

Big Ideas: • Innovation – How did we learn to fly? What people and ideas contributed to the invention of the airplane? • Industrialization: How did technical change and improvement occur, 1903‐1914? What factors led to technological advance? How did aviation grow to become an important industry? • Globalization: A technology without borders ‐ what role did government play in fostering aeronautical progress? What impact did varying levels of government support have on aeronautical progress in different nations? Was early aviation a global technology? What elements promoted technology transfer? • Flights of the Imagination: How did public perceptions of the potential of the airplane change attitudes toward science, technology and the future? What sort of individuals emerged as representatives of the new air age?

Exhibition Goals The Exhibition core team is imagining a space where millions of museum visitors will: • Share the excitement of early flight with visitors. • Help visitors understand the birth of the relationship between government and the aeronautical industry. • Underscore the extent to which aviation was a global enterprise. • Understand the broad social, cultural, economic and political impact of flight on the world. • Explore factors supporting innovation and technological progress.

AT:000-L1 America by Air Flying was new and daring in the early years of the 20th century. Traveling by airplane was rare. , , airports, air routes— none of these existed. But by century’s end, you could travel to almost anywhere in America by air in a matter of hours. How did this revolutionary change happen? In this gallery, explore the history of air transportation in America: • How has the federal government shaped the industry? • How have improvements in technology revolutionized ? • How has the flying experience changed?

AT:000-L2 “Unlike the boundaries of the sea by the shorelines, the ‘ocean of air’ laps at the border of every state, city, town and home throughout the world.” —L. Welch Pogue, former chairman of the

AT:000-L3 This Exhibition Is Made Possible Through the Generous Support of NASA U.S. Department of Transportation Airbus Additional Support Provided by Federal Aviation Administration Rockwell Collins , Inc. The Boeing Company

AT:000-L4-P4 Philip C. Dittes, Minnesota Historical Society

November 15, 2007, page 1

AT:100-L1 Upright panel 100a The Early Years of Air Transportation 1914–1927 The first airline began flying only 11 years after the Wright brothers’ first flights in 1903. But that and other early airlines could not make enough money to stay in business. To help create an air transportation network, the U.S. government began flying the . Once reliable service was established, the Post Office turned over air mail delivery to private companies. By 1927, a commercial airline system had been born. Aviation technology was improving but still crude. A system of air routes was just starting to develop. The flying experience was exciting but uncomfortable and sometimes dangerous. And for the few passengers who flew, it was expensive.

November 15, 2007, page 2 Airplane labels AT:100-L2-A2 Curtiss JN-4D Jenny Artifact: Airplane Designed as a trainer for the U.S. Army Air Service, the A19190006000 Curtiss JN-4 first flew in 1916. Known popularly as the “Jenny,” the JN-4 taught thousands of Allied pilots to fly during . After the war, surplus Jennys were widely used for “barnstorming”—traveling air shows—and they opened the first scheduled air mail service. The JN-4D featured a 90-horsepower Curtiss OX-5 engine. The Army ordered Curtiss to convert six JN-4Ds for the U.S. Air Mail Service by installing a larger 150-horsepower Hispano-Suiza engine and a mail compartment. These airplanes were redesignated as JN-4Hs. The Smithsonian acquired this Jenny in 1918. Transferred from the U.S. War Department Wingspan: 13.3 m (43 ft 7 in) Length: 8.3 m (27 ft 4 in) Height: 3 m (9 ft 11 in) Weight, gross: 871 kg (1,920 lb) Weight, empty: 630 kg (1,390 lb) Engine: Curtiss OX-5, 90 hp Manufacturer: Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Co., Garden City, , N.Y.

November 15, 2007, page 3

AT:101-L1 Upright panel 111a The World’s First Scheduled Airline The St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line began flying across Tampa Bay on January 1, 1914. It lasted only three months. The flight covered 29 kilometers (18 miles) and took 23 minutes—11 hours less than traveling between St. Petersburg and Tampa by rail. The Airboat Line safely transported 1,204 passengers across the bay. But without a continuing subsidy from St. Petersburg or steady income from tourist traffic, it could not survive. The airline closed at the end of March.

AT:101-L2-P2a,b,c Former St. Petersburg Mayor A. C. Phiel (center) paid $400 95-8346 for the honor of being the first passenger on the St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line. Pilot Tony Jannus is on the

right; the airline’s organizer, Paul E. Fansler, on the left.

AT:101-L3-P3 The brief one-way trip across Tampa Bay cost $5 (more than 00133278 $100 today). Excess weight cost extra.

Case label AT:101-L4-M4 Benoist XIV Model For its St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line, St. Petersburg purchased a Model XIV from St. Louis aircraft manufacturer Thomas Benoist. The airplane could carry one passenger, who sat next to the pilot in the open cockpit. The Benoist was powered by a Roberts 75-horsepower, 6-cylinder, water- cooled engine.

November 15, 2007, page 4

AT:102-L1 Upright panel 110a Early Airlines After World War I, many people began to operate commercial airlines. But every one of these early efforts failed because of high operating costs. Airlines could not make enough money carrying passengers or . They needed financial help—subsidies—until technological and organizational improvements could enable them to become self- sufficient and profitable.

AT:102-L2 Aeromarine Airways For four years starting in 1920, Aeromarine Airways carried wealthy passengers from to Nassau in the Bahamas and , , aboard flying boats. The overseas flights were a popular way for many to drink legally during the Prohibition era. During the off-season, Aeromarine flew between and . Despite its initial success, the airline eventually ran out of money. It ceased flying in 1924 after safely carrying 17,000 passengers.

AT:102-L3-P3 Aeromarine Airways’ three Miami-based pilots and two SI 82-13221 mechanics pose on the of an Aeromarine 75 .

AT:102-L4-P4 Fashionably attired passengers pose on the Aeromarine 75 SI 89-1197 Cordeaux. The airline’s patrons flew in relative luxury inside enclosed cabins.

November 15, 2007, page 5

AT:103-L1 Back side “Early Airlines” Early Airlines

AT:103-L2 “Yesterday I flew to Cleveland for lunch in the “Buckeye,” an 11-passenger flying limousine…. It’s Magic!... It was like being in heaven.” —Miss “Peggy” MacLean on flying Aeromarine from Detroit to Cleveland in 1922

AT:103-L3-P3 Chaplin Air Lines flew wealthy passengers in Curtiss MF 7A10690 flying boats between and Catalina Island briefly in 1919. It was the first scheduled airline to fly in .

AT:103-L4-P4 Aeromarine Airways’ Model 75 flying boats Pinta and Santa SI A-3061 Maria prepare to depart for Miami in 1920.

AT:103-L5-P5 Aeromarine Airways staff in Miami consume an undelivered SI 00172992 shipment of cream.

AT:103-L6-P6 Starting in 1920, Pacific Marine Airways operated between NASM Ref # 00028780 Los Angeles and Catalina Island for eight years. Passengers and crew would take the occasional break to fish for tuna.

AT:103-L7-P7 The Gulf Coast Air Line flew from to Pilottown, at the tip of the Mississippi Delta beginning in 1923. It provided a mail link with steamers traveling to or from Cuba, the , and Central and .

November 15, 2007, page 6

AT:104-L1 Upright panel 120a The Post Office Begins Flying the Mail The U.S. Post Office began using airplanes to move the mail in order to help establish an air transportation system. The new field of air transportation was risky business. Early airlines proved unprofitable—they flew and then folded. The airline industry could not get off the ground. So as it had with stagecoaches, steamships, and railroads, the federal government stepped in to foster a new transportation system. It authorized the U.S. Post Office to begin flying the mail. In 1918 the vision of Postmaster General Albert Burleson and Second Assistant Postmaster General Otto Praeger became a reality with the creation of the U.S. Air Mail Service.

AT:104-L2 The First Carrying of Air Mail To demonstrate the potential of transporting mail by air, the Post Office approved a special air mail flight as part of the festivities at an international air meet on September 23, 1911, on Long Island, New York. With a full mail bag squeezed between his legs, pilot Earle Ovington took off and flew to Mineola, a few miles away. He banked his airplane and pushed the bag overboard. It fell to the ground and was retrieved by the local postmaster.

AT:104-L3-P3a,b While Ovington’s flight was purely ceremonial, it marked the SI 87-7708 first time an airplane officially carried U.S. mail. SI 7B05364

AT:104-L4-P4 Earle Ovington was sworn in as America’s “first aeroplane mail carrier.”

November 15, 2007, page 7 Case labels AT:104-L5-M5 Queen Model Earle Ovington flew a Queen airplane on his brief air mail flight in 1911. The Queen was based on the popular Blériot monoplane design.

AT:104-L6-M6 Curtiss JN-4H Model The Curtiss JN-4H was the first aircraft used in regular A193200010001 service by the Post Office. Popularly known as “Jennys,” JN-4Hs were conventional Army trainers equipped with a Hispano-Suiza 150-horsepower engine. They could carry 63 kilograms (140 pounds) of mail 400 kilometers (250 miles) at a cruising speed of 120 kilometers (75 miles) per hour. Gift of Stewart Geigen

AT:104-L7-A7a,b Air Mail Pilot’s Coat and Helmet Artifacts: Coat and helmet Lt. James Edgerton flew the mail from to NASM-0185, A19320001000 during the first scheduled air mail flight on May 15, 1918. He wore this helmet and coat during that flight. Edgerton left the Army in 1919 and became the Chief of Flying for the U.S. Air Mail Service. Gift of James C. Edgerton

AT:104-L8-A8 Compass Used on the First Scheduled Air Mail Flight Artifact: Compass On May 15, 1918, Lt. Howard P. Culver navigated between A19680559000 Philadelphia and Belmont Park, near , using this -filled compass installed in his Curtiss Jenny. Gift of Mrs. A. Paul Culver

AT:104-L9-P9a,b Letter and envelope carried on the first scheduled air mail NASM-1320, 1962-0110 flight.

AT:104-L10-P10 James Edgerton’s Logbook Family label This is Lt. James Edgerton’s logbook, with entries for May 14 and 15, 1918. Pilots write down their experiences so other pilots can learn from them. What problems did Edgerton have? How long did it take him to fly from Bustleton Field to Washington?

November 15, 2007, page 8 AT:104-L11-A11 Air Mail Bag Artifact: Air mail bag Early air mail was placed in heavy canvas bags and carried inside a special compartment in front of the pilot on most mail planes.

November 15, 2007, page 9

AT:105-L1 Back side of “P.O. Begins Flying the Mail” panel The Curtiss JN-4D Jenny

AT:105-L2 “I always considered it a very safe airplane, because the carburetor would vibrate the airplane so badly that it would shake the ice off the .” —Pilot Earnest M. Allison on the Jenny

AT:105-L3-A3 Curtiss JN-4D Jenny Artifact: Airplane Designed as a trainer for the U.S. Army Air Service, the A19190006000 Curtiss JN-4 first flew in 1916. Known popularly as the Label repeated on back of AT:100 main label “Jenny,” the JN-4 taught thousands of Allied pilots to fly panel. during World War I. After the war, surplus Jennys were widely used for “barnstorming”—traveling air shows—and they opened the first scheduled air mail service. The JN-4D featured a 90-horsepower Curtiss OX-5 engine. The Army ordered Curtiss to convert six JN-4Ds for the U.S. Air Mail Service by installing a larger 150-horsepower Hispano-Suiza engine and a mail compartment. These airplanes were redesignated as JN-4Hs. The Smithsonian acquired this Jenny in 1918. Transferred from the U.S. War Department Wingspan: 13.3 m (43 ft 7 in) Length: 8.3 m (27 ft 4 in) Height: 3 m (9 ft 11 in) Weight, empty: 630 kg (1,390 lb) Weight, gross: 871 kg (1,920 lb) Engine: Curtiss OX-5, 90 hp

AT:105-L4-P4 Special Stamps for Air Mail Family label The Post Office created a series of air mail stamps when it began flying the mail. The ones below were first used in 1918. What kind of airplane do they show? (Hint: Look up!) They show a “Jenny,” the type of airplane the Post Office first used to carry mail.

November 15, 2007, page 10 AT:105-L5-P5 Oops! Family label Post Office printers made a mistake when they first printed this stamp. Today very few of these rare “upside-down Jenny” stamps still exist. These famous stamps are worth a lot of money.

AT:105-L6 “Jenny” Is a Nickname Family label The airplane’s official name is the Curtiss JN-4. If you say the letters “JN” out loud, they sound like “Jay-En.” That was shortened to “Jen,” and it eventually was changed to “Jenny.”

AT:105-L7 Did You Know? Family label The words “Air Mail” were not added to air mail stamps until 1926—15 years after the first airplane carried the mail.

AT:105-L8-P8 Curtiss Jennys were widely used in exhibition flight. Here , who would later co-pilot the -D in this gallery during the 1934 MacRobertson Race, attempts to climb from an automobile onto the gear of a Jenny.

November 15, 2007, page 11

AT:106-L1 Upright panel 121a Regularly Scheduled Air Mail Service Begins The Post Office began flying the mail from New York to Washington, D.C., via Philadelphia in 1918. The service got off to an awkward start. On the morning of May 15, 1918, two air mail pilots in Curtiss Jennys took off within minutes of each other, one from Washington, D.C., the other from Long Island, New York. At Philadelphia, they would exchange mailbags and fly on, thus opening up two-way Washington– Philadelphia– mail service. At least that was the plan….

AT:106-L2 Which Way to Philly? The first day of regularly scheduled air mail service did not quite go as planned. One pilot, Lt. Torrey Webb, left Belmont Race Track on Long Island and reached Philadelphia an hour later. Another, Lt. George Boyle, headed for Philadelphia from Washington, but he quickly lost his way. Navigating by a road map and a faulty compass, Boyle tried to follow railroad tracks, then landed in Waldorf, , south of Washington, to seek directions. On landing he flipped and damaged his airplane and could not continue. After news of his mishap reached Philadelphia, the connecting flight to New York left and arrived on time—but without the mail from Washington.

AT:106-L3-P3 President Woodrow Wilson presided over the opening 2004-51807 ceremonies at West Potomac Park in Washington. Here he speaks with Maj. Reuben H. Fleet, who organized the initial

air mail service by assembling the necessary aircraft and pilots from the Army Air Service.

AT:106-L4-P4 Lt. Torrey Webb flew from New York to Philadelphia, where he transferred his mail to Lt. James Edgerton’s waiting Jenny for the flight to Washington.

November 15, 2007, page 12 AT:106-L5-P5 Major Fleet (left) discusses the Washington to Philadelphia 86-10953 route with Lieutenant Boyle. Boyle lost his way, despite Fleet’s advice.

AT:106-L6-P6 Boyle begins his run from the Polo Grounds in Washington.

November 15, 2007, page 13

AT:107-L1 Back side “Air Mail Service Begins” How Did Air Mail Pilots Find Their Way? Early pilots navigated by looking for familiar landmarks on the ground: towns, rivers, railroads, race tracks, large buildings, and lakes. Navigating by keeping the ground in view and following landmarks is called “contact flying.” Today modern instruments can help pinpoint a pilot’s location, but many pilots still use contact flying to find their way.

AT:107-L2 “Flying 30 or 40 feet off the ground, I still couldn’t find the railroad tracks…. I kept looking for just one friendly landmark to let me know where I was.” —Bob Shank, one of the four original air mail pilots, on flying through fog

AT:107-L3-P3 James P. Murray drew the map below. Murray entered the Family label map, along with written directions for the route, in a Post Office contest. The winning entries, awarded $50 dollars

each, appeared in 1921 as Pilots’ Directions: New York– Route.

AT:107-L4-P4 Test Your Contact Flying Skills! Family label The map below covers part of the original transcontinental air mail route in Central . • Follow the red line, from left to right. This is your route. • Look for landmarks on the map that correspond to the pictures below. • Select the pictures in the correct order to match the map. If you are correct, your path will light up. Hint: Read the 1921 Pilot’s Directions for further clues.

AT:107-L5 This interactive is dedicated to the memory of Bob Hall.

AT:107-L6-P6 1921 Pilots’ Directions: “The river to the south of Sunbury is wider than the north and filled with small islands.”

November 15, 2007, page 14 AT:107-L7-P7 1921 Pilots’ Directions: “A fair sized elliptical race track lies just southwest of town.”

AT:107-L8-P8 1921 Pilots’ Directions: “A lone mountain, Egg Hill, may be seen to the south.”

AT:107-L9-P9 1921 Pilots’ Directions: “New —identified by a covered bridge over Penn Creek.”

AT:107-L10-P10 1921 Pilots’ Directions: “The Pennsylvania Railroad…where the range of mountains coming up from the southwest ends.”

November 15, 2007, page 15

AT:108-L1 Family section Meet Bill!

AT:108-L2 “I have heard numerous reports of your stunting mail ships.… Family label This is absolutely against regulations and further actions of the kind will merit disciplinary action.”

—Superintendent D. B. Colyer scolding Wild Bill on his wild ways with an air mail airplane

AT:108-L3-P3 Wild Bill Family label Wild Bill flew the mail for eight years in the 1920s. He earned SI 75-7024 his nickname by breaking speed records and damaging airplanes. He was popular with other pilots but regularly scolded by his supervisors! He died in 1928 when his airplane crashed on the New York to route. He was carrying a thousand pounds of mail, including a large shipment of diamonds. Only 10 pounds of mail were saved from the plane’s wreckage, but the diamonds disappeared.

AT:108-L4-P4 Can you find “Wild Bill” in this group of air mail pilots? Family label SI 89-7061

AT:108-L5 The Well-Dressed Pilot Family label Williams Hopson, better known as “Wild Bill,” was a popular early air mail pilot. The airplanes he flew had open like the one in the photo below. What do his clothes tell you about his job conditions? Using the life-size photograph of Bill and the flip panels below, discover parts of Bill’s outfit that protect him from the weather.

AT:108-L6 Bill probably wore these clothes in the summer, too. Even if Family label it is hot on the ground, it is colder and windier up in the sky. Most airplanes are enclosed now, so pilots don’t have to

worry about the as much.

November 15, 2007, page 16 AT:108-L7 Made of leather and fur, this keeps his body warm. Family label [beneath flip panel:] Flight suit

AT:108-L8 These need to be buckled tightly. Family label [beneath flip panel:] Boots

AT:108-L9 A chin strap keeps this in place. Family label [beneath flip panel:] Leather Helmet

AT:108-L10 These protect the eyes from wind and weather. Family label [beneath flip panel:] Goggles

AT:108-L11 What’s missing? Family label [beneath flip panel:] Gloves

AT:108-L12 What’s in the Mail? Family label Air mail offered people speedy delivery—at a hefty price. A person in the 1920s paid more than four times the normal cost to send a letter via air mail. This mail bag shows typical items sent by air.

AT:108-L13-P13 It was new and exciting to send personal letters by air mail. Air mail bag label

AT:108-L14-P14 Expensive items like diamonds were less likely to be stolen. Air mail bag label

AT:108-L15-P15 Business documents have always needed fast handling. Air mail bag label

AT:108-L16-P16 Sending bank documents by air mail was and saved Air mail bag label money on interest.

November 15, 2007, page 17

AT:109-L1 Back side “World’s First Scheduled Airline” Early Aircraft Technology Aircraft performance improved rapidly between 1911 and 1927, but aviation technology was still fairly primitive. To boost aeronautical research, the U.S. government created the NACA. The airplane was only 15 years old when air mail service began in 1918. Airplanes were still essentially wood and cloth machines that performed inefficiently. Most were . Concerned that the was rapidly falling behind Europe in aeronautical technology, Congress formed the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in 1915 to supervise and direct American aeronautical research. By the end of the 1920s, the NACA’s efforts were bearing fruit.

AT:109-L2 The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Spurred by Smithsonian Secretary Charles D. Walcott, the NACA soon became the nation’s preeminent aeronautical research organization and attracted some of the nation’s most creative engineers. Pioneering research by the NACA and its successor, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), solved many of flight’s most difficult problems and greatly improved the performance and safety of all aircraft. The NACA/NASA developed some of the most important technological innovations in air transportation. This critical research continues today.

AT:109-L3-P3 Named after Samuel P. Langley, third secretary of the Smithsonian, the NACA’s Langley Memorial Laboratory opened in 1917. The flight testing facility featured the first pressurized (variable density) . It was used to gather precise data on shapes.

November 15, 2007, page 18 AT:109-L4-P4 The NACA acquired a fleet of 19 aircraft to test their flight characteristics and create new design parameters. It designed equipment to measure air pressure distribution on wings and also began research on engines.

AT:109-L5-P5 Europeans led the world in aeronautics after World War I. They developed monocoque (“single shell”) construction— the aircraft’s skin carried most of the aerodynamic load, reducing structural weight. In , Hugo patented the internally braced cantilevered wing. Adolf Rohrbach built a series of advanced all-metal aircraft, including this Zeppelin E.4/20.

November 15, 2007, page 19

AT:110-L1 Separate small panel Engine Technology: Water-Cooled Engines Most airplanes in the 1920s used engines cooled by water. While powerful for their size, water-cooled engines were heavy and unreliable. They required large radiators, which created aerodynamic drag, as well as heavy and complex pumps and plumbing systems, which often leaked. Still, they were more powerful than the bulky air-cooled engines of the time and were widely used on all types of aircraft.

AT:110-L2-A2 Liberty V-12 Artifact: Engine Designed for light bombers in World War I, the Liberty V-12 NASM-7317, 1985-0445 was widely used during the 1920s. Liberty engines powered the Post Office’s DH-4s and most mail planes used by early airlines. Although powerful, the water-cooled Liberty was not as efficient or reliable as the new generation of air-cooled engines introduced by the Wright and Pratt & Whitney companies in the late 1920s. Type: Water-cooled, V-type, inline Cylinders: 12 Displacement: 27 L (1,649 cu in) Power: 400 hp at 1,800 rpm Weight: 384 kg (844 lb) Manufacturer: Lincoln Motor Co., Detroit, Mich., 1918

AT:110-L3-M3 De Havilland DH-4 Model By 1921 modified de Havilland DH-4 light bombers were NASM-6070, A19780405000 being used as mail planes. They soon become the symbol of the U.S. Air Mail Service. The first DH-4 built in the United States hangs in the Museum’s Looking at Earth gallery.

November 15, 2007, page 20

AT:111-L1 Text rail 130 What Was It Like To Fly? Novel and exciting; loud and uncomfortable—an experience few people ever got to relish or regret. In the early years of flight, pilots and the occasional passenger sat in open cockpits exposed to wind and weather. Even in Europe, where large transports carried passengers in comparative luxury, the ride was harsh, loud, and uncomfortable.

AT:111-L2-A2-P2 An Air Mail Pilot’s Wings Artifact: Badge (wings) Air mail pilots wore heavy flight suits instead of uniforms, but NASM-5532, A19761730000 they were issued badges or wings for identification, as in this photo of pilot Wilfred A. “Tony” Yackey. Northwest Airlines still issues similar wings to its pilots. Gift of Robert Shank

AT:111-L3-A3a,b Air Mail Pilot’s Knee Board and Map Artifacts: Knee board and map Joseph L. Mortensen navigated the air mail route from Salt NASM-0690, A19500138000 Lake City, , to Reno, , in 1920 using this scrolling map and knee board. Gift of Joseph L. Mortensen

AT:111-L4-P4 Did You Know? Family label This object is called a “knee board” because a pilot would strap it to his leg. He would turn the knobs to scroll the map as he flew his route. Why would this be more useful than a folding map?

AT:111-L5-P5 Pilot Reuben H. Fleet with a map strapped to his knee.

AT:111-L6-P6a,b Of the more than 200 pilots hired by the Post Office from 1918 to 1926, 35 died flying the mail. Fatalities dropped after the first few years, but flying the mail remained a dangerous—and sometimes deadly—job.

November 15, 2007, page 21 AT:111-L7-P7 A Curtiss R-4 grounded by a snowstorm. Winter weather made flying treacherous.

Adjacent small panel AT:111-L8 Who Flew? Mostly pilots. Most early airplanes could carry only a single extra person, if any. Few passenger-carrying airlines existed, and none survived for very long. Those that did catered to wealthy travelers who could afford the expensive ticket prices. Except for the occasional hop in the spare seat of a barnstorming Curtiss Jenny, few Americans flew as passengers.

AT:111-L9-P9 Interior of an Aeromarine Airways . Note the wicker 175A0002700 chairs.

AT:111-L10-P10 A female passenger in flying coveralls stands in the cockpit of the St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line’s Benoist airplane, perhaps discussing her flight with the photographer standing in front of her.

AT:111-L11 “Fly the Mail” simulation courtesy of Microsoft Corporation Nearby computer interactive

November 15, 2007, page 22

AT:112-L1 Text rail 132a Air Mail Service Takes Root The new U.S. Air Mail Service proved successful. It soon extended its routes across the continent and its flights around the clock. Despite some early setbacks, the Air Mail Service completed about 90 percent of its flights. A few months after service began in 1918, the Army withdrew from flying the mail and left the Post Office in charge with its own pilots and aircraft. By 1920 transcontinental air mail service had begun. By 1924 mail was also being flown at night, thanks to lighted airways the Post Office was creating across the nation.

AT:112-L2 Service Extends from Coast to Coast Air mail service opened between New York and Chicago in September 1919. Service reached Omaha, Nebraska, the following May. In September 1920 it reached San Francisco. Compared to moving the mail by train, flying cut coast-to-coast delivery time by about a day. When regular overnight air mail service began in 1924, it slashed delivery time to 29 hours—almost three days faster than by rail.

AT:112-L3-P3 Sorting the mail at Hadley Field, .

AT:112-L4-P4 U.S. Air Mail Service staff headquarters at Fort Crook, SI 91-7031 Omaha.

AT:112-L5-P5 Unloading mail during the first transcontinental air mail flight SI 85-6448 through Omaha.

AT:112-L6-P6 A de Havilland DH-4 parked by a hangar and beacon tower. 00138786 Note the air mail logo on the hangar.

November 15, 2007, page 23 Upright panel above “Air Mail Service Takes Root” AT:112-L7-P7 Air Transportation Pioneer Capt. Benjamin Lipsner Capt. Benjamin Lipsner helped guide the Air Mail Service during its early days. Under Lipsner, it acquired new Standard biplanes and shifted its Washington base of operations to College Park Airport in nearby Maryland, the oldest airport in the world. The service became a proving ground for .

AT:112-L8-P8 Air Transportation Pioneer Col. Paul Henderson As Second Assistant Postmaster General, Col. Paul Henderson helped establish overnight air mail service. Under his direction, powerful rotating beacons were placed along the transcontinental route to guide pilots in the dark. He modeled the system after an experimental lighted airway the Army had created between Dayton and Columbus, Ohio.

November 15, 2007, page 24

AT:113-L1 Text rail 141a Flying the Mail at Night To speed up air mail service, the Post Office turned to flying the mail throughout the night—a dangerous undertaking for air mail pilots. Night flying presented special hazards, especially getting lost. Initially, bonfires set along air routes were used to help guide pilots through the darkness. In the 1920s, the Post Office established a system of lighted airways marked by powerful rotating beacons. Airplanes making the night runs were equipped with flares, lighted instruments, and navigation and landing lights.

AT:113-L2 Beacons Replace Bonfires The Post Office, Army, and Commerce Department worked together to develop better navigation technologies, especially a system of lighted airways. By the summer of 1923, air mail pilots could fly from Chicago to Cheyenne, Wyoming, guided by 289 beacons and 39 lighted landing fields. The lighting of the New York–San Francisco route was completed in 1925, and the system was soon extended to other routes.

AT:113-L3-P3 U.S. Air Mail workers transfer Chicago-bound mailbags into a de Havilland DH-4 at Hadley Field, New Jersey.

AT:113-L4-P4 Hollywood later capitalized on the daring pilots who flew the A19900886000CP mail with the movie Air Mail. Beacons posted at intervals along air routes helped keep flyers from getting lost in the

dark. But flying into fog or a storm could prove more hair- raising than any fictional drama.

November 15, 2007, page 25 AT:113-L5-P5a,b Powerful mobile floodlights illuminated the airfield at Fort 94-4084 Crook, Omaha. 00191473

AT:113-L6-A6 Air Route Beacon Artifact: Beacon Rotating beacons like this one, developed by the General NAS-2799, 1973-0705 Electric Company, were placed 16 kilometers (10 miles) apart along air mail routes. They rotated once every 10 seconds, and their powerful beams could be seen 60 kilometers (40 miles) away.

AT:113-L7-P7 Route beacon on Sherman Hill, Wyoming. SI A-44456-C

AT:113-L8-P8 Beacon tower under construction at Omaha, Nebraska. NASM Ref # 00191471

AT:113-L9-P9 Beacon tower at U.S. Air Mail field at North Platte, Nebraska. NASM Ref # 00191470

AT:113-L10-P10 Enclosed beacon tower at Fort Crook, Nebraska. NASM Ref # 00191472

November 15, 2007, page 26

AT:114-L1 Text rail 141b A Daring Demonstration On February 22, 1921, four air mail flights set out to prove the mail could be flown coast to coast in record time by flying day and night. The going proved rough. One pilot died in a crash. Treacherous weather stopped others. But the fourth flight got through, making it from San Francisco to New York in 33 hours and 20 minutes—a distance that took 4½ days by train and 3 days by air/rail (flown by day and shipped by train at night). Within three years, mail was being flown across the country by day and night in only 29 hours.

AT:114-L2-P2 Frank R. Yager, one of 14 pilots who flew the various legs of SI 00181643 the four flights.

AT:114-L3-P3 Air mail pilot Jack Knight. Thanks to his heroic efforts over the Midwest, one of the four flights made it across the country.

AT:114-L4-P4 Knight’s Telegram Family label This is the telegram Jack Knight sent to the Post Office relating his experience. How would you describe his flight based on his description? Knight had not flown this route before. What tools did he use to stay on course? National Archives

November 15, 2007, page 27

AT:114-L5-P5 Captions for Map

Westbound Eastbound

New York Flights 1 and 2 leave New York. San Francisco Flights 3 and 4 leave San Francisco at 4:30 a.m.

Pennsylvania Flight 1: Heavy icing causes pilot to Elko Flight 3 and 4 change planes. make forced landing, damaging tailskid and axle. Cannot continue. Flight 3: Pilot stalls plane after takeoff, crashes, dies. Mail transferred to aircraft; flight continues.

Chicago Flight 2: Reaches Chicago despite bad Rawlins Flight 4: Makes emergency landing at weather. But with rain, snow, and fog to Rawlins to fix oil leak, continues. the west, flight cannot continue.

North Platte Flight 4: Jack Knight takes over. Ignition problem delays departure until 10:44 p.m.

Omaha Flights 3 and 4 reach Omaha. Only replacement pilot available who knows route to Chicago refuses to fly due to bad weather. Flight 3 ends.

Flight 4: Knight volunteers to fly on, despite weather and having never flown the route. Departs at 1:59 a.m.

Iowa City Flight 4: Sky “dark as hob,” with high clouds obscuring moon. “Sense of isolation that’s hard to describe.” Descends beneath low clouds into rough air to keep sight of ground, then encounters snow flurries. Spots flares at airport and lands to refuel.

Chicago Flight 4: Fighting lack of sleep, Knight reaches Chicago at 8:40 a.m. Another pilot takes over.

New York Flight 4: Reaches New York at 4:50 p.m. “Great jubilation” in the Post Office.

November 15, 2007, page 28

AT:115-L1 Text rail 142a Airlines Take Over Carrying the Mail Once the Post Office had established a reliable and practical air mail system, it turned over air mail delivery to private airlines. Having established a strong economic foundation for , in 1925 the Post Office began contracting with private airlines to carry the mail. By the summer of 1927, an effective commercial airline system was providing reliable air mail service. The federal government continued to shape the new industry by regulating the airways, guiding aviation’s growth, and promoting safety and technology.

AT:115-L2 The Legislative Foundation The Contract allowed the Post Office to pay private airlines to deliver the mail. Payments were based on the weight of the mail carried. The Post Office later added a subsidy to help offset airline operating losses, until more efficient aircraft could be developed. To guide the development of this new industry, Congress in 1926 passed the Air Commerce Act, which established the Aeronautics Branch of the Commerce Department, the predecessor of today’s Federal Aviation Administration.

AT:115-L3-A3 Pen Used by President to Sign the Artifact: Pen Contract Air Mail Act NASM-8120, A19950812000

AT:115-L4-P4a,b , a predecessor of , carried SI 97-16601 the first contract air mail on April 6, 1926, from Elko, Nevada, to Pasco, Washington.

November 15, 2007, page 29 AT:115-L5-P5 The Aeronautics Branch of the Commerce Department pioneered safety regulation, required the licensing of pilots and the certification of aircraft, and encouraged the development of navigation aids.

Upright panel above “Airlines Take Over Carrying the Mail” AT:115-L6-P6 Air Transportation Pioneer M. Clyde Kelly Representative M. Clyde Kelly guided the Contract Air Mail Act through Congress in 1925. A progressive republican from western Pennsylvania, Kelly felt that the Post Office had accomplished its goals and that it was time to let more efficient private enterprise fly the mail. The legislation became popularly known as the “Kelly Act.”

AT:115-L7-P7 Air Transportation Pioneer William P. MacCracken Jr. Aviation legal expert William P. MacCracken Jr. crafted the Air Commerce Act, which gave aviation a sound legal foundation. Under his leadership as the first Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics, the Commerce Department pioneered safety regulation, required the licensing of pilots and the certification of aircraft, and encouraged the development of navigation aids.

November 15, 2007, page 30 AT:200-L1 Airline Expansion and Innovation 1927–1941 Despite the Great Depression, air transportation experienced phenomenal growth and change from the late 1920s through the 1930s, before U.S. entry into World War II intervened. As technology improved, aircraft evolved from World War I–style biplanes into sleek, high- performance modern airliners. A solid infrastructure took shape under government guidance through the Post Office and the Commerce Department, and regulatory reforms reshaped the industry. Passenger service took root and grew, and air routes spread across the country. But because air travel was so expensive, only the wealthy and business travelers flew. The flying experience improved but remained an often uncomfortable adventure.

November 15, 2007, page 1 Airplane labels AT:200-L2-A2 Pitcairn PA-5 Mailwing Artifact: Airplane The Pitcairn PA-5 Mailwing was designed to carry air mail in the eastern United States. Efficient and economical, it helped build the route structure for what would become . The Mailwing displayed above was built in 1927 and was the prototype for a series of Pitcairn mail planes. It combined a square-steel-tube fuselage with wooden wings, both covered by fabric. After it became obsolete as a , this airplane served several private owners, survived a crash, and saw use as a crop-duster. The airplane was repurchased by employees of Eastern Air Lines, restored, and presented to company president Edward V. Rickenbacker, who later donated it to the Museum. The airplane was restored in 1975 by veteran Eastern pilot Capt. Joseph Toth. Gift of Edward V. Rickenbacker

Wingspan: 10 m (33 ft) Length: 6.7 m (21 ft 11 in) Height: 2.8 m (9 ft 4 in) Weight, gross: 1,139 kg (2,512 lb) Weight, empty: 731 kg (1,612 lb) Top speed: 218 km/h (136 mph) Engine: Wright Whirlwind J-5-C, 200 hp Manufacturer: Pitcairn Aircraft, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa., 1927

November 15, 2007, page 2 AT:200-L3-A3 Fairchild FC-2 Artifact: Airplane Developed for aerial photography, the Fairchild FC-2 was the production version of Sherman Fairchild’s first aircraft, the FC-1. It could cruise for long distances at high altitudes, and its enclosed cabin protected the crew and equipment. The design was so good that the aircraft’s duties rapidly expanded to include air mail delivery, passenger flights, freight hauling, and . The Fairchild FC-2 on display above was one of the first aircraft flown by Pan American–Grace Airways (Panagra) in South America. It made the first scheduled passenger flight in , from to Talara, on September 13, 1928. It could carry five persons, including the pilot. Gift of Pan American–Grace Airways

Wingspan: 13.5 m (44 ft) Length: 8.7 m (30 ft 11 in) Height: 2.7 m (9 ft) Weight, gross: 1,630 kg (3,600 lb) Weight, empty: 930 kg (2,050 lb) Top speed: 196 km/h (122 mph) Engine: Wright J-4, 220 hp Manufacturer: Fairchild Airplane Manufacturing Corp., Farmingdale, N.Y., 1928

November 15, 2007, page 3 AT:200-L4-A4 Northrop Alpha Artifact: Airplane Introduced in 1930, the Northrop Alpha represents a transitional air transport design, a blend of old and new aircraft technology. It could carry six passengers in a snug, comfortable cabin, but the pilot remained exposed to the elements. The aircraft was all metal and streamlined, but had fixed and only one engine. Designed by John K. “Jack” Northrop, the Alpha was a great step forward in metal aircraft design. Many of its features, particularly the multi-cellular wing, were later used in the Douglas DC-2 and DC-3. Although more powerful twin- engine aircraft made the Alpha obsolete for passenger service, it continued to serve as a fast express cargo plane. The airplane on display above was restored by volunteers from . Gift of the Experimental Aircraft Association and Trans World Airlines

Wingspan: 13.4 m (41 ft 10 in) Length: 8.7 m (28 ft 5 in) Height: 3.3 m (9 ft) Weight, gross: 2,043 kg (4,500 lb) Weight, empty: 1,208 kg (2,660 lb) Top speed: 272 km/h (170 mph) Engine: Pratt & Whitney Wasp, 420 hp Manufacturer: Northrop Aircraft Corp., Burbank, Calif., 1930

November 15, 2007, page 4 AT:200-L5-A5 Ford 5-AT Tri-Motor Artifact: Airplane Affectionately known as the “Tin Goose,” the Ford Tri-Motor was the largest civil aircraft in America when it first flew on August 2, 1926. Its all-metal, corrugated aluminum construction and the prestigious Ford name made it immediately popular with passengers and airline operators. Noisy but reliable, the Ford Tri-Motor played a major role in convincing the public that air travel was safe and practical. The 5-AT, a more powerful version of the earlier 4-AT, had three Pratt & Whitney Wasp radial engines and entered service in 1928. The airplane on display above was restored by . Gift of American Airlines

Wingspan: 23.7 m (77 ft 10 in) Length: 15.2 m (49 ft 10 in) Height: 4.2 m (13 ft 8 in) Weight, gross: 5,738 kg (12,650 lb) Weight, empty: 3,470 kg (7,650 lb) Top speed: 217 km/h (135 mph) Engine: 3 Pratt & Whitney Wasps, 420 hp Manufacturer: Co. (a Division of Ford Motor Co.), 1928

November 15, 2007, page 5 AT:200-L6-A6 Boeing 247-D Artifact: Airplane The world’s first modern airliner, the Boeing 247 revolutionized air transportation when it entered service with United Air Lines in 1933. With its sleek, low-wing, all-metal construction; retractable landing gear; and supercharged, air- cooled engines, the Boeing 247 was 50 percent faster than its competitors. Its innovative design launched a new generation of commercial airliners, notably the Douglas DC-2. The Boeing 247-D version pioneered the use of controllable-pitch propellers and wing de-icer boots. The airplane on display above is the first production 247-D. and Clyde Pangborn flew it in the 1934 -to- International Air Derby, better known as the MacRobertson Race. The airplane placed third overall and second in the transport category, completing the 18,180- kilometer (11,300-mile) journey in just under 93 hours. It was returned to United Air Lines and flown as the airline’s flagship until replaced by DC-3s. The airplane is displayed with its racing numeral, NR 257Y, and its commercial registration, NC 13369. Transferred from the Civil Aeronautics Authority

Wingspan: 22.6 m (74 ft) Length: 15.7 m (51 ft 7 in) Height: 3.8 m (12 ft 6 in) Weight, gross: 6,192 kg (13,650 lb) Weight, empty: 4,055 kg (8,940 lb) Top speed: 322 km/h (200 mph) Engine: 2 Pratt & Whitney Wasp S1H1-G, 550 hp Manufacturer: Boeing Airplane Co., , Wash., 1934

November 15, 2007, page 6 AT:200-L7-A7 Douglas DC-3 Artifact: Airplane First flown in 1935, the Douglas DC-3 became the most successful airliner in the formative years of air transportation, and was the first to fly profitably without government subsidy. More than 13,000 DC-3s, both civil and military versions, U.S. and foreign built, were produced. Many are still flying. An enlarged variant of the popular 14-seat DC-2, the 21-seat DC-3 was comfortable by the standards of its time and very safe, because of its strong, multiple- wing and all-metal construction. The airlines liked it because it was reliable, inexpensive to operate, and therefore profitable. Pilots liked its stability, ease of handling, and excellent single-engine performance. The airplane on display above flew more than 56,700 hours with Eastern Air Lines. Its last commercial flight was on October 12, 1952, when it flew from San Salvador to Miami. It was subsequently presented to the Museum by Eastern’s president, Edward V. Rickenbacker. Gift of Eastern Air Lines

Wingspan: 29 m (95 ft) Length: 19.7 m (64 ft 6 in) Height: 5 m (16 ft 11 in) Weight, gross: 11,430 kg (25,200 lb) Weight, empty: 7,650 kg (16,865) Top speed: 370 km/h (230 mph) Engine: 2 Wright SGR 1820-71, 1,200 hp Manufacturer: Douglas Aircraft Co., Santa Monica, Calif., 1936

November 15, 2007, page 7

AT:201-L1 The Need for Reform By the end of the 1920s, private airlines were flying an expanding system of air mail routes. Passenger service, however, remained almost nonexistent. While airlines often prospered flying the mail, the system had problems. The Post Office’s bidding process for air routes resulted in an unfair payment system, and short-term contracts discouraged airlines from investing in long-term development. Airlines that carried only mail favored small, single-engine airplanes. Larger multi-engine aircraft were needed to carry passengers, but such airplanes were too costly to operate. Reform was needed for the airline system to grow.

AT:201-L2-P2 “We think it is necessary to give some aid to the passenger- carrying lines, particularly if by giving that aid we greatly increase the air mail facilities in the country.” —Walter F. Brown

AT:201-L3-P3 Express tried to develop passenger service in the West using large F-10 tri-motor airplanes. But despite its reliable service, it could not make a profit carrying only people.

AT:201-L4-P4 When bidding for air mail routes, some airlines fared much better than others. With no competition for the - Cleveland route, managed to earn the maximum $3 per pound of mail. National Air Transport had to underbid several rivals for the New York–Chicago route and received only $1.24.

AT:201-L5-P5 Loading and unloading air mail, Chicago Airport, late 1920s.

AT:201-L6-P6 Western Express logo

November 15, 2007, page 8 AT:201-L7-A7 Wright J-5 Whirlwind Artifact: Engine The Wright J-5 Whirlwind is considered the first modern NASM-6410, 1979-1508 . Developed by the Corporation from its Lawrance J-1 engine, the J-5 produced 220 horsepower and was the first engine to have sodium- cooled exhaust valves and to be self-lubricating. These innovations greatly increased its reliability. The J-5 won the prestigious for 1927. ’s Spirit of St. Louis was equipped with a J- 5. Whirlwinds were also fitted to many early transport aircraft, including Ford 4-AT Tri-Motors and the Pitcairn PA- 5 Mailwing and Fairchild FC-2 displayed overhead. Gift of Juan T. Trippe

Type: Air-cooled radial Cylinders: 9 Displacement: 12.9 L (788 cu in) Power: 220 hp at 1,800 rpm Weight: 232 kg (510 lb) Manufacturer: Wright Aeronautical Corp., Paterson, N.J.

AT:201-L8-A8 Pratt & Whitney Wasp Artifact: Engine When Wright Aeronautical refused to further develop its NASM-0720, 1951-0099 successful J-5 engine, its president , chief designer George Mead, and chief engineer Andrew Willgoos left the company to build their own high-performance, air- cooled radial. Working in the defunct Pratt & Whitney tool company building in Hartford, , they created the Wasp. Reliable and efficient, the 425-horsepower, nine-cylinder, air- cooled Wasp became the preferred engine for many military and commercial aircraft, including the Ford 5-AT Tri-Motor and the Boeing 40A. The engine displayed here was the first Wasp built. Transferred from the U.S. Navy, Bureau of Aeronautics Type: Air-cooled radial Cylinders: 9 Displacement: 22.2 L (1,344 cu in) Power: 425 hp at 1,900 rpm Weight: 295 kg (650 lb) Manufacturer: Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Co., Hartford, Conn.

November 15, 2007, page 9

AT:202-L1 Cross-Country by Air and Rail In 1929, Transcontinental Air Transport (T.A.T.) began providing passenger service between New York and Los Angeles using airplanes by day and trains by night. Night flying was hazardous, so passengers rode the Pennsylvania Railroad’s night train from New York to Port Columbus, Ohio. There they boarded a Ford Tri-Motor and flew to Waynoka, Oklahoma, where they transferred to a Santa Fe Railway night train. At Clovis, New , they boarded another Tri-Motor for the final leg to Los Angeles. T.A.T. air-rail service took a day less than by train alone, but a one-way ticket cost a whopping $338.

AT:202-L2-P2 “I am simply amazed at the detail that has gone into this TAT line. They give so much care to comfort and luxuries…. And an aero-car to take you from plane to train for your night rides…. And a map given to each passenger so he may study the country.” —Anne Morrow Lindbergh

AT:202-L3 Fly or Drive? Family label In 1929 a one-way ticket across the country cost $338, more than half the price of a new car. A Ford Model A cost $525; a Chevrolet Coach cost $595.

AT:202-L4-P4 T.A.T. did not have an air mail contract; it depended strictly on revenues from carrying passengers. Although well run, the company was soon in desperate financial shape.

AT:202-L5-P5a,b Transcontinental Air Transport hired Charles Lindbergh as a technical advisor. Lindbergh selected the aircraft, chose and planned T.A.T.’s cross-country route, and oversaw the creation of all the necessary airfields and installations. T.A.T. and its successor, Transcontinental and Western Air (T.W.A.), became popularly known as “The Lindbergh Line.”

November 15, 2007, page 10 AT:202-L6-P6 Far-sighted investment banker and Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company president Clement Keys started T.A.T. to demonstrate that flying passengers was now practical. Earlier, he created National Air Transport to fly the mail between New York and Chicago, then formed a called , which grew to include Eastern Air Transport and T.A.T. He also merged the assets of Curtiss Aeroplane and Wright Aeronautical into another holding company known as the Curtiss- Wright Corporation in 1929.

Case 202 labels AT:202-L7-M7 Curtiss Carrier Pigeon Model Powered by the venerable Liberty engine, the Curtiss Carrier NASM-0411, 1937-0040 Pigeon was designed to carry mail along National Air Transport’s lucrative New York–Chicago route. Both Curtiss and National were owned by pioneer aviation entrepreneur Clement Keys. Gift of the Great Lakes Exposition

AT:202-L8-M8 Curtiss Model First flown in 1932, the Curtiss Condor could carry 14 NASM-1026, 1959-0037 passengers and had sleeping berths for night flight. Although comfortable and fast, it was expensive to operate. Eastern Air Transport and American Airways flew the Condor, but newer designs soon replaced it. Gift of David M. Shipton

November 15, 2007, page 11

AT:203-L1

Aviation Becomes Big Business Charles Lindbergh’s historic 1927 and a stock market boom spurred investor interest in aviation. An intense period of industry-wide mergers and consolidation followed. Four large aviation holding companies soon arose. William Boeing and Frederick Rentschler of Pratt & Whitney formed the first and the largest, and Transport Corporation. Clement Keys formed North American Aviation and the Curtiss-Wright Corporation. Aerial photography pioneer Sherman Fairchild, Averill Harriman, and created The Aviation Corporation (). While these consolidations promised greater efficiency, airlines remained unprofitable without government help.

AT:203-L2 “The United States covers a large area and it is inevitable that the most obvious routes will be controlled by great corporations. —Aviation magazine

AT:203-L3-P3 Aircraft builder William Boeing (left), Philip Johnson (right), Claire Egtvedt, and Eddie Hubbard created Boeing Air Transport (B.A.T.) in 1927 to fly the mail from Chicago to San Francisco. B.A.T. was so successful that it acquired Pacific Air Transport. By 1931 these two airlines, along with Varney Air Lines and National Air Transport, were operating as United Air Lines.  The Boeing Company

AT:203-L4-P4 Sherman Fairchild.

November 15, 2007, page 12 AT:203-L5 Who Was Lindbergh? Family label Charles Lindbergh gained instant celebrity when he became the first person to fly alone nonstop from New York to in 1927 in his Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis (on display in the Milestones of Flight gallery). He was the hero of the day— every child in the country knew his name. The “Lindbergh boom” in aviation followed: aircraft industry stocks rose in value, and interest in flying skyrocketed. Lindbergh’s subsequent U.S. publicity tour demonstrated the airplane’s potential as a safe, reliable form of transportation. Lindbergh used his fame to promote the expansion of commercial aviation. Transcontinental Air Transport hired him to help select T.A.T.’s aircraft, routes, systems, and equipment. He also advised Pan American Airways and was instrumental in its expansion.

Case 203 labels AT:203-L6-M6 Boeing 40B Model Powered by Pratt & Whitney’s Wasp engine, the Boeing 40A NASM-0411, 1937-0042 could carry two passengers. Thanks to the ’s large payload capacity and low operating costs, Boeing Air Transport won the coveted air mail route from Chicago to San Francisco in 1927 and operated the route at a profit. Boeing developed a larger version of the aircraft, the Boeing 40B, which could carry 4,400 kilograms (2,000 pounds) of mail and four passengers. The pilot flew the airplane from an open cockpit behind the passenger compartment. Gift of David M. Shipton

AT:203-L7-A7 “Aviation: The Air Mail Game” Artifact: Board game In 1929, Parker Brothers introduced “Aviation: The Air Mail Game” to exploit growing public interest in commercial aviation. The game challenged 2 to 4 players to deliver the mail to 12 cities between and San Francisco. Red cards determined destinations, and blue cards determined flight conditions. Good weather sped up the mail; bad weather or engine problems delayed it. To capitalize on the public’s infatuation with Charles Lindbergh, the airplane depicted on each card was his Spirit of St. Louis, even though the Spirit never flew the mail. Gift of Anne M. van der Linden and Gregory George-Adis

November 15, 2007, page 13

AT:204-L1 A Visionary Reforms the Airline Industry Postmaster General Walter Brown helped draft legislation to reform the way airlines were paid, streamline the nation’s air routes, and encourage airline growth and innovation. The most important architect of the nation’s passenger airline industry, Walter Brown believed that the large holding companies created by the wave of airliner mergers could provide the economic clout to develop the industry, boost passenger travel, and reduce government subsidies. Brown helped draft the McNary-Watres Act of 1930, which changed how airlines were paid and made subsidies more fair, redrew the nation’s air route system, and provided economic incentives to encourage airlines to carry passengers.

AT:204-L2-P2 As postmaster general, Walter Brown sought to direct the growth of commercial aviation through economic regulation. His management of the system became the model for subsequent airline regulation. Today’s air transportation system, and its evolution through subsidies, regulation, and deregulation, reflects exactly what Brown envisioned many decades ago.

November 15, 2007, page 14

AT:204-L3 Reforming the Air Mail System Walter Brown reformed the air mail system in four ways: • By exchanging 4-year air mail contracts for exclusive 10-year route certificates, Brown gave airlines long-term stability while allowing the Post Office to reduce its payment rates each year. • By extending the route network while reducing the payment rates, Brown tripled air route mileage at no extra cost to taxpayers. • By providing bonuses for technological improvements, Brown encouraged the creation of larger, faster, safer, and more efficient passenger airliners. • By basing payments on space available in aircraft, rather than on the weight of mail carried, the Post Office was able to spread its payments more equitably among all air mail carriers.

AT:204-L4-P4 To promote passenger travel and to rescue several airlines from bankruptcy, Walter Brown created two more transcontinental air mail routes. Southwest Air Fast Express and Robertson won the southern route. They merged to form American Airways.

AT:204-L5 Brown’s “Spoils Conferences” Walter Brown met with airline leaders in May 1930 to implement the newly enacted McNary-Watres Act. When consensus could not be reached, he determined routes and airline territories himself. To ensure the survival of well-run passenger airlines, Brown encouraged them to merge with air mail lines—a move that saved many airlines from extinction during the Depression. He forced other mergers in the interest of efficiency and excluded small, marginal carriers. Critics later labeled these meetings the “Spoils Conferences.”

AT:204-L6-P6 To fly the new central air mail route, Transcontinental Air Transport merged with part of Western Air Express to form Transcontinental and Western Air (T.W.A.).  The Boeing Company

November 15, 2007, page 15 AT:204-L7-P7 American and T.W.A. competed with Boeing Air Transport and National Air Transport, which combined to begin transcontinental service in 1930 and later became known as United Air Lines.

November 15, 2007, page 16

AT:205-L1 The Air Mail “Scandal” Charges of corruption in the air mail system led President Roosevelt to cancel all air mail contracts. The Army resumed carrying the mail. Federal reforms enacted in 1930 gave most routes and air mail contracts to big airline holding companies. Small, independent airlines complained this was unfair, even though most had sold their own contracts and some did not even exist when the law was passed. The independents fought to break the holding companies’ power. Their efforts led to congressional hearings and unfounded charges of corruption and conspiracy to monopolize the air mail. Responding to political pressure, President Franklin Roosevelt canceled all domestic air mail contracts on February 9, 1934. The Army Air Corps was again called upon to carry the mail.

AT:205-L2-P2 In February 1934, the Air Corps again began carrying the mail. Flying in the worst winter in decades, in ill-equipped aircraft, Air Corps pilots suffered a series of well-publicized accidents, mostly during training. Several pilots died. Public outcry caused President Roosevelt to suspend the Air Corps’ mail service until improvements could be made. Aero Digest

AT:205-L3-P3 Thomas led the fight by independent airlines to break the power of the airline holding companies that dominated air transportation in the 1930s.

AT:205-L4-P4 War hero and American Airways vice president condemned the air mail crisis as “legalized murder” after several Air Corps pilots died while flying the mail. Charles Lindbergh, testifying before Congress, criticized President Roosevelt for hastily canceling the air mail contracts and punishing the airlines without due process.

November 15, 2007, page 17

AT:205-L5 The Air Mail Act of 1934 Four months after the air mail crisis began, Congress passed the Air Mail Act. It cut payment rates to airlines, returned most air mail routes to the major airlines, and gave some routes to smaller airlines. It divided regulation among the Post Office, Commerce Department, and Interstate Commerce Commission. Aviation holding companies were dissolved and airlines separated from aircraft manufacturers. Previous air mail contractors had to change their names or restructure. American Airways became American Airlines. Eastern Air Transport became Eastern Air Lines.

AT:205-L6-P6 Punished Without a Trial The Air Mail Act of 1934 broke up the large airline holding companies and forced the firing of airline executives wrongfully accused of conspiring to monopolize the air mail. One victim was Philip G. Johnson of United Air Lines. Like many others, Johnson had attended Walter Brown’s operators conferences in 1930, in which air mail contracts and routes had been legally awarded. Ironically, United received no contracts during these so-called “Spoils Conferences.” Nevertheless, Johnson and many others were wrongfully—and unconstitutionally—barred from the airline industry without the benefit of a trial.

AT:205-L7-P7 Philip G. Johnson.

November 15, 2007, page 18 desk AT:206-L1 or California? travel agent family interactive In the 1930s, only businessmen and wealthy travelers could afford to fly. Yet even many of them were apprehensive about this new form of travel. Airline advertisements emphasized speed, comfort, and, above all, safety. But were these enticing ads entirely accurate? Like today, travelers had to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the available travel options. Let’s say you are planning a trip. Consider the options advertised on the walls in front of you. Which will you choose?

AT:206-L2 Airplane or Train

AT:206-L3 Will You Fly or Take the Train? You want to travel from Chicago to sunny California. You are used to traveling in high style on the train However, your friends have talked enthusiastically about flying, and you’ve decided to consider it. • Look at the advertisements for planes and trains. • Which is faster? • More comfortable? • More expensive?

AT:206-L4 Airplane or Ship

AT:206-L5 Will You Fly or Go by Sea? You want to travel from New York to Bermuda. You like to travel in high style on an . now flies to Bermuda, and you’ve decided to consider flying. Look at the advertisements for planes and ships. • Which is faster? • More comfortable? • More expensive?

AT:206-L6 Spirit of Transportation by Herman Sachs, Southwestern Law Travel agency wall credit line School/Bullocks Wilshire Building, photo courtesy of Randy Juster/Decopix

November 15, 2007, page 19

AT:207-L1 The Triumph of Technology Improvements in aircraft and aviation technology played a key role in revitalizing the struggling airline industry. The mid-1930s were a difficult time for airlines. The federal government had broken up the large companies that had dominated the aviation industry and had cut its subsidies to airlines. Air transportation regulation was in a state of confusion. To survive in these challenging times, airlines needed bigger, better, and faster airplanes that could profitably fly passengers as well as mail. New navigation and communications equipment was also required to enhance safety and efficiency. The aviation industry responded. By the late 1930s, the first modern, high-performance airliners were taking to the air.

AT:207-L2-P2a,b The government provided bonuses to airlines if their aircraft could fly at night or had multiple engines, two-way radios, and other equipment that promoted safety and speed. The first aircraft produced under these terms was the Boeing 247 in 1933, the world’s first modern airliner. It could carry 10 passengers, fly 50 percent faster than the Ford Tri-Motor, and cross the country in less than 20 hours.  The Boeing Company

AT:207-L3-P3 T.W.A. needed an airplane to compete with United’s new Boeing 247s. Douglas Aircraft responded with the DC-1, which was faster and more comfortable and could carry 12 passengers. Stretched to seat 14 and redesignated the DC-2, it easily surpassed its competition. Douglas went on to dominate airliner production until the .

AT:207-L4-P4 At the request of American Airlines, Douglas created a larger version of the DC-2 with sleeping berths, the Douglas Sleeper Transport. The daytime version became the famous DC-3. The 21-passenger DC-3 became the first airliner that could make a profit without subsidy, and it helped airlines survive cutbacks in government assistance.

November 15, 2007, page 20 AT:207-L5-P5 The was the world’s first pressurized airliner. While other airliners flew no higher than about 3,000 meters (10,000 feet), the Stratoliner could cruise at 7,500 meters (25,000 feet). By ascending “above the weather,” it could fly faster and more efficiently and provide its 33 passengers a smoother and quieter ride.

AT:207-L6-P6 Because of the onset of World War II and the development of improved designs, only 10 Stratoliners were built. One, Pan American’s , is displayed at the Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.

AT:207-L7 What Does “Above the Weather” Mean? Family label When an airplane flies “above the weather,” it is flying over storms and clouds, where the airstream is smoother. Flying “under the weather” is bumpier and more uncomfortable.

Case 207 labels AT:207-L8-M8 Douglas Sleeper Transport Model American Airlines introduced the Douglas Sleeper Transport in 1936. The remarkable aircraft took less than 16 hours to fly from Los Angeles to New York, and its sleeping accommodations made the flight quite bearable. Even with sleeper service, ticket prices remained fixed at $160 one way and $288 round trip. Gift of Robert C. Mikesh

AT:207-L9-M9 Boeing 307 Stratoliner Model The Stratoliner was based on Boeing’s B-17 bomber design, and its pressurized fuselage on the Army Air Corps’ Lockheed XC-35. The Stratoliner pioneered the technology that made modern air travel practical.

November 15, 2007, page 21 AT:207-L10-A10 “Flying the Beam” Board Game Artifact: Board game To exploit air travel’s popularity and to explain the new radio NASM-6224, 1979-01600 range system in an easily understood manner, Parker Brothers introduced “Flying the Beam” in 1941. The object of the game was to be the first to safely land at the airport using radio range navigation. Playing pieces were rubber DC-3s. The game board graphically shows how the system worked: • A radio beacon sent out signals in a pattern of Morse code A’s (dot-dash) and N’s (dash-dot). • Where the signals intersected, they combined to produce a continuous tone, which a pilot could follow toward the radio beacon. • If the aircraft strayed from the center of the beam, the signal for either an “A” or “N” alerted the pilot that he had strayed off course. • The exact location of the range beacon was identified by a “cone of silence.” Gift of Frank Youngquist

AT:207-L11-A11 Radio Transmitter Artifact: Radio Transmitter This was the first lightweight radio transmitter built for use on aircraft. It featured a loop antenna, which could be turned to find the signal direction. It supplanted traditional visual dead reckoning navigation methods. Designed and built by Hugo Leuteritz of Pan American, the transmitter enabled aircraft to navigate accurately along Pan Am’s first route, between , , and Havana, Cuba, in 1928. Leuteritz designed other devices that allowed Pan American aircraft to navigate safely throughout the Caribbean and across the Pacific and Atlantic. Gift of Juan T. Trippe

November 15, 2007, page 22 AT:207-L12-A12 Automatic Direction Finder Artifact: Automatic Direction Finder Developed by the Sperry Gyroscope Company, automatic direction finders (ADF) were first installed on aircraft in the mid-1930s. They replaced the existing four-course radio range system. Displayed here are the control unit and indicator and the loop antenna in its streamlined housing. The ADF locates known stationary radio transmitters and displays the radio’s location relative to the aircraft. This was a much more flexible and accurate system, as aircraft no longer had to fly in one of four radio courses. It also led to instrument approaches for landing, which helped pilots locate runways at night and in bad weather. Most aircraft built in the late 1930s and 1940s, including the Douglas DC-3 above, were equipped with ADF, with its distinctive “football” antenna housing. Gift of Charles L. Neumann

AT:207-L13-A13 ARC Model D Receiver Artifact: Receiver Designed by the Aircraft Radio Corporation in 1929, the ARC Model D was the first commercial navigation receiver. It pioneered the use of the four-course radio range system. Gift of the Aircraft Company

November 15, 2007, page 23

AT:208-L1 The Creation of the Modern Airport As the nation’s air transportation system grew, so did the need for better aviation facilities. By 1940 the modern airport had come into being. , landing field, air field: all described places an airplane could take off or land more than once. But open fields and parade grounds were unsuitable for commercial aviation. Without a network of adequate airports, an air transportation system was not possible. As aircraft became bigger and passenger numbers rose, airports evolved to keep up. Air fields grew larger, grass gave way to pavement, and terminal buildings evolved from simple structures to architectural statements of modernity.

AT:208-L2 “Nine-tenths of aviation is on the ground.”

—Early aviation entrepreneur Clement Keys

AT:208-L3-P3 The Army Air Service helped design and construct a network of landing fields for the U.S. Air Mail Service. The design they came up with was a large, square, carefully prepared grass field with weather, navigation, and communications facilities. This one is Candler Field, , circa 1927.

AT:208-L4-P4 Glendale, California, circa 1932. The first boom in airport construction, funded mostly by local governments, began in 1926. It was bolstered by the enthusiasm generated by Charles Lindbergh’s transatlantic flight in 1927 and his subsequent 48-state tour. Despite the Great Depression, by 1931 the number of airports had doubled to 2,000.

AT:208-L5-P5 Union Air Terminal, Los Angeles, circa 1935. Modern airliners and increasing air traffic put a strain on airports and led to airport lighting, a national aviation weather service, , and . Heavier aircraft with wheel brakes made grass fields obsolete. By the 1940s, airports were building paved runways.

November 15, 2007, page 24 AT:208-L6-P6 National Airport, Washington, D.C., circa 1941. As passenger numbers increased, so did the scale of terminals. Architects were hired to design beautiful but functional structures, which served two purposes: to impress upon passengers that air travel was safe and substantial, and to epitomize modernity and progress.

AT:208-L7 Yesterday’s Airports of Tomorrow Airport flipbook text Today’s airports are basically similar, but over the

years airport designers have had some interesting ideas when planning for the future of air travel. From underground airports to floating fields in the ocean, these are some of their most radical ideas.

AT:208-L8-P8 Why Don’t Airports Look Like This? This is a 1935 model for an underground air terminal. After landing, aircraft would go underground to various levels for passengers, maintenance, and cargo loading. Connections to ground transportation are at the lowest level.

AT:208-L9-P9 How Is This Similar to an Aircraft Carrier? This 1933 design would have given landplanes a place to make emergency or refueling stops while crossing the ocean. As on an aircraft carrier, touching down during bad weather would have been challenging. As aircraft fuel efficiency, speed, and range increased, the idea became obsolete.

AT:208-L10-P10 What Kinds of Airplanes Could Use This Airport? In 1939 this airport was built on Treasure Island in San Francisco Bay. It was later used as a base for transcontinental flights and Pan American’s trans-Pacific service.

AT:208-L11-P11 What Challenges Would Pilots Face Trying to Land Here? This was an entry in an airport design competition sponsored by the Lehigh Portland Cement Company in 1930. The idea was for an airport close to the city center; however, newer and heavier airplanes needed longer runways. Courtesy of Libraries, National Air and Space Museum Branch

November 15, 2007, page 25 AT:208-L12-P12 Could This Plan Work Today? This landing platform was proposed in 1929 for the Pennsylvania Railroad station in New York City. The downtown location was convenient, but why do you think it would not have worked? Compare this design to the more recent one on the opposite page.

AT:208-L13-P13 How Can This Be So Short? New technologies are making older designs for small inner- city airports relevant again. Can you tell why this idea from 1994 might work? (Notice the airplanes.) Courtesy of Bell Textron

November 15, 2007, page 26

AT:209-L1 The Beginning of Air Traffic Control As the popularity of air travel grew, so did the need for better air traffic control along the nation’s air routes and especially around airports. Airlines first developed systems to control their own air traffic. However, a series of highly publicized accidents in the mid-1930s, including the crash of a DC-2 in which Senator Bronson Cutting was killed, highlighted the critical need for a national system. The federal government stepped in, and in 1936 the Commerce Department accepted nationwide responsibility for air traffic control.

AT:209-L2 Navigation by Radio New navigation techniques were needed to allow aircraft to fly reliably and safely at night and in bad weather. In the 1920s the first low-frequency radio range beacon experiments were conducted along National Air Transport’s New York–Chicago route. By February 1931, the entire New York to San Francisco route was equipped with radio range stations.

AT:209-L3-P3 The first control tower to use ground-to-air and air-to-ground radio communication was built in 1930 at Cleveland Airport.

AT:209-L4-P4 In December 1935, the airlines established the first Airway Traffic Control Center at Newark, New Jersey. Two more soon opened at Cleveland and Chicago. The Department of Commerce took over their operation in mid-1936, and within a year eight centers were in full operation coast-to-coast.

AT:209-L5-P5 An airway modernization program was launched in 1938, and airport control towers, such as this one in Cleveland, became a familiar sight. In November 1941, with World War II sweeping through Europe and Asia, the federal government assumed responsibility for all towers deemed vital to the war effort.

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AT:210-L1 Early Pilot and Uniforms By the early 1930s, airlines were introducing distinctive uniforms for their employees, and women were entering the ranks of flight attendants. Pilots were given military-style uniforms to reflect their status. Pan American emulated luxurious ocean liner service by calling its flying boats “” and its pilots “Captains,” and attiring its crews in naval-style uniforms with white hats and navy-blue, double-breasted jackets and rank insignia on the sleeve cuffs. Other airlines followed suit. Many of these customs continue today. While Pan Am and other airlines employed men as stewards, Boeing Air Transport introduced the first female stewards.

AT:210-L2-P2 The of a Pan Am Boeing 307 Stratoliner turns to speak with the , who monitors the aircraft’s engines and systems.

AT:210-L3-P3 This 1938 identification card authorized Lawrence W. Tiedt of Eastern Air Lines to handle U.S. Air Mail and protect it with a firearm.

AT:210-L4 Ships of the Air Family label Pan American was the first airline to use nautical terms. Words like “captain” and “stewards” attracted customers used to luxury ship travel.

November 15, 2007, page 28

AT:210-L5 The First Stewardess A nurse from Iowa, Ellen Church wanted to become an airline pilot but realized that was not possible for a woman in her day. So in 1930, she approached Steve Simpson at Boeing Air Transport with the novel idea of placing nurses aboard airliners. She convinced him that the presence of women nurses would help relieve the traveling public’s fear of flying. Church developed the job description and training program for the first stewardesses. Church first flew as a stewardess between Oakland and Chicago. She had only served for 18 months when an automobile accident grounded her. After her recovery, she completed her college degree and returned to nursing.

AT:210-L6 “There is still a newness about air travel, and, though statistics demonstrate its safety, the psychological effect of having a girl on board is enormous.” —Comment about the addition of stewardesses from an airline magazine, 1935

AT:210-L7-P7 United Air Lines’ “Original Eight” female flight attendants. Boeing Air Transport (later United) district manager Steve Stimpson introduced the first stewardesses to provide better customer service along B.A.T.’s San Francisco–Chicago route. He even designed the first stewardess uniform.

AT:210-L8-A8 Stewardess Key, American Airlines Artifact: Stewardess Key Stewardess Alice Lambert Coker carried this compartment key when flying for American Airlines in the late 1930s. Gift of Alice Lambert Coker

November 15, 2007, page 29 Case 210 labels AT:210-L9-A9 Pilot Artifact: Uniform Transcontinental and Western Air, 1931 NASM-5605, 1976-1936/1937 Until the late 1920s, pilots flew in open-cockpit aircraft and were clad in flying suits, helmets, and goggles. The introduction of enclosed cockpits made possible such attire as this T.W.A. pilot’s uniform. Gift of Ken Blanery

AT:210-L10-A10 The First Stewardess Uniform Artifact: Uniform Boeing Air Transport, 1930 (replica) The first stewardess uniform was made of dark green wool NASM-0879, 1956-0022 with a matching green and gray wool cape. United Air Lines made this replica and donated it in commemoration of Ellen Church, the first stewardess, and the rest of United’s “Original Eight” female flight attendants. Gift of United Air Lines

AT:210-L11-A11 Steward Artifact: Uniform Eastern Air Lines, circa 1938 Following the maritime tradition of male stewards, Eastern Air Lines issued this distinctive uniform for its cabin staff. John Brisendine wore this uniform while serving aboard DC-3s in the late 1930s. The three red stripes denote his three years of service. Eastern was one of the last major carriers to introduce stewardesses, and then only when World War II thinned its male staff. Gift of John Brisendine

AT:210-L12-A12 Stewardess Artifact: Uniform Transcontinental and Western Air, 1935 NASM-2888, 1973-1202/1207 In 1935, Thelma Jean Harman became the first stewardess for T.W.A. She wore this summer uniform while flying aboard Ford Tri-Motors along T.W.A.’s “Lindbergh Line” from New York to Los Angeles. The stewardess badge on her coat was a later addition to the uniform. Gift of Thelma Jean Harman

November 15, 2007, page 30 AT:210-L13-A13 Stewardess Artifact: Uniform American Airlines, 1936–37 Alice Lambert wore this uniform while flying on Curtiss Condors and Douglas DC-2s and DC-3s for American Airlines. Following the nautical theme started by Pan Am, American called its airplanes “flagships,” a term that appears on the left sleeve. Gift of Alice Lambert Coker

AT:210-L14-A14 Chewing Gum Dispenser, 1938 Artifact: Dispenser To ease pressure on passengers’ ears during climb and descent, stewards on Eastern Air Lines flights in the late 1930s offered chewing gum from elegant polished steel dispensers. Gift of John Brisendine

AT:210-L15 Why Do Your Ears Hurt? Family label Your ears pop during takeoff and landing because of tiny air- filled tubes connecting your ears and throat. Air pressure changes during ascent and descent cause those tubes to become blocked. Yawning or swallowing opens them and equalizes the pressure. Chewing gum helps you produce saliva to swallow, but you don’t really need the gum!

AT:210-L16-A16 T.W.A. Overnight Flight Bag, 1934 Artifact: Flight bag Passengers on T.W.A.’s Douglas DC-2s were given overnight NASM-5496, 1976-1504 flight bags for transcontinental flights. Gift of Mrs. W. P. Anderson

AT:210-L17-A17 American Airlines Overnight Flight Bag, 1935 Artifact: Flight bag American issued this overnight flight bag to passengers flying NASM-5816, 1977-2532 on its Curtiss Condors and later on its Douglas Sleeper Transports. Gift of Mrs. Helen McCune

November 15, 2007, page 31 AT:210-L18-A18 American Airlines “Flagship Fleet” Pennant Artifact: Pennant To evoke the comfort and ease of ocean liner travel, American Airlines called its airplanes “flagships.” Each flagship Douglas DC-3 flew a large pennant from its cockpit when taxiing before takeoff and after landing. Shown here is a smaller souvenir pennant that passengers could purchase. Underscoring the nautical theme, American instituted an early frequent flyer plan, in which frequent passengers were designated “Admirals” and received access to comfortable airport lounges and other benefits. Competing airlines soon followed suit.

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AT:211-L1 What Was It Like to Fly? Despite the airlines’ cheerful advertising, early air travel was far from comfortable. It was expensive too. Flying was loud, cold, and unsettling. Airliners were not pressurized, so they flew at low altitudes and were often bounced about by wind and weather. Air sickness was common. Airlines provided many amenities to ease passenger stress, but air travel remained a rigorous adventure well into the 1940s. Flying was also something only business travelers or the wealthy could afford. But despite the expense and discomforts, each year commercial aviation attracted thousands of new passengers willing to sample the advantages and adventure of flight.

AT:211-L2 “The airplanes smell of hot oil and simmering aluminum, disinfectant, feces, leather, and puke...the stewardesses, short- tempered and reeking of vomit, come forward as often as they can for what is a breath of comparatively fresh air.” —Ernest K. Gann, an early commercial pilot

AT:211-L3-P3 A line of well-dressed passengers prepares to board a SAFE Way Ford Tri-Motor.

AT:211-L4-P4 While the revolutionary Boeing 247 was much faster and less noisy than the Ford Tri-Motor, the cabin was cramped and movement difficult because of the wing spar that intruded into the aisle.

AT:211-L5-P5 In the early 1930s, T.W.A. typically served passengers box lunches with hot coffee poured from thermos bottles.

November 15, 2007, page 33 AT:211-L6-A6 Megaphone Artifact: Megaphone Noise was a problem in early airliners. To communicate with NASM-6876, 1982-0519 passengers, cabin crew often had to resort to speaking through small megaphones to be heard above the din of the engines and the wind. The noise in a typical Ford Tri-Motor during takeoff was nearly 120 decibels, loud enough to cause permanent hearing loss. Gift of Col. William B. Mozey Jr.

AT:211-L7 Earplugs, Anyone? Family label Normal conversation 60 dB Busy street traffic 70 dB Vacuum cleaner 80 dB Personal radio with headphones 100 dB at maximum volume Front rows of rock concert 110 dB Ford Tri-Motor during takeoff 120 dB Threshold of pain 130 dB Military jet takeoff 140 dB Instant perforation of eardrum 160 dB

AT:211-L8 Would You Ride on a Tri-Motor? Interactive Push the button to hear and feel what it might have been like to ride on a Ford Tri-Motor. Look at the picture of passengers on a Tri-Motor. This photo was probably used to promote air travel. • What clues suggest that the photograph was staged? • How comfortable do you think it was to fly on a Tri-Motor? Special thanks to the Experimental Aircraft Association

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AT:211A-L1 Who Flew? Flying was very expensive. Only business travelers and the wealthy could afford to fly. America’s airline industry expanded rapidly, from carrying only 6,000 passengers in 1930 to more than 450,000 by 1934, to 1.2 million by 1938. Still, only a tiny fraction of the traveling public flew. Most people still rode trains or buses for intercity travel because flying was so expensive. A coast-to-coast round trip cost around $260, about half of the price of a new automobile. Only business executives and the wealthy could afford to fly.

AT:211A-L2 Flying Politicians As air travel became more common in the 1930s, more politicians took to the air. In 1932, New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt flew an American Airways Ford Tri-Motor from Albany to Chicago, where he accepted the Democratic Party’s nomination for president and delivered his “New Deal” speech. During World War II, President Roosevelt flew overseas to meet Allied leaders at Casablanca and Yalta. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt often flew around the country on the president’s behalf. Commercial air travel still had risks. On May 6, 1935, New Mexico Senator Bronson M. Cutting died in a crash of a T.W.A. Douglas DC-2. Nevertheless, flying grew increasingly popular with politicians, as the advantages of fast travel outweighed the real and perceived hazards.

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AT:211B-L1 Flying Stars Air travel was popular with Hollywood celebrities, but their employers did not consider it safe. The film studios often put clauses in actors’ contracts prohibiting them from flying, especially while filming a movie. But by the mid-1930s, the studios realized this rule was impossible to enforce, and they began to recognize the economic value of flying stars around the country to promote their movies. Airlines benefited as well when celebrities flew. It was no coincidence that an airline’s name was featured in the photo when a celebrity’s arrival was captured on film.

AT:211B-L2 In the News Family label Look at what the newspapers said about flying stars. Besides flying, what other restrictions did studios place on their stars.

AT:211B-L3-P3 © 1935, The Washington Post. Reprinted with permission.

AT:211B-L4-P4 © 1934, Los Angeles Times. Reprinted with permission.

AT:211B-L5 Who’s Flying? Flip panel and answers See if you can identify these celebrities. The cartoon appeared in a 1938 Airlanes magazine. United Airlines George Arliss W. C. Fields Shirley Temple Babe Ruth The Marx Brothers Jimmy Durante Mae West

AT:211B-L6-P6 Will Rogers. AT:211B-L7-P7 Katharine Hepburn. AT:211B-L8-P8 The Marx Brothers. AT:211B-L9-P9 Lucille Ball.

November 15, 2007, page 36

AT:212-L1 Pan American Airways Led by Juan T. Trippe, Pan American became the dominant U.S. international airline. Its famous “Clippers” flew to and crossed the Atlantic and Pacific. Founded in 1927, Pan American opened regular commercial service throughout Latin America using both flying boats and landplanes. In 1935, Juan T. Trippe introduced the first regularly scheduled transpacific service with the famous Martin M-130 . He opened regular transatlantic service in 1939 with the Boeing 314 flying boat. Pan American was barred from domestic routes in return for exclusive rights to international routes. Its overseas monopoly lasted until World War II, and its domestic restriction until 1978.

AT:212-L2-P2 With 38 seats and a crew of six, the Sikorsky S-40 flying boat was the largest U.S. airliner of its time. Only three were built, but they left a lasting mark as the first “Clippers,” a name affixed to all subsequent Pan American aircraft.

AT:212-L3-P3 The revolutionary new 32-seat Sikorsky S-42 flying boat entered service in 1934. It could fly twice as many people twice as far as the Douglas DC-2.

AT:212-L4-P4 The Boeing 314 Atlantic Clipper. In , exactly 12 years after Lindbergh’s solo transatlantic flight, its sister ship, the Yankee Clipper, opened the first regularly scheduled transatlantic air mail service, between Port Washington, New York, and , . A month later the Dixie Clipper began the first passenger service along that route. Lockheed Martin

November 15, 2007, page 37 AT:212-L5 Ships of the Air Family label Pan Am’s “Clippers” were named in tribute to the clipper ships of the China tea trade in the 1850s, the fastest sailing ships of their day.

AT:212-L6 Juan T. Trippe For over 40 years, Pan American was the embodiment of its dynamic founder, Juan T. Trippe. During the 1930s, he inspired the famous “Clipper” series of Sikorsky, Martin, and Boeing flying boats. In the 1940s, he bought the pressurized Boeing 307 and and opened the first around-the-world service. In the 1950s, Trippe introduced the jetliner to America, sponsoring both the and Douglas DC-8. In the , he again set the pace with the wide-body . Pan Am struggled after Trippe retired and the industry was deregulated. It ceased operations in 1991.

AT:212-L7-P7 Juan Trippe (right) with Charles Lindbergh, who served as a technical advisor to Pan American.

November 15, 2007, page 38 Case 212 labels AT:212-L8-M8 Sikorsky S-40 Model , an innovative Russian aircraft designer who emigrated to the United States, created the S-40 for Pan Am’s Caribbean routes. Charles Lindbergh, who advised Pan Am on the layout of the S-40, piloted the airplane on its first commercial flight, from Miami to the Canal Zone in 1931. Gift of Juan T. Trippe

AT:212-L9-M9 Sikorsky S-42 Model The efficient S-42 cut Pan American passengers’ travel time between Miami and , Argentina. More significantly, Pan Am used improved S-42s to survey its proposed routes across the Pacific in 1935 and the Atlantic in 1937. Gift of Pan American

AT:212-L10-M10 Martin M-130 Model The Martin M-130 was larger and had greater range than the Sikorsky S-42. It could fly passengers and cargo between San Francisco and , the longest nonstop route in the world with no alternate en route landing point. The airplane typically carried no more than 12 passengers. Only three were built. Gift of the Glenn L. Martin Estate

AT:212-L11-M11 Boeing 314 Model (fuselage cutaway) Pan Am president Juan Trippe ordered the Boeing 314 flying boat in 1936 specifically for the planned transatlantic route. The aircraft had a maximum range of 5,700 kilometers (3,500 miles), and on shorter flights it could carry up to 74 passengers and a crew of 10. Gift of Pan American World Airways

AT:212-L12-A12 Pan American Ticket Holder Artifact: Ticket holder On June 28, 1939, Pan American presented this sterling silver NASM-1940-0012 ticket holder to William J. Eck for being the first paying passenger to cross the Atlantic by aircraft. He flew on the Boeing 314 Dixie Clipper. Gift of William J. Eck

November 15, 2007, page 39 Other artifacts AT:212-L13-A13 Juan Trippe’s Globe Artifact: Trippe Globe From his office in New York City, Pan American president Juan T. Trippe used this globe to plan his airline’s expansion around the world. Trippe often would stretch a string between two points on the globe and calculate the distance and time it would take for his airliners to fly between them. Made in the late 1800s, this globe was featured prominently in many publicity photos of Trippe, and it became part of Pan Am’s and Trippe’s public image. Gift of the Pan American Historical Foundation

AT:212-L14-A14 Propeller from the China Clipper Artifact: Propeller This variable-pitch propeller belonged to NASM-0447, 1939-0009 the famous Martin M-130 flying boat China Clipper. The blade’s angle could be adjusted for optimum performance during takeoff and cruise, thus greatly increasing the aircraft’s efficiency. Gift of Pan American Airways

AT:212-L15-A15 Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp Artifact: Engine Designed in 1930, the 14-cylinder, 800-horsepower Twin NASM-5103, 1975-0478 Wasp engine was first used on the Martin M-130 China Clipper, which opened transpacific commercial service in 1935 for Pan American Airways. United Air Lines installed 1,000-horsepower Twin Wasps in its Douglas DC-3As, which began service in 1937. The engine displayed here is the 1,200-horsepower R-1830-92 military version, the most widely used Twin Wasp in the DC-3 series. More than 173,000 Twin Wasp engines were manufactured, more than any other large aircraft engine. Gift of

Type: Air-cooled, twin-row radial Cylinders: 14 Displacement: 31.6 L (1,830 cu in) Power: 1,200 hp at 2,700 rpm Weight: 665 kg (1,467 lb) Manufacturer: Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Co., Hartford, Conn., 1942

November 15, 2007, page 40

AT:212A-L1 The China Clipper The name China Clipper evokes a romantic age of luxurious air travel, when the rich and adventurous flew across the Pacific to the . The China Clipper was the name of one of three Martin M-130 flying boats built for Pan American Airways. The others were the and the Philippine Clipper. The Martin M-130 was the first airliner that could fly nonstop the 3,840-kilometer (2,400-mile) distance between San Francisco and , Hawaii—the longest major route in the world without and emergency intermediate landing field. The China Clipper and its sister ships demonstrated that there were no technological barriers to transoceanic travel.

AT:212A-L2 Why Flying Boats? Flying boats became popular in the 1930s because they did not have to contend with the rough state of early airfields. They could also alight on water in emergencies, thus allaying fears of passengers flying long distances over oceans. And they could be made larger and heavier than other airliners, because they were not restricted by the short length of airfields. Most of Pan American’s Latin American destinations were along coasts, so flying boats were a logical choice.

AT:212A-L3-P3 Travelers could sleep in comfortable berths while crossing the Pacific Ocean at night in Pan American’s Martin M-130 flying boats.

AT:212A-L4-P4 On November 22, 1935, the Martin M-130 China Clipper opened the first regularly scheduled air mail service across the Pacific, from San Francisco to . Here, it flies over the unfinished Golden Bridge. A year later, the China Clipper began the first trans-Pacific passenger service.

November 15, 2007, page 41 AT:212A-L5-P5 Each Clipper flew a total of 60 hours over a six-day span, with stops at Midway and Wake islands, where Pan Am constructed its own hotels and facilities, as well as . Few could afford the $799 one-way fare, so the M-130s usually carried no more than eight passengers, and often less.

November 15, 2007, page 42

AT:213-L1 The NACA and the Modern Airliner The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was largely responsible for developing many technologies that led to the creation of modern airliners. A revolutionary new generation of airliners began appearing in the early 1930s. Fast and efficient, they featured all-metal, monocoque and stressed-skin construction, cantilevered wings, retractable landing gear, cowled air-cooled engines, and variable-pitch propellers—technologies developed by the NACA, the military, and private industry. The first of these modern airliners was the Boeing 247, one of which hangs above you.

AT:213-L2 Research: NACA Wind Tunnels Wind tunnels were the primary research tools of aeronautical engineers. The NACA built four innovative tunnels at their Langley Aeronautical Laboratory in Virginia from 1927 to 1939 that led to breakthroughs in aircraft design.

AT:213-L3-P3 John K. “Jack” Northrop left Lockheed Aircraft in 1928 to start a company for producing metal aircraft. His first design was the Northrop Alpha (hanging above), which blended a strong, lightweight, cantilevered stressed-skin wing with a metal monocoque fuselage. The Alpha so impressed William Boeing that he bought Northrop’s Company. ’s fervent advocacy of all-metal monocoque aircraft had a lasting impact on U.S. aircraft designs. Northrop Grumman Corporation

November 15, 2007, page 43 AT:213-L4-P4 Propeller research tunnel. With a throat 6 meters (20 feet) across, this tunnel enabled engineers to test full-size aircraft with their propellers attached. They discovered that fixed landing gear and exposed engine cylinders caused enormous amounts of drag, and that aircraft performed better when their engines were positioned directly in front of the wing.

AT:213-L5-P5 Full-scale tunnel. The testing space within this huge wind tunnel was the size of a small two story house, allowing engineers to test full-size aircraft. They found that external struts, scoops, and antennas impaired performance. Nearly every high-performance U.S. aircraft used during World War II was tested in this tunnel.

AT:213-L6-P6 High-speed wind tunnel. This tunnel could produce air speeds of 925 kilometers (575 miles) per hour. Although most aircraft flew only about a third of that speed, their propeller tips approached the speed of sound. The tunnel demonstrated that rivet heads and other surface irregularities produced significant drag.

AT:213-L7-P7 High-pressure tunnel. Opened in 1939, this tunnel was the first to combine large size and high pressure in one facility. Engineers used it to develop a new generation of high- performance military aircraft. The large NACA sign behind you is from this tunnel.

AT:213-L8 Results: NACA Contributions

AT:213-L9-P9 Airfoils. NACA engineers developed many new families of airfoils (wing cross sections), which were used to design most American and many foreign aircraft. Research on high-speed airfoils also reshaped the design of aircraft propellers.

AT:213-L10-P10 Cowlings. The NACA’s most important contribution to the modern airliner was the engine cowl. Enveloping the front of an engine, it increased aircraft speed by smoothing the airflow over the cylinders, while allowing for better engine cooling. For producing the first practical full-cowl design (shown here), the NACA received the prestigious Collier Trophy.

November 15, 2007, page 44 AT:213-L11-P11 Engine placement. NACA research showed that locating engines directly in front of the wing, with the propellers far in front of the leading edge, reduced drag and enhanced lift and engine efficiency. The gains proved so great that aircraft designers could eliminate nose-mounted engines.

AT:213-L12-P12 Publications. The NACA spread the results of its own and other research through publications. This information profoundly influenced American aviation technology and inspired many changes to civil and military aircraft, from flush rivets, tighter construction tolerances, and retractable landing gear to overall fuselage and wing designs.

AT:213-L13-P13 What Makes an Airliner “Modern”? Look for all the features illustrated here on the Boeing 247 hanging overhead, the first modern airliner.

AT:213-L14 Cantilevered Wing A wing supported by internal structures and free from any external bracing. Although heavier than externally braced wings, a cantilevered wing has much less drag.

AT:213-L15 Monocoque (Stressed-Skin) Construction A structural design in which the skin carries some or all of the weight without using internal cross braces. A monocoque fuselage is light but strong and allows more room for passengers or payload.

AT:213-L16 Metal Construction Metal aircraft did not become practical until the mid-1920s, when two methods to protect aluminum alloys from corrosion were developed: anodizing alloys with a protective oxide coating (used on the Boeing 247), and bonding pure, corrosion-resistant aluminum to the surface of aluminum alloys, known as Alclad (used on the Douglas DC-3 and Northrop Alpha).

November 15, 2007, page 45 AT:213-L17 Variable-Pitch Propeller One whose pitch can be adjusted in flight, so the propeller maintains the most efficient angle relative to the airflow as the airspeed changes. It shortened the Boeing 247’s takeoff distance by 25 percent and greatly improved its high-altitude performance.

AT:213-L18 Reliable Engine with NACA Cowling Many new technologies reduced drag but made heavier. Powerful new air-cooled radial engines built for the military helped offset these weight gains, and the NACA cowling reduced the drag these engines created.

AT:213-L19 Retractable Landing Gear Although heavier than fixed gear, retractable landing gear greatly reduces drag and improves an aircraft’s speed and efficiency.

AT:213-L20-A20 NACA Sign Artifact: NACA sign This sign, to the right, was installed on the exterior of the high-pressure wind tunnel (later known as the Transonic Dynamics Tunnel) at the NACA Langley Memorial Aeronautics Laboratory (now NASA Langley Research Center) in Hampton, Virginia. Lent by NASA

November 15, 2007, page 46

AT:214-L1 Around the World in 18 Days On September 30, 1936, Herbert R. Ekins, a reporter for the New York World-Telegram, set out to travel around the world by air using only regularly scheduled airlines. He wanted to set a new speed record and to demonstrate the progress of commercial air travel. His adventure became a race when two rival newspapers sent reporters to challenge him.

AT:214-L2 “The fact that I had gone around the world in less than three weeks proved that the man with a month’s vacation might spend a good part of it in almost any place in the world he chose.” —H. R. Ekins

AT:214-L3 Directions Track Ekins’ journey by putting the various aircraft he used in the correct order. If successful, you will find out if he won the race. Hint: Ekins started in Lakehurst, New Jersey, near New York City and traveled east.

AT:214-L4 The German dirigible Hindenburg Depart: Lakehurst, New Jersey (near New York City) Arrive: , Germany Route: Across the North Atlantic No commercial airline flies across the Atlantic yet.

AT:214-L5 “We went straight up…like a tremendous in some gargantuan department store. No noise, no vibration, no sway.”

November 15, 2007, page 47 AT:214-L6 Dutch KLM Douglas DC-2 Depart: Frankfurt, Germany Arrive: Batavia, Dutch East Indies Route: Across Europe and Asia via , Baghdad, and KLM is one of only three regularly scheduled airlines that carry passengers across Europe and Asia. It uses American planes.

AT:214-L7 “I settled myself in my comfortable seat in the big 14- passenger transport...and observed the steward hovering attentively nearby.”

AT:214-L8 Dutch KNILM Douglas DC-2 Depart: Batavia, Dutch East Indies Arrive: Manila, Philippines Route: Mainland Asia to Manila This new service allows Ekins to fly instead of taking a steamer from Hong Kong.

AT:214-L9 “The typhoon was tossing us about as though the big Douglas [DC-2] were an autumn leaf.”

AT:214-L10 Pan American’s Martin M-130 Hawaii Clipper Depart: Manila, Philippines Arrive: San Francisco Route: Across the Pacific Ocean via Guam and Honolulu Pan American Airlines is the first to open this route and uses that stop at various islands in the Pacific.

AT:214-L11 “The Clipper absolutely astonished me…. Flying along at 10,000 feet in that huge boat (see her on the surface of the water and you half-doubted whether she would be able to get off), I had a complete feeling of safety.”

November 15, 2007, page 48 AT:214-L12 T.W.A. Douglas DC-2 Depart: Los Angeles Arrive: Lakehurst, New Jersey (near New York City) Route: Across North America Both Transcontinental and Western Air (T.W.A.) and United Airlines offer service across the United States. Ekins flies United Airlines from San Francisco to Los Angeles, then T.W.A. east.

AT:214-L13 “Two things delighted me about the Sky Chief—you could smoke cigarets (sic) while in flight…and we had a hostess aboard. The air hostess is a peculiarly American institution and one of the best.”

AT:214-L14 Ekins beat his two competitors by six days and 10,000 miles and set a new record for travel around the world: 18 days, 14 hours, 56 minutes. His total trip cost $5,000 and included travel on 7 airplanes and 1 dirigible

AT:214-L15-P15 Ekins dancing in Honolulu, Hawaii.

AT:214-L16-P16 Ekins greeting officials in Rangoon, Burma.

AT:214-L17 Images courtesy of the Library of Congress

November 15, 2007, page 49 AT:214-L18 Ekins’ Tips for Air Travelers • If you enjoy travel at all you will enjoy it by air. • If you want some particular bit of information in flight, write the pilot a note and hand it to the steward. • If you should experience some slight discomfort when coming down from a high altitude take a deep breath through the mouth and swallow—it will help to equalize the air pressure. • Don’t expect to take a lot of snapshots en route. Many of the countries over which you will fly are very sensitive about cameras, fearing that something of military value may be photographed. Over long stretches your camera must remain in the custody of the plane’s Captain. • Don’t try to carry too much luggage. Two light aviation suitcases are enough. • All fares include hotel accommodations, meals and transport to and from the [airports]. From Around the World in 18 Days by Herbert Roslyn Ekins, 1936

AT:214-L19 “The endless desert unrolling beneath me, all combined with speed and lack of sleep and perhaps a touch of dizziness from standing hatless in the sun, to give me a complete feeling of disassociation from reality.”

AT:214-L20 Jet Lag Before the Jet Family label The speed of air travel made Ekins feel disoriented. Years before the first jet airplane, Ekins was experiencing what today we call “jet lag.”

November 15, 2007, page 50 AT:300-L1 The Heyday of Propeller Airliners 1941–1958 Air transportation changed dramatically during and after World War II. New technology led to advanced piston-engine aircraft and new solutions to the problems of navigation and air traffic control. Regulated by the federal government, a few large airlines continued to dominate. Air traffic grew steadily, as declines in travel time and fares made air travel available to an increasing number of people, and the flying experience continued to improve. In 1955, for the first time, more people in the United States traveled by air than by train. By 1957 airliners had replaced ocean liners as the preferred means of crossing the Atlantic.

November 15, 2007, page 1 AT:300-L2-A2 Douglas DC-7 Artifact: Airplane nose section The Douglas DC-7 was an advanced development of the NASM-1598, 1966-0150 DC-6B piston-engine airliner. It was introduced by American Repeated in AT:309 Airlines on its New York–Los Angeles route in November 1953 and was the first airliner to provide nonstop transcontinental service in both directions. The fastest transport aircraft in service, the DC-7 cruised at 580 kilometers (360 miles) per hour. A total of 338 DC-7s of all types were purchased by 18 different airlines. Like other piston-engine airliners, it was made obsolete by the introduction of turbine-engine Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s. Some DC-7s later served as cargo and charter planes. This nose section is from American Airlines’ Flagship Vermont, which carried about 130,000 passengers in its nearly 13,500 hours aloft. Gift of American Airlines

Wingspan: 35.8 m (117 ft 6 in) Length: 33.2 m (108 ft 11 in) Height: 8.7 m (28 ft 7 in) Weight, gross: 55,429 kg (122,200 lb) Weight, empty: 30,076 kg (66,305 lb) Top speed: 656 km/h (410 mph) Engine: 4 Wright R-3350 Turbo Compound, 3,250 hp Manufacturer: Douglas Aircraft Co., Santa Monica, Calif., 1956

November 15, 2007, page 2

AT:301-L1 World War II and the Airlines Airlines worked closely with the military during World War II, furthering the war effort by transporting people and materiel. The airlines were well prepared to play their part in the war effort. Plans for their wartime mobilization had been drafted in 1937 by Edgar Gorrell of the industry’s Air Transport Association. When the United States entered World War II four years later, the plan was smoothly put into action, and the airlines immediately began working closely with the military. The Air Transport Command (ATC) was formed in 1942 to coordinate the transport of aircraft, cargo, and personnel throughout the country and around the world.

AT:301-L2-P2 Casual air travel virtually ceased in the United States. A tight priority list ensured that only those serving the war effort flew. As a result, aircraft flew more than 80 percent full, 20 percent higher than before the war. The military requisitioned 200 of the nation’s 360 airliners, along with airline personnel. Illinois Digital Archives

AT:301-L3-P3 TWA transferred its entire fleet of five Boeing 307s, along with their flight crews, to the ATC. The airline opened regular transatlantic service in 1942.

AT:301-L4-P4 Pilots and crewmen wearing the distinctive ATC logo on their jackets walk past a Lockheed Lodestar on the way to their aircraft in 1942.

AT:301-L5-P5 The ATC contracted with airlines to fly wherever they were needed. Pan American’s vast overseas experience became an especially valuable asset. But to Pan Am’s eventual dismay, other airlines also received overseas routes. Northwest flew to and the Pacific, United to Hawaii and the Pacific, Eastern and Braniff to Latin America, TWA across the Atlantic, and American to Africa, India, and China.

November 15, 2007, page 3 AT:301-L6-P6 L. Welch Pogue At the Chicago Conference in 1944, the Allies drew up plans for postwar civil aviation. They established the “Five ,” permitting reciprocal flyover and landing rights to international airlines, and created the International Civil Aviation Organization as part of the United Nations to regulate safety and set standards for international air travel. L. Welch Pogue, chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board, played an instrumental role in drafting these agreements. He also helped shape the of 1946, which detailed routes, rates, and air rights between the United States and Great Britain. After retiring from his law practice, Pogue served as a docent at the Museum until his death in 2003 at the age of 103

AT:301-L7 First President to Fly Family label Franklin Roosevelt was the first president to fly while in office. He flew to the 1943 Casablanca Conference in Morocco to plan the Allies’ European strategy in World War II. The threat from submarines made air travel the preferred mode of transportation.

November 15, 2007, page 4

AT:302-L1 Post-War Revival and Regulation After World War II, passenger travel surged to new levels. The federal government reorganized its regulatory agencies to manage the rapidly growing airline industry. When wartime travel restrictions ended, airlines were overwhelmed with passengers. New carriers emerged, and new technology began to revolutionize civil aviation. Through the new Civil Aeronautics Board and later the Federal Aviation Agency, the U.S. government remained a guiding force, working to ensure safety and fair competition. With revenues on the rise and new, more efficient airliners in the air, airlines no longer needed economic support. In 1952 the government ended its decades-old subsidy for flying the mail. While air mail remained a valuable source of income, airlines no longer needed it to survive.

AT:302-L2 “The airplane will have a far greater role in the affairs of a world at peace than it already has in the stern business of a world at war.” —William A. Patterson, president of United Air Lines

AT:302-L3 The Civil Aeronautics Board Created in 1940 from the Civil Aeronautics Authority, the Civil Aeronautics Board (C.A.B.) merged the regulatory functions of the Interstate Commerce Commission, Post Office, and Commerce Department. It would set airline fares and routes for four decades. The C.A.B. continued to favor a system anchored by a few large, well-financed airlines—United, American, Eastern, and TWA— with several regional airlines flying north-south routes. Limited competition ensured stability and allowed the C.A.B. to control the young industry’s growth.

November 15, 2007, page 5 AT:302-L4 The Federal Aviation Agency A series of airliner accidents and rapid increases in aircraft performance and airport congestion spurred the federal government to again reorganize its regulatory powers. Created on January 1, 1959, the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) quickly moved to improve the management and safety of the nation’s airways, while the C.A.B. continued to set airline routes and fares. When the Department of Transportation was created in 1967, the FAA became the Federal Aviation Administration.

AT:302-L5-P5 The Civil Aeronautics Administration became the Federal Aviation Administration on January 1, 1959. Workmen exchange signs on the new FAA headquarters at 17th Street and Constitution Avenue in Washington, now the site of Constitution Gardens.

AT:302-L6 What Does the FAA Do? Family label The FAA is mainly responsible for the advancement, safety, and regulation of air travel. It also watches over the development of air traffic control systems and commercial space travel.

Case 301/302 labels AT:302-L7-A7 Flag and Seal Artifacts: Flag and seal The five-member Civil Aeronautics Board rendered their decisions under this flag and seal. The Museum acquired these items when the C.A.B. closed its doors in 1985 after the airline industry was deregulated. Transferred from the Civil Aeronautics Board

November 15, 2007, page 6 AT:302-L8-A8 Air Transport Command Uniform Artifact: Uniform Most of the airliners drafted for the war effort were placed A19830276000 Cap, garrison, ATC under the control of the Air Transport Command (ATC), A19830277000 Coat, service, ATC which was formed in June 1942. The ATC functioned as an A19830278000 Shirt, service, ATC enormous international airline, combining the efforts of the A19830279000 Trousers, service, ATC A19830280000 Belt, service, ATC Ferry Command, which moved combat aircraft around the A19830285000 Scarf, service, ATC world, and the Air Service Command, which moved cargo and personnel.

The ATC was organized by Gen. and later Gen. Harold George. They benefited immensely from the experience of Maj. Gen. C. R. Smith of American Airlines, who served as executive officer, and hundreds of other former airline employees. Gift of Vergil W. Vaughan

AT:302-L9-A9 Flight Attendant Artifact: Uniform , early 1940s NASM-7837, 1990-0346/0352 Jean Begley Bluestein wore this uniform while flying on Continental DC-3s. Gift of Jean Begley Bluestein

November 15, 2007, page 7

AT:303-L1 The First “Fare Wars” New airlines operating on a nonscheduled basis began offering the first discount fares, undermining the government’s regulated airfare system. The Civil Aeronautics Board’s efforts to limit competition on transcontinental routes were seriously challenged by scores of new airlines that emerged after World War II. These nonscheduled airlines, or “non-skeds,” carried cargo and passengers on irregular or charter services. By combining their resources, some non-skeds were able to offer transcontinental service at discount fares, which other airlines were forced to match. This brief episode foreshadowed the turbulent competition to come in the late 1970s, when the government deregulated the airline industry.

AT:303-L2-P2 Several “non-skeds” pooled their resources to create in 1950. N.A.A. began offering daily Los Angeles–New York service at a one-way fare of only $99. Other airlines responded, and they too discovered that low- cost service could be profitable. Even so, under pressure from the major airlines, the C.A.B. closed down N.A.A. in 1955.

AT:303-L3-P3a,b Reacting to competition from nonscheduled airlines, Capital Airlines in 1948 introduced the first coach fares. Although approved reluctantly by the C.A.B., these lower fares immediately became popular and introduced air travel to a much broader passenger market.

AT:303-L4-P4 With the widespread availability of surplus Douglas C-47 transports (military versions of the DC-3) after World War II, many freight service airlines arose and prospered. Returning veterans eager to continue flying formed such airlines as Flying Tigers, Slick, , and Seaboard World.

November 15, 2007, page 8 AT:303-L5-P5 After the C.A.B. closed down North American Airlines, it changed the “non-sked,” designation to “supplemental.” Under this designation, the charter business flourished. World, Trans International, Overseas National, Transocean, Standard, Saturn, Capitol, and other carriers provided cargo and passenger service for tour operators and the military.

AT:303-L6 Traveling by Coach Family label A “coach” was originally a horse-drawn vehicle designed for carrying more than one passenger. The word comes from the Hungarian town of Kocs (pronounced “kotch”), known as a place where well-designed coaches were built. When railroads adapted coaches for use on tracks, the term stayed in use. The airlines borrowed the term to use for coach class, the least expensive seats

November 15, 2007, page 9

AT:304-L1 A New Generation of Airliners Aircraft manufacturers introduced a new generation of large, four- engine airliners that soon dominated U.S. and international air travel and helped lower fares. The new airliners introduced after World War II were built with the profitable transcontinental air routes in mind. They enabled airlines to carry far more people at greater speeds, while providing unprecedented comfort for passengers and unprecedented profits for airlines. As a result, competition increased and fares fell, thus opening up air travel to even more people.

AT:304-L2-P2 The Douglas DC-4 introduced four-engine safety and comfort. The unpressurized aircraft could carry 44 passengers. introduced the DC-4 in January 1946, and United began flying them coast to coast three months later. As United’s “Mainliner 230,” the DC-4 flew from New York to San Francisco in 16 hours with a stop at Chicago. The fare of $236.60 round trip was 26 percent cheaper than prewar fares.

AT:304-L3-P3 Sleek, powerful, and graceful, TWA’s Lockheed Constellations introduced pressurized comfort and shortened transcontinental travel by an astounding five hours. Eastern began flying the “stretched” 71-seat Super Constellation in 1951. The L-1049C and strengthened L-1049G versions had greater range and capacity than the original “Connie.” Northwest Orient and TWA also flew Super Constellations.

AT:304-L4-P4 The DC-6 was Douglas Aircraft’s response to Lockheed’s NASM-1314, 1962-0101 Constellation. Slightly longer than the DC-4 and pressurized like the “Connie,” the DC-6 could carry 60 passengers and

had heating elements in its wings to prevent icing. United introduced the DC-6 in 1947, and after overcoming some initial problems it became widely used.

November 15, 2007, page 10 AT:304-L5-P5 Perhaps the epitome of piston-engine airliner design, the Douglas DC-6B combined unrivalled operating efficiency and reliability. Its slightly stretched fuselage could carry 88 passengers. DC-6Bs entered service with United in 1952, and Pan Am used them to pioneer tourist fares across the Atlantic.

AT:304-L6-P6 Introduced by American on its New York–Los Angeles route in November 1953, the DC-7 was the first airliner to provide nonstop transcontinental service in both directions. It could carry 60 passengers between the two cities in less than 8 hours for $158.85 one way and $302 round trip. This is the DC-7 Flagship Missouri, a sister ship to the Museum’s Flagship Vermont.

AT:304-L7-P7 A unique feature of the was its lower-level lounge and bar, reached via a spiral staircase. When designing the huge 747 jumbo jet, Boeing used the same staircase design to connect the main cabin with the upper deck. Such a staircase can be seen inside the 747 nose in this gallery.

November 15, 2007, page 11 Case 304 labels AT:304-L8-M8 Lockheed Constellation Model TWA began flying “Connies” in 1946 on the same day United introduced its unpressurized DC-4s. TWA matched United’s fare but added $25 for the Constellation’s “Advanced Sky Chief” service. TWA’s fast, pressurized Constellations could fly from New York to Los Angeles in 11 hours with one 25- minute fuel stop—five hours faster than United’s DC-4s on its New York–San Francisco route. The Museum’s Constellation is on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. Gift of Pan American World Airways

AT:304-L9-M9 Boeing 377 Stratocruiser Model Although not economically successful, the huge Boeing 377 Stratocruiser epitomized luxury air travel in the 1950s. Based on the design of Boeing’s B-29 bomber of World War II, the 377 had a bulbous “double bubble” pressurized fuselage and could carry 100 passengers. Northwest, Pan Am, United, and American Overseas Airlines all flew Stratocruisers. Gift of Pan American World Airways

AT:304-L10-A10 Flight Attendant Artifact: Uniform United Airlines, 1946 Flight attendants wore this uniform while serving aboard United DC-4s just after World War II. Gift of Helen Elizabeth McLaughlin

AT:304-L11-A11 Captain Artifact: Uniform Eastern Airlines, circa 1940s NASM-4087, 1974-0913 Capt. L. C. Cloney wore this uniform while flying Eastern Airlines Constellations. Eastern rose to national prominence under the leadership of Eddie Rickenbacker, America’s premier ace during World War I. Eastern Airlines dominated air travel in the East and Southeast for many years after World War II. Gift of Capt. L. C. Cloney

AT:304-L12-A12 Cigar Box Artifact: Cigar box This silver cigar box was made to commemorate the opening of Pan American’s first around-the-world service in 1947. Gift of Juan T. Trippe

November 15, 2007, page 12 AT:304-L13-A13 Playing Cards Artifact: Playing cards This presentation set of four decks of playing cards was given to Northwest Airlines president Donald W. Nyrop and features the airline’s Boeing 377 Stratocruiser. Gift of Donald W. Nyrop

November 15, 2007, page 13

AT:305-L1 Air Traffic Control Comes of Age The dramatic increase in air travel during the 1950s created a need for better airports and air traffic control. Just as new aircraft technology produced a new generation of aircraft, new electronic technology produced answers to the growing problems of communications and managing air traffic. By the end of the 1950s, the aviation infrastructure in the United States had grown intricate and highly advanced.

AT:305-L2 and Precision Landing Systems Radar—“radio detecting and ranging”—was developed by the British in the 1930s and widely used during World War II. By war’s end, two precision landing systems were available for civil use: Ground Controlled Approach (GCA), which used radar, and Instrument Landing System (ILS), which used radio transmissions. The first U.S. civilian control tower equipped with radar began operating at Indianapolis Airport in 1946. By 1951 the use of radar had begun to supersede pilot-reported positions by radio.

AT:305-L3-P3 With Ground Control Approach (GCA), a ground controller followed an approaching aircraft on a radar screen and instructed the pilot down to the runway. GCA was placed into operation at Washington’s National Airport and Chicago’s Municipal Airport in 1947. Although GCA was popular with the military, airline pilots preferred the competing ILS system.

AT:305-L4-P4 Improved air traffic control techniques, particularly GCA, were critical to the success of the Berlin Airlift in 1948–49. For almost a year, a continuous relay of military and civilian transports landed in the Soviet-blockaded East German city every three minutes around the clock and in all weather, and kept the city’s 2 million people fed.

November 15, 2007, page 14 AT:305-L5-P5 The Civil Aeronautics Authority in 1947 adopted the Instrument Landing System (ILS) as its primary landing aid, supplemented by GCA at busy airports. With ILS, a pilot relied on instruments that received altitude and direction data via radio transmissions and allowed the pilot to follow a glide path to the runway. ILS greatly reduced missed approaches and flight cancellations due to weather and enabled airports to handle more traffic.

AT:305-L6-P6 The ILS indicator was installed on the upper-left corner of the captain’s instrument panel on the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser.

AT:305-L7 “Operation Vittles” Family label The U.S. Air Force’s codename for the Berlin Airlift was “Operation Vittles.” In addition to food, more than 2.3 million pounds of coal were delivered to keep Berlin residents warm. That’s equal to the weight of more than 143 school buses!

November 15, 2007, page 15

AT:305-L8 Growing Pains and Growing Concerns Despite steadily improving air traffic control, a series of airliner accidents over five months in 1951–52 aroused public concern. Although not related to air traffic control, the accidents led to an accelerated program of technical development and promoted new discussions on safety and traffic control. Air traffic growth in the 1950s led to severe airport congestion and delays. In 1956 two airliners collided over the Grand Canyon. Two more midair collisions occurred in 1958 and another in 1960. These events prompted legislation that enabled aviation authorities to take corrective measures.

AT:305-L8-P9 Radar Departure Control made its debut at Washington’s National Airport in 1952. Until then, radar had been used only to confirm a pilot’s reported position. With the new system, controllers could provide better and safer traffic flow into and out of airports.

AT:305-L10-P10 In the 1950s the Civil Aeronautics Administration, in cooperation with the Air Force, began installing long-range with a radius of 322 kilometers (200 miles). A network of overlapping radars was completed by 1965, allowing continuous monitoring of aircraft in controlled airspace.

AT:305-L11-P11 The upsurge in air travel led to the development of modern airports. Chicago’s O’Hare introduced the first “air bridges.” Better known by the brand name “Jet Way,” they provided sheltered passage between terminal and plane and sped up aircraft turnaround times. However, passengers now sometimes never even saw the airplane they were .

AT:305-L12 From “Jet Way” to “Jetway” Family label “Jetway” is an example of a trade name that became a generic term for a sheltered passage between a terminal and plane. What other examples of this (like Xerox) can you think of?

November 15, 2007, page 16

AT:306-L1 The NACA Looks Beyond Propellers While propeller-driven airliners were enjoying their “golden age,” the NACA was doing research that would help create a new generation of high-speed passenger planes. As the took hold after World War II, the United States anxiously stepped up aeronautical research to enhance the nation’s security in an uncertain world. The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) began to focus on the challenges of transonic and supersonic flight. Although intended primarily for military purposes, the results of the NACA’s research greatly benefited the future development of high- speed airliners. As proof of its pioneering work during this time, the NACA won the coveted Collier Trophy four times.

AT:306-L2-P2 While today’s jet airliners fly most efficiently at high subsonic speed, air flows over their wings at transonic and even supersonic speeds. To make high-subsonic flight safe and efficient, aircraft companies developing jetliners in the 1950s depended upon the NACA’s pioneering transonic research.

AT:306-L3-P3 The NACA and the Navy designed and tested the Douglas D-558-1 Skystreak. They used it to study the difficulties of transonic flight, during which the airflow over the wings becomes unpredictable and unstable. Because it was jet powered, the Skystreak could collect data for much longer periods than the rocket-powered Bell X-1, which was faster but had a short range.

November 15, 2007, page 17 AT:306-L4-P4 On October 14, 1947, Capt. Charles E. “Chuck” Yeager piloted the rocket-powered Bell X-1 to Mach 1.06, destroying the myth of the “sound barrier.” Working with the Air Force and Bell Aircraft, the NACA made critical contributions to the design of the wings, the fuselage, and the crucial adjustable stabilizer. The NACA used the X-1 to study the dangerous problem of air compressibility and powerful shock wave formation during transonic flight. The Bell X-1 now hangs in the Milestones of Flight gallery.

AT:306-L5-P5 Gathering test data about transonic flight was difficult, because conventional wind tunnels would “choke” on shock waves bouncing along their walls. In 1950, John Stack and his associates at the NACA’s Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory built the first “slotted” wind tunnel, which resolved this problem.

AT:306-L6-P6 The NACA and the Navy developed the Douglas D-558-2 Skyrocket to learn more about the characteristics of swept- wing aircraft. Flight testing revealed the problem of the nose pitching up at high speeds, which they solved, paving the way for swept-wing military and civilian aircraft. On November 20, 1953, NACA test pilot A. Scott Crossfield became the first to fly faster than twice the speed of sound in the Skyrocket, which now hangs nearby above the east escalator.

AT:306-L7-P7 The Cold War pushed the United States into expanding all its scientific research. One result was the NACA’s entry into astronautical research. On October 1, 1958, almost one year after the orbited the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was formed, absorbing the NACA. Despite its focus on spaceflight, NASA continues to pioneer new discoveries in aeronautics.

November 15, 2007, page 18 AT:306-L8-A8 Wright R-3350 Turbo Compound Engine Artifact: Engine One of the most powerful piston engines ever built, the NASM-1598, 1966-0150 Wright R-3350 Turbo Compound produced 3,400 horsepower Near ATC rail in its ultimate version. Based on the engine that powered the Boeing B-29 bomber of World War II, the R-3350 was installed on Lockheed Constellations and Douglas DC-7s. The more powerful Turbo Compound version routed exhaust through an impeller, which helped turn the crankshaft and gave the engine a 20-percent boost. However, the complexity of the system resulted in service reliability problems that reduced aircraft productivity. Gift of American Airlines

Type: Air-cooled, twin-row radial Cylinders: 18 Displacement: 55 L (3,350 cu in) Power: 3,400 hp at 1,900 rpm Weight: 1,263 kg (2,779 lb) Manufacturer: Wright Aeronautical Div., Curtiss-Wright Corp., Wood Ridge, N.J., 1955

November 15, 2007, page 19

AT:307-L1

International Service Pan American Airways was the nation’s sole international airline before World War II. After the war, other domestic airlines were allowed to open international routes. During the war, Pan Am helped build a worldwide network of paved runways, enabling the airline to replace its luxurious but inefficient flying boats with four-engine landplanes. Pan Am gained much wartime experience delivering high-priority passengers and cargo as well. Thus, it was strongly positioned to dominate postwar international service. However, presidents Roosevelt and Truman both felt it would serve the nation best to have several overseas airlines. So after the war, the Civil Aeronautics Board ended Pan Am’s monopoly.

AT:307-L2 “A World of Neighbors” —Pan American World Airways brochure AT:307-L3 New Competition for Pan Am Transcontinental and Western Air, with its well-developed domestic network and proven record of overseas war service, quickly became a serious competitor to Pan Am. To reflect the airline’s new international status, majority shareholder changed the airline’s name to Trans World Airlines. Northwest Orient expanded across the Pacific to the Far East. Braniff Airways extended into South America. American Airlines also began international service, but withdrew a few years later.

AT:307-L4-P4 In the early 1940s, Pan American flew through the airport at Barreiras in the Brazilian interior to save two days of travel time between Miami and . Using Douglas DC-3s (shown here) and Boeing 307s, Pan Am no longer had to fly the longer route along the Atlantic coast.

November 15, 2007, page 20 AT:307-L5-P5 Wealthy businessman, oil executive, aviator, and movie producer, Howard Hughes gained control of TWA in the late 1930s and turned it into a major international airline.

November 15, 2007, page 21

AT:308-L1

Air Travel and Segregation African Americans could choose to fly, but few did. Many airport facilities were segregated and discrimination was widespread. Few members of minority groups flew before World War II. But as the economy rapidly expanded and the number of minority-owned businesses increased, more people of color began to fly. In doing so they often encountered discrimination. While the airlines were not legally segregated, airports often were. Throughout the South, inferior airport accommodations discouraged African Americans from flying. Until the Civil Rights movement began to bring about change, air travel remained mostly for whites.

AT:308-L2 “All of these incidents I witnessed with my own eyes.” —Charles C. Diggs Jr. AT:308-L3-P3 Complaints to the airlines about discrimination proved fruitless, as the airlines did not control the municipally owned airports they served and did not wish to get involved for fear of losing white customers. Moorland-Springarn Research Center, Howard University

AT:308-L4-P4 Efforts to desegregate airports began as early as 1948. Rep. Charles C. Diggs Jr. of Michigan supported a bill in Congress to desegregate federally owned Washington National Airport. The bill did not pass, but it encouraged others to take action. In December 1948, after a direct appeal to President Truman by a member of his Committee on Civil Rights, National Airport’s restaurant was finally desegregated. Slowly during the 1950s and ’60s, the rest of the segregated airports followed suit after succumbing to legal and political pressure. Moorland-Springarn Research Center, Howard University

November 15, 2007, page 22 AT:308-L5-P5 Airlines did not allow African Americans to fly their aircraft or work aboard them as flight crew. Throughout the country, these jobs were restricted to whites only until the 1960s. The exceptions were Perry H. Young Jr., who first flew for in 1956, and Ruth Carol Taylor, who first served as a stewardess for in 1958.

AT:308-L6-P6 The color barrier within the major airlines was finally broken in 1965, when Marlon D. Green won a suit against Continental Airlines to become a pilot. His victory opened commercial aviation to all Americans.

AT:308-L7-P7 National Airport was one of many southern airports that discriminated against African Americans as late as the 1950s. Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority

AT:308-L8 Separate but Senseless Family label Congressman Charles C. Diggs Jr. of Michigan disliked how African Americans were treated at airports throughout the South. He led a campaign to change this by writing to the presidents of the major airlines to ask for their support. Read about his experience as an African American traveling by plane in the 1950s.

November 15, 2007, page 23

AT:309-L1 Various exhibits near the DC-7 At Your Service Whether United’s “red carpet service” or American’s “service fit for a king and queen,” airline advertising made sure passengers knew they would be treated well. As one American Airlines publication noted, “travel by air should be a time of leisure, a chance for you to escape humdrum worries.” Since the federal government regulated prices, airlines competed by offering various amenities.

AT:309-L2 A Sky-Lounge View From Four Miles Up Text from brochure The inviting rear lounge, scene of card games and new friendships, is the favorite spot for sightseeing too. Lounge seats are not sold...they are yours to enjoy.

AT:309-L3 Smoke, If You Care To Text from brochure But please, cigarettes only, and only when the “No Smoking” sign is off. Non-smoking passengers are often offended by cigars and pipes. Because of special air conditioning, pipe and cigar smoking is permitted in the lounge of DC-6Bs only!

AT:309-L4 Gourmet Meals...Hot, Fresh and Full of Flavor Text from brochure Here is deluxe meal service at its very best. All of the artistry of United’s own Continental chefs goes into the preparation of your full course “Red Carpet” meal.

AT:309-L5 A Hand of Rummy at Six Miles a Minute Text from brochure At your seat, or in the lounge, you can relax with one of the scores of games and other special items aboard to help while the miles away. Writing kits and the latest periodicals are as close as the stewardess call button.

November 15, 2007, page 24 AT:309-L6 Youngsters Like To Travel, Too! Text from brochure Traveling with youngsters is “duck soup” when you fly. Your Continental Hostess will supply you with blankets, comic books or crayons and paper to keep the children comfortable and happy...and Mother happy too.

AT:309-L7 Text taken from brochures shown below.

AT:309-L8-M8 Cutaway models like this illustrated the air travel experience DC-7 model to potential customers visiting a travel office. The passengers in the model were made slightly smaller in scale to make the

plane look larger.

AT:309-L9 Can You Find… Family label two couples playing cards people in the lounge people who are eating children five people with binoculars or a camera

AT:309-L10 The Thomas Cook and Son Travel Agency operated an office in San Francisco’s City of Paris department store in the late 1940s.

AT:309-L11 Who’s Flying? Family label Take a look at the model. What do all of the passengers and crew have in common? LIFT They are dressed up, they look happy, and they are white. Look at the panel behind you to find out more about who flew.

AT:309-L12 Be sure to walk through the DC-7 in front of you. Family label

November 15, 2007, page 25 Inside DC-7 AT:309-L13-P13 Interior of the DC-7

AT:309-L14 Look around—how is the passenger experience different Family label today?

AT:309-L15 Where Does It Go? Family label Airplane bathroom waste has always gone into a storage tank in the airplane, which is pumped out after landing. If the tank gets full, there is an overflow valve that discharges extra waste out of the aircraft—during flight. The chemicals used to treat the waste turn it blue, and the waste freezes during its fall to earth—the infamous “blue ice.”

Near flight insurance vending machine AT:309-L16-A16 Flight Insurance Vending Machine Artifact: Vending machine Although air travel had become quite safe, nervous flyers NASM-7945, 1993-0090 were given the option of buying additional travel insurance. Flight insurance became so popular that vending machines were installed in airports around the country to dispense insurance policies. Gift of Mercury International through Dennis Bennett

AT:309-L17 “Americans have an abiding belief in their ability to control reality by purely material means.... Airline insurance replaces the fear of death with the comforting prospect of cash.” —Cecil Beaton, “It Gives Me Great Pleasure,” 1955

AT:309-L18-P18 By the 1950s, inexpensive flight insurance was widely available through vending machines at most airports.

AT:309-L19-P19 Even people in the aerospace industry used travel insurance. Here Dr. Wernher von Braun, the noted German scientist behind the U.S. space program, purchases a policy. Don Cravens/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images

November 15, 2007, page 26

AT:309A-L1 Could You Have Been a Stewardess in the Early 1950s?

AT:309A-L2 GIRLS WANTED Family labels to enter Flight Stewardess Training Group Here is the career opportunity for which you have been waiting! If you are interested and feel that you can meet all of the qualifications below, please write in detail and attach a full length photograph.

AT:309A-L3 Height Flip panels Between 5 feet, 2 inches and 5 feet, 6 inches

AT:309A-L4 Weight 135 pounds maximum In 1979 several court cases forced airlines to change their weight policies.

AT:309A-L5 Age 21 to 26 years old In 1968 the mandatory resignation at ages 30 to 35 was struck down in court.

AT:309A-L6 Marital Status Single, not divorced, separated, or widowed Legal victories beginning in 1969 allowed married women to become stewardesses.

AT:309A-L7 Appearance Height and weight proportionate Attractive—“Just below Hollywood” standards Plenty of personality and poise

November 15, 2007, page 27 AT:309A-L8 Race White The first African American stewardess started work in 1958.

AT:309A-L9 Gender Female In 1971 courts prohibited airlines from refusing to hire men.

AT:309A-L10 Education Registered nurse or two years of college

AT:309A-L11 The Few Family label In the early 1950s, the airlines accepted about 1.7 percent of stewardess applicants. In 1951 American Airlines received 20,000 applications for 347 stewardess positions.

AT:309A-L12 Stewardess, is your… Smile: Friendly & Sincere Posture: Erect & Poised Hair: Short & Styled Make-Up: Neat & Natural Blouse: Fresh & Pressed Ribbon: New & Trimmed Nails: Manicured & Polished Gloves: White & Tailored Uniform: Clean & Pressed Purse: Orderly & Polished Shoes: Repaired & Shined ? Smile!

AT:309A-L13-P13 Photography Collections, University of Maryland, Stewardess in mirror photo County Alice Engeman

November 15, 2007, page 28

AT:310-L1 Regional Service United, American, Eastern, and TWA dominated the major transcontinental routes, while smaller airlines served specific areas of the country. Beyond the “big four” major carriers, a few other large airlines—Delta, Braniff, Western, Continental, and Northwest—provided service to particular regions. Federal regulators limited competition between them by preventing their territories from overlapping, except on heavily traveled routes. After 1955 a new category of smaller airlines providing local service gained official recognition. These so-called regional airlines brought airline service to hundreds of small cities.

AT:310-L2 “The local service carrier stands in a very special personal relationship with the community it serves….” Sir George Edwards, managing director of British Aircraft Corporation

AT:310-L3-P3 This promotional map shows the 13 local service airlines that flew in the United States during the mid-1950s.

Case 310 labels— Uniforms AT:310-L4-A4 First Officer Artifact: Uniform Mohawk Airlines, 1950s NASM-2629, 1972-1190/1193 A prominent local carrier in the 1940s and ’50s, Mohawk served New York State and the Northeast. First Officer David F. Holmes wore this uniform while flying Mohawk DC-3s. Gift of David F. Holmes

November 15, 2007, page 29 AT:310-L5-A5 Flight Attendant Artifact: Uniform Capital Airlines, 1955 NASM-7670, 1988-0281/0286 Marcy Wetherbee wore this uniform while serving on Capital Airlines airliners. Gift of Marcy Wetherbee

AT:310-L6-A6 Mechanic’s Coat and Hat Artifact: Uniform Capital Airlines, 1940s NASM-4055, 1974-0743 Mechanics for Capital Airlines (formerly Pennsylvania Central) wore coats and coveralls while servicing their fleet of DC-3s and DC-4s. Gift of J. F. Ulrich

AT:310-L7-A7 Flight Attendant Artifact: Uniform , 1950s NASM-5092, 1975-0371/0374 Colonial Airlines broke with tradition in the early 1950s and began to serve alcoholic beverages on its New York–Bermuda flights. The rest of the industry quickly adopted this successful and profitable marketing tool. Macivor Celeste wore this uniform as a Colonial flight attendant. Gift of Macivor Celeste

AT:310-L8-A8 Flight Attendant Artifact: Uniform Western Airlines, 1958 NASM-5637, 1976-2079-2084 In operation since 1926, Western was the nation’s oldest airline. It flew mainly in California and the Southwest before merging with Delta in 1987. Nancy Birckhead wore this uniform while serving on Western’s Douglas and airliners. Gift of Nancy Birckhead

AT:310-L9-M9 Convair 240 Model The Convair 240 was a short/medium-haul transport powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp engines. It was introduced in 1948. Gift of Mohawk Airlines

AT:310-L10-M10 Martin 4-0-4 Model A short-haul airliner, the Martin 4-0-4, an improved version of the flawed Martin 2-0-2, was introduced in 1951. Gift of Mohawk Airlines

November 15, 2007, page 30

AT:311-L1 Aircraft for Regional Airlines Regional airlines operated the same large aircraft as the “big four” airlines. But for short- to medium-length routes, they used smaller aircraft as well. After World War II, the major airlines began looking for a replacement for the venerable DC-3. American Airlines led the way by cooperating in the development of the Convair 240. The Martin 2-0-2, which first flew with Northwest, was designed to compete with the 240. Improved models followed and helped fill the need for smaller airliners flying shorter routes.

AT:311-L2-P2 The pressurized, 40-seat Convair 240 brought a new level of comfort and productivity to American Airlines’ secondary routes. The 240 and its stretched 340 and 440 versions proved popular among major, secondary, and local-service airlines.

AT:311-L3-P3 The Convair 240 featured this unique “orange peel” cowling that permitted easy engine access for servicing.

AT:311-L4-P4 The Martin 2-0-2 debuted in 1947 and featured a set of stairs in the tail. However, serious technical flaws in the wing structure limited its usefulness. Redesigned with an improved wing and a pressurized fuselage, the Martin 4-0-4 (shown below) served with distinction with TWA, Eastern, and other airlines.

November 15, 2007, page 31

AT:312-L1 The Era of Mass Air Travel Begins As flying became more popular and commonplace, the nature of the air travel experience began to change. By the end of the 1950s, America’s airlines were bringing a new level of speed, comfort, and efficiency to the traveling public. But as flying became commonplace and began to replace piston-engine airliners, the air travel experience began to change. With the steady increase in passenger traffic, the level of personal service decreased. The stresses of air travel began to replace the thrill. Flying was no longer a novelty or an adventure; it was becoming a necessity.

AT:312-L2-P2 Colorful postcards highlighted the ease and comfort of air travel, as in this American Airlines Douglas DC-7.

AT:312-L3-P3 With airplanes becoming faster and passenger numbers increasing, airlines discontinued their plush sleeper service by the 1950s. Expensive to operate, sleeper service gave way to low-fare night coach service. The coast-to-coast eastbound flights became known as “red eye” specials.

AT:312-L4-P4 Passengers began experiencing physiological problems due to crossing several time zones within a few hours. Shortened or lengthened days or nights upset natural body rhythms and made sleeping difficult. Although later dubbed “jet lag,” this was first experienced after long-distance trips on fast piston- engine and airliners.

AT:312-L5-P5 The arrival of nonstop transcontinental service meant that major league baseball was no longer restricted to cities within a day’s train ride, but could expand into new markets west of the Mississippi. In 1958 both the New York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers found new homes in California. Even before the move, the Dodgers had acquired a Convair 440 for their use.

November 15, 2007, page 32 AT:312-L6 Is Flying a Necessity? Family label A necessity is something you can’t live without. Could you live without air travel? People got along just fine before airplanes were invented. But now the world has come to depend on airplanes for many things. Visit the luggage pile under the 747 nose to explore the many ways air travel affects everyday life.

AT:312-L7 “You Look Tired, Bob.” Family label Why do you think overnight coast-to-coast flights were called “red eyes”?

AT:312-L8-A8 Charge Card Artifact: Charge card Airlines issued company charge cards to their employees— predecessors to today’s credit cards. Gift of Herbert Ford

November 15, 2007, page 33

AT:313-L1 “Fly Now!” Even though airlines spent most of their marketing budgets on newspaper and magazine advertisements by the 1950s, posters still played a role in selling air travel. Dramatic and colorful airline posters appeared in department and specialty store displays, on city airline ticket counters, and on the walls of travel agents’ offices throughout the 1950s. Competing with train and ocean liner advertisements, airline posters in this era usually included at least a small iconic representation of the airplane servicing the route advertised. As air travel became increasingly safe and air travelers increasingly savvy, however, advertisers began focusing less on passengers, timetables, airplanes, and flying itself, and more on airline destinations.

AT:313-L2-P2 Before World War II, Pan American did not have to boast that it was the “world’s most experienced airline.” But by the late 1940s, competition from TWA and other airlines affected the direction of Pan Am’s advertising. In this 1951 poster, the airplane—Pan Am’s newest “Clipper Ship,” the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser—is almost incidental. Drawn to scale with some detail, the airplane nonetheless pales in comparison with the stunning Scandinavian fjord.

AT:313-L3-P3 The signature design style of the distinctive three-finned tail says it all—Trans World Airlines “owned” the Lockheed Constellation. Other airlines flew it, but TWA had commissioned the airplane and flew the largest Constellation fleet. Using these airplanes, TWA continually improved its transcontinental service. In 1953 the airline instituted its Service, which offered nonstop flights from Los Angeles to New York.

November 15, 2007, page 34 AT:313-L4-P4 In 1955, Cuba provided hefty subsidies to hotel, , and casino builders in hope of turning Havana into the “ of the tropics.” This 1957 poster’s glowing orange background and whimsical portrayal of Cubans presents an attractive but romanticized picture of the island nation. A small Douglas DC-7 draws attention to Delta Air Lines, which acquired the Caribbean route in 1953 when it merged with Chicago & Southern Airlines.

November 15, 2007, page 35 AT:400-L1 Upright panel 400a (in two places) The Jet Age, 1958 –Today The revolutionized air travel. Powerful and durable, jets enabled aircraft manufacturers to build bigger, faster, and more productive airliners. Jet technology also enabled airlines to reduce their operating costs and their airfares. The jet age saw the end of airline regulation by the federal government, an act that transformed the industry and produced much upheaval. Passengers benefited from falling fares—almost anyone who wanted to could now fly. The effects of deregulation, along with the computer revolution and heightened security measures, especially following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, have profoundly changed the nature of the air travel experience.

November 15, 2007, page 1 AT:400-L2-A2 Boeing 747-151 Artifact: Aircraft nose section This nose section is from a Northwest Airlines Boeing Repeated inside nose 747-151. First flown in 1970, this 747 was the first built for Northwest and the first 747 to open service across the Pacific. It was retired in 1999. Gift of Northwest Airlines Wingspan: 59.6 m (195 ft 8 in) Length: 70.5 m (231 ft 4 in) Height: 19.3 m (63 ft 5 in) Weight, empty: 158,220 kg (348,816 lb) Weight, gross: 333,400 kg (735,000 lb) Top speed: 958 km/h (595 mph) Engine: 4 Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3, 19,730 kg (43,500 lb) thrust Manufacturer: Boeing Co., Seattle, Wash.

November 15, 2007, page 2

AT:401-L1 Rail panel Transition Aircraft: The Turboprop-powered aircraft, which used jet engines to turn a propeller, were introduced on medium-range routes. Turboprops promised greater fuel efficiency and reliability than piston- engine aircraft. Beginning in 1955, when Capital Airlines bought the British Vickers Viscount and when the Dutch Fokker F-27 first flew, turboprops found brief success on medium-range routes before being replaced by pure jets. Many regional and local-service airlines mounted turboprop engines on some of their piston-engine aircraft, such as the Allison-powered Convair 580 and the Rolls Royce Dart–powered Convair 600 series.

AT:401-L2-P2 The Lockheed Electra II featured a lounge in the rear of the cabin, as shown in this Pacific postcard.

AT:401-L3-P3 Lockheed produced the first U.S. turboprop-powered aircraft, the L-188 Electra II. American Airlines began flying them in 1959. However, wing failures caused by excessive vibration resulted in several fatal accidents and flight restrictions. Lockheed solved the problem, but sales plunged. By the time Electras returned to full service, jetliners had superseded them.

AT:401-L4-P4 A prominent presence in the Mid-Atlantic and Midwest, Capital Airlines in 1955 became the first U.S. airline to introduce the revolutionary Vickers Viscount turboprop- powered airliner. Mismanagement and the expense of acquiring the British airliner forced Capital to sell out to United in 1961.

AT:401-L5-P5 The most widely sold turboprop airliner in history, the Fokker F-27 Friendship first entered service in 1958 when it began flying with .

November 15, 2007, page 3 AT:401-L6-P6 West Coast Airlines advertised their new F-27s on their 1958 timetables.

AT:401-L7-A7 Rolls-Royce Dart Artifact: Engine First introduced in 1948, the Rolls-Royce Dart turboprop NASM-6782, 1982-0071 combined the power of jet propulsion with the efficiency of propellers. It was widely used in the first generation of turboprop-powered aircraft, including the British Vickers Viscount and the Dutch Fokker F-27. The Dart enabled these and other new airliners to lower airline operating costs and bring greater speed and comfort to passengers traveling on short-to-medium length routes. Gift of Rolls-Royce Ltd.

Type: Turboprop, 2-stage centrifugal flow , 7 combustion chambers, 3-stage axial flow turbine Power: 1,815 ehp at 15,000 rpm Weight: 567 kg (1,250 lb) Specific fuel consumption: 0.317 kg/ehp/hr (0.700 lb/ehp/hr) Manufacturer: Rolls-Royce Ltd., Derby, England, ca. 1970

AT:401-L8 Piston engines have many parts moving in alternating Jet versus piston interactive directions, which produces vibrations and wear.

AT:401-L9 Jet engines have fewer moving parts than piston engines, so Jet versus piston interactive they are more reliable and less costly to operate.

November 15, 2007, page 4

AT:402-L1 Upright panel 410a The First Generation of Jet Airliners Jet passenger service began in the United States in the late 1950s with the introduction of Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 airliners. Pan American introduced overseas flights on 707s in October 1958. soon began domestic jet service using a 707 borrowed from Pan Am. American Airlines opened domestic jet service with its own 707s in January 1959. Delta and United began flying DC-8s later that year. British de Havilland D.H. 106 Comets and Soviet Tupolev Tu-104s had entered service earlier. But 707s and DC-8s were bigger, faster, had greater range, and proved more profitable.

AT:402-L2 “new way to a magic world of travel” —Pan Am Jet Clipper brochure

AT:402-L3-P3 The first jet service by any U.S. airline began on October 26, 1958, when this Pan American World Airways Boeing 707, the Clipper America, left New York for Paris.

AT:402-L4-P4 Continental proudly announced the opening of its first jet service in 1959 with this colorful brochure, which detailed all the advantages of its Golden Jet service.

AT:402-L5-P5 With the Boeing 707, Pan American ushered in the Jet Age in 1958. However, its flight attendants still wore conservative military style uniforms.

AT:402-L6-P6 The excellent Douglas DC-8 competed directly against the 707. Rolls-Royce plc

November 15, 2007, page 5

AT:402-L7 Rail panel 410b and artifact case 4.1 The Advantages of Jets Jet engines have far fewer moving parts than piston engines, so they are more reliable, safer, and less costly to operate. They burn kerosene, which is less expensive than gasoline, and produce tremendous thrust for their weight. Therefore jet aircraft can be made larger and can fly faster than piston-engine aircraft.

AT:402-L8-P8 Boeing’s 707 was designed for transcontinental or one-stop transatlantic range. But modified with extra fuel tanks and more efficient engines, 707-300s could fly nonstop

across the Atlantic. Boeing built 855 707s.  The Boeing Company

AT:402-L9-P9a,b The prototype for the Boeing 707, the “Dash 80” resides at the Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.  The Boeing Company

AT:402-L10-P10 The Douglas DC-8 was designed to replace the piston-engine DC-7 on long-distance routes. The rugged aircraft’s adaptable design allowed the production of several versions with extended fuselages. The longest could carry 269 passengers. Douglas built 556 DC-8s.

AT:402-L11 A Little Means a Lot Family label This line is 4 inches (about 10 centimeters) long. Pan Am insisted that Boeing make the 707 this much wider—which enabled the airline to add one more seat to every row.

AT:402-L12 “Fuselage” Is French… Family label It comes from the word fuselé (fyoo-zeh-LAY), meaning “spindle-shaped,” which aptly describes what a fuselage is— the body of an airplane.

November 15, 2007, page 6 Artifact case 4.1 AT:402-L13-M13 Boeing 707 Model The 707 evolved from the 367-80, or “Dash 80,” the prototype A19772779000 for the U.S. Air Force’s KC-135 tanker. At Pan Am’s insistence, the 707 was made 10 centimeters (4 inches) wider so it could carry 160 passengers in six-across seating. Gift of Trans World Airlines

AT:402-L14-M14 Douglas DC-8 Model The first three series of DC-8s were powered by Pratt & A19761276000 Whitney JT3C or JT4A . More efficient JT3D powered the Series 50 and 60. Over 100 aircraft were re-engined in the 1980s as DC-8-70s with highly efficient CFM56 high-bypass turbofan engines. Gift of Braniff International Airways

AT:402-L15-A15 Pratt & Whitney JT3 Artifact: Engine (scale model) 1/4th scale NASM-1564, 1966-0009 The JT3 revolutionized air transportation when it entered service on the Boeing 707 in 1958. The new engine was a commercial version of the U.S. Air Force’s J53, introduced in 1950. In the early 1960s, the JT3 was modified into a low-bypass turbofan—the JT3D. The first three compressor stages were replaced with two fan stages, which extended beyond the compressor casing to act like propellers. The resulting increase in airflow lowered fuel consumption, noise, and emissions. JT3Ds became widely used, especially on long- range Boeing 707-300s and Douglas DC-8s. Gift of Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Division, Corporation

November 15, 2007, page 7

AT:402-L16 Rail panel 410c and artifact case 4.2 Coast to Coast by Jet American Airlines set a new speed mark when it opened the first regularly scheduled transcontinental jet service in 1959. Subsequent nonstop flights between New York and San Francisco took only 5 hours—3 hours less than by the piston-engine DC-7. The one-way fare, including a $10 surcharge for jet service, was $115.50, or $231 round trip—almost 25 percent cheaper than flying by piston-engine airliners.

AT:402-L17-P17 In the early 1960s, new aircraft brought the comfort, speed, and efficiency of jet travel to short- and medium-distance routes. The pioneering design of the French Caravelle (shown here) with its two rear-mounted jets, gave rise to the Douglas DC-9 and .

AT:402-L18-P18 American promoted its new transcontinental jet service in its timetables for 1959.

AT:402-L19-P19 To compete with the short-range British BAC 111, which was winning sales in the United States, Douglas produced the DC-9 in 1965. With the low operating costs of its rear- mounted twin-engine design and two-crew configuration, the DC-9 in its many versions sold extremely well.

AT:402-L20-P20 Modeled after the British de Havilland Trident, with its distinctive “T” tail and rear-mounted engines, the Boeing 727 was designed to fly on shorter routes and from smaller

airports than the larger 707.  The Boeing Company

AT:402-L21-P21 The 727 Series 200 had three Pratt & Whitney JT8D turbofan engines and could carry as many passengers—189—as the 707. It was the first Boeing aircraft with triple-slotted flaps, completely powered controls, self-contained aft-mounted stairs, and an to replace ground starting equipment.  The Boeing Company

November 15, 2007, page 8 Artifact case 4.2 AT:402-L22-M22 Boeing 727 Model Boeing delivered the first 727 to Eastern Airlines in 1964. A19830257000 When production ended in 1983, Boeing had built 1,831 727s, Found in collection a production record at that time.

AT:402-L23-M23 Douglas DC-9 Model Airlines have ordered more than 2,200 DC-9s and the A19780166000 advanced MD-80 and MD-90 versions for short- and medium- distance routes. Gift of

November 15, 2007, page 9

AT:403-L1 Upright panel 420 Air Travel in a Changing America Sweeping cultural changes in the 1960s and 1970s reshaped the airline industry. More people began to fly, and air travel became less exclusive. By the beginning of the 1960s, America was undergoing rapid social change. The nation was becoming increasingly homogeneous. Retail franchises were eliminating distinctive regional characteristics. Television reached into most homes. The automobile was transforming cities, and suburbs were consuming huge expanses of rural land. The interstate highway system was spreading across the nation, and a growing web of jetliner routes linked the country. Traveling from coast to coast now took as little as five hours.

AT:403-L2 Who Flew? Between 1955 and 1972, passenger numbers more than quadrupled. By 1972 almost half of all Americans had flown, although most passengers were still business travelers. A small percentage became repeat travelers, or “frequent flyers.” “Jetting” across the Atlantic briefly became highly fashionable and prestigious, and a new breed of travelers—the “”—emerged. But falling fares in the 1970s allowed many more people to fly and undermined the exclusivity of jet travel.

AT:403-L3-P3 Passengers checking in at the Eastern Air Lines counter, 1949.

AT:403-L4-P4 The heavily crowded ticketing area of the main passenger terminal at Washington National Airport, late 1960s.

November 15, 2007, page 10 AT:403-L5-P5 Flying Art Family label In the early 1970s, to promote travel to South America, Braniff Airlines hired American artist Alexander Calder to create a flying work of art. He first experimented on scale airplane models before painting his final design on a jetliner. Calder favored bright colors, especially yellow, orange, red, and blue. He used paint specially made to withstand high speed, high altitude, and weather. This photo shows Calder painting one of the engine covers. Can you find this part in the photo at the top?

AT:403-L6-P6a,b What’s the Difference? Family label What do you notice about these two photos? What do they say about changes in air travel?

November 15, 2007, page 11

AT:404-L1 Upright panel 421, mannequin case 1 (4.3) Changing Styles Airlines were not allowed to set their own air fares, so they used in-flight amenities and even stylish uniforms to attract passengers. The growing popularity of air travel provoked fierce competition for passengers. Because air fares were government regulated, airlines resorted to attracting passengers, especially businessmen, with such amenities as better food, drinks, and movies. Flight attendant uniforms evolved from conservative and military in appearance to colorful and stylish, reflecting the changing social attitudes of the 1960s. To appeal to the male majority of travelers, airlines introduced miniskirts and hot pants, to the dismay of many flight attendants.

AT:404-L2 “When a tired businessman gets on an airplane, we think he ought to be allowed to look at a pretty girl.” —Mary Wells, mastermind behind Braniff ad campaign, quoted in Business Week, 1967

AT:404-L3-P3 Before deregulation airlines such as Southwest issued revealing uniforms featuring “hot pants” and miniskirts to attract the businessman traveler. Alan Bond/Hulton Archive, Gerry Images

AT:404-L4-P4 With the advent of large jets, movies became an increasingly popular way to entertain passengers on long-distance flights. United Airlines

AT:404-L5-P5 In 1968, United hired noted fashion designer Jean Louis to create a stylish line of flight attendant uniforms.

November 15, 2007, page 12 AT:404-L6-P6a,b Innovative advertising executive Mary Wells transformed Braniff Airways’ image in the mid-1960s through a campaign announcing the “End of the Plain Plane.” As part of this change, Braniff broke with tradition and introduced brightly colored aircraft as well as imaginative new uniforms created by famed fashion designer Emilio Pucci. The plastic bubble helmet, to protect hairdos on windy tarmacs, was an integral part of the Pucci-designed uniforms. Braniff Collection, University of Texas at

Mannequin case 1 (4.3) AT:404-L7-A7 Stewardess Artifact: Uniform Braniff Airways, 1965 One of the first airlines to adopt new styles, Braniff Airways hired noted fashion designer Emilio Pucci to create a new line of flight attendant uniforms. Pucci designed several outfits with bold, brash colors, including this uniform worn by Patricia Cunnington in the mid-1960s. Gift of Patricia Cunnington

AT:404-L8-A8 Stewardess Artifact: Uniform , 1968 NASM-5131, 1975-0813 Northeast Airlines introduced this loud and revealing lime green hot pants uniform in 1968. Other airlines resorted to similar styles to attract male passengers, as businessmen still accounted for the majority of airline travelers. Gift of Corine Lobato

AT:404-L9-A9 Stewardess Artifact: Uniform , 1960s NASM-7700, 1988-0527 Air California introduced Mexican-inspired designs that were meant to reflect California’s Spanish heritage, but which also incorporated 1960s fashions. Thus, flight attendants ended up wearing sombreros and capes along with miniskirts and go-go boots. Gift of Air California through Nancy Matsui

November 15, 2007, page 13 AT:404-L10-A10 Captain Artifact: Uniform TWA, 1960s NASM-5496, 1976/1499-1503 Unlike uniforms for women, those worn by male flight crew members remained essentially unchanged during the 1960s. This typically conservative uniform was worn by Trans World Airlines Capt. George Duvall, who flew Pope Paul VI during the Pontiff’s visit to the United States in 1965. Gift of Clipped Wings International

November 15, 2007, page 14

AT:405-L1 Rail panel 431 Aviation Technology Innovations in engines and other aspects of aeronautical technology have made aircraft safer, quieter, and more fuel and cost efficient.

AT:405-L2-P2 Rail 431 and 450 High-Bypass Turbofan Engines High-bypass turbofans have a large fan at the front of the engine that produces most of the thrust. They are more powerful, more efficient, and much quieter than conventional jet engines. Introduced on Boeing’s 747 wide-body airliner in 1970, high- bypass turbofans drastically changed the economics of the airline industry by helping to lower operating costs and, therefore, fares. Smaller versions have increased the efficiency of narrow-body airliners, the most widely used type in service. Brooke Watts, The Braniff Pages

AT:405-L3-A3 Rolls-Royce RB.211 Artifact: Engine This high-bypass turbofan engine and its Trent derivatives are NASM-6782, 1982-0072 widely used on Boeing and Airbus airliners. Its unique “three- spool” construction incorporates one more compressor stage than two-spool designs. While more complex, the three-spool design can produce greater thrust with lower fuel consumption and emissions. The RB.211 was first installed on Lockheed’s L-1011 TriStar. Gift of Rolls-Royce Limited

Type: Three-shaft axial turbofan, 1-stage fan, 7- stage intermediate-pressure compressor, 6- stage high-pressure compressor, 1-stage high-pressure turbine, 1-stage intermediate- pressure turbine, 3-stage low-pressure turbine Takeoff thrust: 19,091 kg (42,000 lb) : 5:1 Weight: 3,267 kg (7,203 lb) Manufacturer: Rolls-Royce Limited, Derby, England

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AT:405-L4 Rail panel 431 NASA and the Jet Age NASA (and its predecessor, the NACA) has created several revolutionary aeronautical technologies that have made air travel safer, more efficient, and less expensive. Today’s generation of highly productive airliners has directly benefited from NASA’s pioneering research. Dr. Richard T. Whitcomb (left) led the development of several key technologies: area rule in the 1950s and ’60s, supercritical wings in the 1970s, and winglets in the 1970s and ’80s. All help reduce aerodynamic drag and therefore increase fuel efficiency and range.

AT:405-L5-P5 Winglets—small vertical fins on wingtips—reduce the strength of wingtip vortices (air swirling off the ends of the wings). Most airliners feature some type of winglet to help decrease drag.

AT:405-L6-P6 A supercritical wing delays the formation and reduces the size of shock waves over the wing at transonic speeds (just below and above the speed of sound), the speeds at which most jetliners fly. All new large jetliners now feature this highly efficient, drag-reducing wing design.

AT:405-L7-P7 Creating a more consistent total cross section—by narrowing an aircraft’s fuselage where the wings join the body, for example—reduces drag at high speeds. This concept, called area rule, was first applied to jet fighters (producing their distinctive “Coke-bottle” shape) and later to such airliners as the Boeing 747, Douglas DC-8, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and .

AT:405-L8-P8 The Convair 990 used NASA-designed antishock bodies, or “speed pods,” on each wing to reduce drag at high subsonic speeds. The pods used area rule to improve the aircraft’s performance and to allow the 990 to cruise at Mach .91, just below the speed of sound.

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AT:405-L9 Rail panel 431 Air Travel and Safety Airline travel is the safest form of transportation. More people die in auto accidents in three months in the United States than have lost their lives in the entire history of commercial flight. It is far safer to fly than it is to get to the airport. Because air travel is so safe and accidents so rare, when an incident occurs it is often highly publicized, which heightens the unwarranted perception of danger.

AT:405-L10-A10 Safety Equipment Artifacts: Passenger oxygen masks Since the advent of high-altitude pressurized airliners in the early 1940s, airliners have featured oxygen masks as well as evacuation slides and rafts to aid passengers and crew in emergencies.

AT:405-L11-P11 A Continental flight attendant demonstrates the proper use of an emergency oxygen mask.

AT:405-L12-P12a,b,c Continental Airlines

November 15, 2007, page 17

AT:406-L1 Rail panel 422 The Era of Wide-Body Airliners A new generation of huge, fuel-efficient airliners that could accommodate hundreds of passengers helped further drive down the cost of flying. Pan American and Boeing again opened a new era in commercial aviation when the first Boeing 747 entered service in . Powered by four efficient high-bypass turbofan engines, the huge aircraft could seat up to 400 passengers (later versions even more) and had lower operating costs than other airliners at the time. Other wide-body designs soon followed, such as the three-engine McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar and the twin- engine .

AT:406-L2 “The Boeing 747 is so big that it has been said that it does not fly; the earth merely drops out from under it.” —Capt. Ned Wilson, Pan Am

AT:406-L3-P3 The Boeing 747 revolutionized air travel by making flying more affordable. Its high-bypass turbofan engines and immense seating capacity gave the 747 the lowest seat-mile costs in the industry. The 747 quickly became the airliner of choice for long-range service. © The Boeing Company

AT:406-L4-P4 The McDonnell Douglas DC-10 answered the need for an airplane that was smaller than the huge 747 but could seat 250 to 360 passengers. American and United began flying them in 1971. © The Boeing Company

November 15, 2007, page 18 AT:406-L5-P5 Airbus, a consortium of European aerospace manufacturers, designed the 300-seat, wide-body A300 for short- to medium- range routes. The first one flew in 1972. Airbus developed a wide range of technically advanced aircraft, and by the 1990s it had become a serious rival to Boeing.

AT:406-L6-P6 The graceful, technologically advanced Lockheed L-1011 TriStar entered service with Eastern Airlines in 1972. To demonstrate its excellent design and engineering, a TriStar made the first fully automatic . But because of financial problems, the L-1011 marked the end of Lockheed’s role in the commercial aircraft market.

AT:406-L7 Rail panel 422 Supersonic Dead End The future of commercial aviation appeared to be the (SST), an airliner that could fly faster than sound. U.S. advocates hoped to build a larger and faster SST to compete with the British and French Concorde and the Soviet Tupolev Tu-144. But concerns about huge development and operational costs, high fuel consumption, drastically high fares, and sonic booms and other environmental issues proved insurmountable. U.S. airlines placed no orders for Boeing’s 2707 SST, Congress withdrew support, and the project died.

AT:406-L8-P8 Introduced in 1976, the Concorde was the first and only operational supersonic transport. It could carry 100 passengers across the Atlantic in less than four hours, but its airfares were extremely expensive. All 14 that went into service were purchased by the British and French governments for their national airlines. Concordes stopped flying in 2003.

AT:406-L9-P9 The France Concorde to open service to Rio de Janeiro, Washington, D.C., and New York City now resides at the Museum’s Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.

AT:406-L10-P10 Braniff Airways briefly flew the Concorde in 1979–80 by temporarily purchasing an aircraft from or for the duration of each flight. But flying subsonically between Washington, D.C., and Dallas–Fort Worth by Concorde proved more expensive and no faster than by conventional jetliners. This photo is an artist’s impression, as the Concorde never flew in Braniff colors.

November 15, 2007, page 19

AT:407-L1 Mannequin case 2 (4.4) Social Change in the Airline Industry The dramatic social and cultural changes of the 1960s and 1970s profoundly affected commercial aviation. Barriers against the widespread participation of women and minorities began to fall, and airlines began to hire women and African Americans as pilots.

AT:407-L2-A2 First Officer Artifact: Uniform , 1973 NASM-5504, 1976-1529/1534 Emily Howell broke through the gender barrier to become the first American woman to fly routinely for a scheduled U.S. commercial airline. An experienced pilot when regional carrier Frontier Airlines hired her as a second officer in 1973, Howell soon advanced to first officer (co-pilot) and then to captain. Gift of Emily Howell through Frontier Airlines

AT:407-L3-A3 Maternity Uniform Artifact: Uniform United Airlines, 1990s NASM-8186, 1996-0512/0515 In the early 1990s, United became the first airline to issue an official maternity uniform for its female pilots. By then the industry and the traveling public had accepted that all qualified people, regardless of race or gender, could pilot an airliner. Capt. Cynthia Berkeley wore this uniform. Gift of Capt. Cynthia Berkeley and United Airlines

AT:407-L4-A4 First Officer Artifact: Uniform American Airlines, 1973 Bonnie Tiburzi became the first American woman to fly for a major carrier when she was hired by American Airlines in 1973. Gift of Bonnie Tiburzi Caputo

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AT:408-L1 Rail panel 440a Deregulation: A Watershed Event In 1978, Congress passed a law allowing airlines to set their own fares and routes, an event that transformed the industry and the passenger experience. Regulation by the federal government had enabled airlines to prosper, but it also kept fares high and prevented airlines from operating as efficiently as possible. Many thought the Civil Aeronautics Board, which regulated aviation, had outlived its usefulness. Congressional investigators compared fares of regulated airlines flying between states with fares of unregulated airlines flying within states. They found that unregulated airlines charged far lower fares. Sweeping change was needed, and Congress took action.

AT:408-L2 “I really don’t know one plane from the other. To me they are all just marginal costs with wings.” —Alfred Kahn, airline economist

AT:408-L3 The Act of 1978 Passed with bipartisan support, the phased out the Civil Aeronautics Board and immediately lifted restrictions on fares and access to routes. Airlines could now fly where they wanted and charge what the market would bear. Established airlines rushed to gain or preserve access to the most lucrative routes. New airlines quickly formed. Fierce competition resulted and drove fares down. Passengers flocked to airports in record numbers.

November 15, 2007, page 21 AT:408-L4-P4 Cornell University economist Alfred E. Kahn was among the first to view the airline industry strictly as a business. He believed that breaking up the industry structure would create new airlines, increase competition, and lower fares. President Carter appointed him chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board to lead the nation into airline deregulation.

AT:408-L5-P5 Most airlines strongly opposed deregulation and encouraged their employees to lobby against its passage. Their fears of a destabilized industry were well founded. Delta Air Transport Heritage Museum

AT:408-L6-P6 President Jimmy Carter signed the Airline Deregulation Act into law on October 24, 1978, the first time in U.S. history that an industry was deregulated.

AT:408-L7-P7 The Hub-and-Spoke System Deregulation lifted restrictions on where airlines could fly. To increase their efficiency, airlines adopted the hub-and-spoke system—using a few major airports as central connecting points. This strategy maximized aircraft use, increased passenger loads, and kept more aircraft flying. But it also increased airport and air traffic congestion and eliminated many convenient nonstop flights. And if one airline dominated a hub, the lack of competition often led to higher fares. Delta Air Transport Heritage Museum

AT:408-L8-P8 Hubs and Spokes Family label A “hub” is a central airport with flights paths radiating from it like spokes on a bicycle wheel. In a hub-and-spoke airline system, most flights connect through a few hub airports. How might a backup at one hub affect travelers all over the country?

November 15, 2007, page 22

AT:409-L1 Rail panel 440b The Flying Experience Today The wide-open competition among airlines made possible by deregulation, along with the computer revolution and stricter security measures, have transformed the flying experience. Since deregulation, travelers have benefited from low fares and more frequent service on heavily traveled routes; on other routes, fares have risen. But in exchange for low fares, passengers have had to sacrifice convenience and amenities. Computer technology, in particular the Internet, has revolutionized how people plan trips, buy tickets, and obtain boarding passes. Heightened security, especially since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, has made the airport experience more restrictive and time-consuming.

AT:409-L2-P2 To offer low air fares, airlines have had to cut costs in other ways, often by reducing, eliminating, or charging for amenities that air travelers once took for granted.

AT:409-L3-P3 Home access to airline reservation systems via the Internet and the shift to electronic ticketing have increasingly made booking flights and checking in a do-it-yourself experience.

AT:409-L4-P4 Hundreds of millions of passengers now fly each year in the United States. But that popularity has also brought crowded airplanes and congested airports and has dulled the luster air travel once had. Port of Seattle

AT:409-L5-P5 A rash of airliner hijackings in the 1960s began the trend toward increasingly tight security measures at airports. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, raised security to levels never before seen in America. Access to boarding areas, once open to anyone carrying virtually anything, is now tightly restricted, and every passenger is carefully screened.

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AT:410-L1 Back wall labels Then and Now Flying has changed in countless ways since the 1960s and ’70s: how you buy a ticket, what kind of luggage you bring, where you say goodbye at the airport, how you board your plane, what you eat during flight, and who is sitting next to you—to name just a few.

AT:410-L2-P2 They didn’t call it luggage for nothing…. Then

AT:410-L3-P3 Flying was an occasion that called for a suit or a dress. Then

AT:410-L4-P4 You walked across the tarmac to board your plane—rain or Then shine.

AT:410-L5-P5 No bargain fares, but you could purchase your ticket minutes Then before your flight.

AT:410-L6-P6 Stewardesses, in fashionable attire, were at your service. Then

AT:410-L7-P7 You could stretch your legs and enjoy a free meal served on Then china and with silverware.

AT:410-L8-P8 Your carry-ons and clothing are carefully scrutinized. Now

AT:410-L9-P9 Air travel is a commonplace and casual affair. Now

AT:410-L10-P10 Patience is critical—so is getting to the airport well ahead of Now your flight time.

AT:410-L11-P11 Security is paramount; pilots fly behind locked doors. Now

November 15, 2007, page 24 AT:410-L12-P12 Ticketed passengers only…. Now

AT:410-L13-P13 Remember how you used to complain about that free airline Now food?

AT:410-L14-P14 A long wait for your computer-processed, security-screened Now baggage often concludes your trip.

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AT:411-L1 Rail panel 443 New and Expanding Airlines Deregulation spurred the creation of dozens of new airlines and prompted many smaller airlines to expand. With deregulation, PeoplExpress, Presidential, New York Air, and other new airlines arose. Local and regional airlines—, Frontier, Ozark—tried to expand nationally. Eastern, Braniff, Delta, Continental, Western, and Northwest extended their networks to compete with the largest carriers. Some intrastate airlines, including Pacific Southwest, Air California, and Southwest, expanded too. Faced with all this new competition, established airlines tried to lure passengers with lower fares and curbed costs by cutting cabin service.

AT:411-L2-P2 PeoplExpress epitomized the new airlines when it began flying in 1981. It made the underused Newark, New Jersey, airport its hub. By eliminating in-flight services and maximizing employee productivity, it offered very low fares. It instantly became popular, especially with budget travelers. Bob Gerrard

AT:411-L3-P3 New York Air offered low-cost shuttle service in the East between Washington, New York, and Boston. The nonunion airline flew bright red McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and MD-80 airliners.

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AT:411-L4 Regional Airlines Since deregulation in 1978, small regional airlines have grown dramatically. Regional airlines, which include , serve small cities in local geographic areas and provide substantial passenger traffic to the large national airlines. Today, regionals carry more than 20 percent of the nation’s airline passengers and operate large fleets of small, fuel-efficient, jet-powered aircraft. Most regional airlines are either owned by or under contract to the major carriers. Through operating agreements, or code sharing, regionals carry traffic between small cities and major airports, thereby generating substantial traffic for the national carriers.

AT:411-L5-P5 Formerly known as de Havilland Dash 8s, the turboprop airliners of the Bombardier Q Series are designed for the rigors of daily flights and are capable of short takeoff and landing (STOL) operations. These versatile aircraft seat 40 to 78 passengers.

AT:411-L6 Regional Jets Responding to passenger preferences for pure jet aircraft, regional airlines rushed to buy a new generation of airliners powered by small, highly efficient turbofan jet engines.

AT:411-L7-P7 Derived from the Canadair , the Bombardier CRJ revolutionized regional airline service when it entered service in 1992. The first pure jet , the CRJ series quickly won the acceptance of passengers and airlines alike. CRJs can seat 50 to 90 passengers.

AT:411-L8-P8 introduced its ERJ 145 series of regional jets in 1996. Based on the Brasilia fuselage, the ERJ 145 family consists of four aircraft with seating ranging from 37 (ERJ 135) to 50 (ERJ 145). Seating on the larger E-Jet series ranges from 70 (ERJ 170) to 118 (ERJ 195). Shown here is an American Eagle ERJ 140.

AT:411-L9-P9 A ERJ 170.

November 15, 2007, page 27

AT:411-L10 Panel and mannequin case 3 (4.5) From Stewardess to Flight Attendant Reflecting the social changes of the 1960s and ’70s, the term “stewardess” evolved into gender-neutral “flight attendant.” Conservative uniform styles reappeared due to new laws that prohibited discrimination in hiring based on age, appearance, and gender. Men now returned to the profession as well. Free to compete by offering low fares, frequent service, and more routes, airlines no longer felt the need to hire only attractive young women to appeal to male passengers.

AT:411-L11-P11a,b Stylish yet functional uniforms heighten the sense of professionalism of the cabin crew. Delta Air Transport Heritage Museum

AT:411-L12-P12 By 1980, United Airlines uniforms had returned to a more conservative style.

AT:411-L13-P13 Comfortable uniforms designed for functionality rather than marketing enhance employee productivity.

AT:411-L14-P14 Business style uniforms returned to the skies following deregulation. Getty Images

AT:411-L15-A15 Flight Manager Artifact: Uniform PeoplExpress, 1980s To cut costs and encourage efficiency, PeoplExpress made every owner-employee a “manager.” By eliminating traditional barriers to productivity and easing formalities, the company hoped employees would serve their customers better. This strategy raised morale but caused confusion and actually hurt productivity. This simple uniform, worn by pilot Mike Petrasko, was identical to that of other managers. It sports no “wings” typically found on pilot uniforms. The FAA eventually made PeoplExpress adopt more conventional uniforms to make flight crew more identifiable to passengers. Gift of Mike Petrasko

November 15, 2007, page 28 AT:411-L16-A16 Flight Attendant Artifact: Uniform New York Air, circa 1983 NASM-7672 Gift of Darlene Stafford A9880296000

AT:411-L17-A17 Flight Attendant Artifact: Uniform , 1986 1988/0256-0271 Republic Airlines was formed by the merger of North and in 1979. It quickly grew into a nationwide carrier after purchasing Hughes Air West in 1980, but was in turn absorbed by Northwest Airlines in 1986. Flight attendant Mary Ellen Lipnitz wore this uniform. Gift of Mary Ellen Lipnitz

AT:411-L18-A18 Flight Attendant Artifact: Uniform , 1989 NASM-7855, 1990-0322 Established in North Carolina in 1948, Piedmont was a popular Southern and Mid-Atlantic regional airline noted for its excellent service and “southern hospitality.” It merged with USAir in 1989. This was the last style of uniform worn by Piedmont flight attendants. Gift of Victoria McLaughlin

AT:411-L19-A19 PeoplExpress Conference Room Sign Artifact: Sign This hand-made sign reflects the low-cost approach of Found in collection PeoplExpress.

AT:411-L20-A20 The Flying Nosh Artifact: NY Air objects Reflecting New York Air’s regional culture, in-flight snacks were referred to as noshes and served in bags such as this. Gift of Charles Wolfe

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AT:412-L1 Rail panel 445 Survival of the Fittest Deregulation gave airlines the freedom to compete, but they were now also free to fail—and many did. For two years after deregulation, airlines enjoyed widespread success. But when recession hit in the early 1980s, compounded by an air traffic controllers strike in 1981, the industry began to suffer losses. Many airlines had over-expanded and found themselves desperately fighting for a share of a decreasing market. Large, well-managed, well- financed airlines, such as American, United, and Delta, weathered the storm during the 1980s. But Braniff, Eastern, and many others could not and were forced into bankruptcy and extinction.

AT:412-L2 Cost-Cutting Struggling to survive, airlines cut wages and benefits, but this strategy resulted in strikes and lower productivity. Operations were streamlined and thousands of employees laid off. Some feared these efforts would compromise safety, especially if necessary maintenance was deferred to save money, but these fears proved groundless.

AT:412-L3-P3 Merger mania swept through the industry. By the late 1980s, such old names as National, Western, Piedmont, Ozark, Pacific Southwest, and Air Cal were gone. So were most of the new airlines, including PeoplExpress and New York Air.

November 15, 2007, page 30 AT:412-L4 Rail panel 445 The Demise of Pan American Pan Am’s level of service faltered in the 1970s, and the airline began to lose passengers. To gain a domestic network, it bought National Airlines in 1980, but the merger proved costly. The airline began selling its assets, including its lucrative Pacific routes and the famous Pan Am Building in New York. The bombing of over Lockerbie, Scotland, in 1988 dealt a further blow. America’s leading international carrier since 1928, Pan American ceased flying in December 1991.

AT:412-L5-P5 Pan Am had hoped to resuscitate its transatlantic business with the efficient airliner.

AT:412-L6 Rail panel 445 and mannequin case 4 (4.6) Southwest Airlines Southwest began as a small carrier flying between and Dallas. Under Herb Kelleher’s innovative management, it quickly grew into one of America’s largest, most efficient, and most profitable airlines. Emphasizing “no frills” cabin service, and using only Boeing 737s to minimize costs, Southwest pioneered direct service between underserved downtown airports in large metropolitan areas and smaller cities. To sidestep competition, it moved into satellite airports of major cities. Southwest became a model for a new generation of airlines.

AT:412-L7 “We never tried to be like other airlines.” —Herb Kelleher, founder and chairman of Southwest Airlines

AT:412-L8-P8a,b,c Passengers have benefited from Southwest’s success. Its entry into a new market dramatically lowers its competitors’ fares— the so-called “Southwest effect.” Southwest Airlines

November 15, 2007, page 31 AT:412-L9-A9 Captain Artifact: Uniform Southwest Airlines, 2000 Symbolic of Southwest Airlines’ casual efficiency, airline employees dress in comfortable clothes, a strategy meant to reduce fatigue, improve morale, and promote higher productivity. Southwest was the first airline to issue military- style leather flight jackets to its pilots. Gift of Southwest Airlines

AT:412-L10-A10 Boarding Passes Artifact: Boarding passes One way Southwest cut costs was by issuing reusable plastic boarding passes and eliminating assigned seating. The passes were sequentially numbered; passengers boarded in groups in the order in which they checked in. This encouraged early arrivals and speeded up seating, thus allowing Southwest to return an aircraft to service quickly. Gift of Southwest Airlines

AT:412-L11 Mannequin case 4 (4.6) The Death of Eastern Airlines Eastern Airlines had risen to prominence in the East and South. After deregulation, and under , it expanded west but then had to scale back in the face of mounting economic losses. , who had instituted controversial labor reforms to salvage Continental Airlines, acquired Eastern in 1986. Faced with huge losses, he tried to force concessions from Eastern’s mechanics. This move provoked a bitter strike, which forced Eastern into extinction in January 1991.

AT:412-L12-A12 Eastern Airlines Sign Board Artifact: Eastern sign board This sign board was removed from Eastern’s last gate at Washington’s National Airport. Gift of Eastern Airlines

AT:412-L13-A13 Flight Attendant Artifact: Uniform Eastern Airlines, 1991 NASM-8169, 1996-0388 This is the last flight attendant uniform issued by Eastern Airlines before it went out of business. Gift of Patricia Shatz

November 15, 2007, page 32 AT:412-L14 The PATCO Strike In August 1981, 13,000 members of the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) called an illegal strike, demanding higher wages, shorter hours, and better retirement benefits. By paralyzing the air transportation system during a peak travel time, PATCO hoped the federal government would give in to their demands, as it had during previous “sick-outs.” To PATCO’s , President fired the controllers, who, as federal workers, were not allowed to strike. The FAA replaced them with supervisors, military controllers, and controllers who did not strike. Airlines flew reduced schedules until enough controllers were on the job.

AT:412-L15-A15 PATCO Picket Sign, Cup, and Shirt Artifacts: PATCO items The animosity between the striking controllers and management is reflected in the handwritten comments on the picket sign and the images on the coffee cup and tee-shirt. Gift of Steve Biddle

November 15, 2007, page 33

AT:413-L1 Safety Wherever You Fly Every moment of every day, thousands of aircraft safely cross the skies over the United States. Each is carefully watched and directed to its destination by an interconnected system of air traffic control along well chosen routes.

AT:413-L2-P2 Despite the severe challenges of weather—the primary reason for flight delays—as well as airport congestion, the Federal Aviation Administration’s professional workforce ensures that commercial aviation remains the safest form of travel. Satellite image of Hurricane Epsilon courtesy of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, MODIS Rapid Response Team, Jeff Schmaltz

AT:413-L3-P3 Severe weather causes more than 70 percent of air traffic delays and costs the airlines billions of dollars every year. alone causes 33 percent of these losses. Air traffic controllers work constantly to minimize weather disruptions, while ensuring that every flight arrives safely. Time-lapse image of a severe storm over Norman, Oklahoma, courtesy of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, C. Clark

AT:413-L4 Program courtesy of Federal Aviation Administration Joint Two smaller monitors Planning and Development Office

AT:413-L5 Program courtesy of National Aeronautics and Space Large monitor Administration Monitor courtesy of Sharp Electronics Corporation

November 15, 2007, page 34

AT:414-L1 Rail panel 450 Aviation Technology Innovations in engines and other aspects of aeronautical technology have made aircraft safer, quieter, and more fuel and cost efficient.

AT:414-L2-P2 High-Bypass Turbofan Engines High-bypass turbofans have a large fan at the front of the engine that produces most of the thrust. They are more powerful, more efficient, and much quieter than conventional jet engines. Introduced on Boeing’s 747 wide-body airliner in 1970, high- bypass turbofans drastically changed the economics of the airline industry by helping to lower operating costs and, therefore, fares. Smaller versions have increased the efficiency of narrow-body airliners, the most widely used type in service. Airbus S.A.S

AT:414-L3-P3 The Pratt & Whitney JT9D was the first high-bypass turbofan engine to enter service. Pratt & Whitney

AT:414-L4 Rail panel 450 NASA and the Jet Age NASA (and its predecessor, the NACA) has created several revolutionary aeronautical technologies that have made air travel safer, more efficient, and less expensive. Today’s generation of highly productive airliners has directly benefited from NASA’s pioneering research. Introduced in the 1980s, digital fly-by-wire control systems and computerized “glass cockpit” displays have made airliners more reliable, efficient, and safe.

AT:414-L5-P5 Digital fly-by-wire control systems replace hydraulically driven cables and pulleys with lighter-weight, computer- driven flight controls linked only by electrical wires. The Airbus A320 (left) was the first airliner to use digital fly-by- wire controls. NASA pioneered this technology on its highly modified F-8C (above).

November 15, 2007, page 35 AT:414-L6-P6 In a “glass cockpit,” digital electronic displays replace conventional analog instruments. This technology provides flight crews with far better instrumentation and information than ever before.

AT:414-L7 The First “A” in NASA Family label NASA is usually associated with spaceflight, but its first “A” stands for Aeronautics. NASA conducts aeronautical research and works to improve the safety of air transportation.

Below 747 nose AT:414-L8-A8 Grooved Concrete Runway Section Artifact: Concrete runway section During the 1960s, NASA developed grooved runways to channel away water and improve traction for aircraft. By reducing the effects of hydroplaning, grooved runways minimize the chance of aircraft sliding off a wet runway during landing. This proved so successful that the technology has since been applied to highway design to improve safety. This section of concrete runway was used for testing by NASA’s Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory. Transferred from NASA

AT:414-L9-A9 General Electric CF6 Artifact: Engine The first successful high-bypass turbofan, the General Electric NASM-5832, 1977-2557 CF6 was originally built as the TF39 for the U.S. Air Force’s giant Lockheed C-5A Galaxy transport. Its first commercial use was on the McDonnell Douglas DC-10. It has since been installed on the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas MD-11, and Airbus A300 and A310 wide-body aircraft. Gift of GE Aircraft Engines

Type: Two-shaft axial turbofan, 1-stage fan, 1- stage low-pressure compressor, 16-stage high-pressure compressor, 2-stage high- pressure turbine, 5-stage low-pressure turbine Takeoff thrust: 18,000 kg (40,000 lb) Bypass ratio: 5.9:1 Weight: 3,379 kg (7,450 lb) Manufacturer: GE Aircraft Engines, West Lynn, Mass.

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AT:415-L1 Rail panel 450 Computer Technology Computers have become crucial to the airline industry. They are used to book tickets, plan flights, schedule aircraft and crew, oversee maintenance, and set fares. From ticket reservations to aircraft design and manufacture, computers have helped airline operations become more efficient and flexible. The rise of personal computers and the Internet has given passengers complete control over booking their own flights and seat selections. The complex and fluid airfare system that computers have made possible enables savvy travelers to find low fares on many routes.

AT:415-L2-P2 Using the Internet, passengers can search for find the best fare or flight, choose seats, make reservations, pay for the ticket, and print receipts and boarding passes.

AT:415-L3-P3 Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacture (CAD/CAM) have greatly reduced the cost of producing aircraft. Computers produce accurate drawings and can alert designers to possible conflicts before a design is produced. They can also manufacture parts more precisely and faster than humans. Parts for the 747-400 (shown here) are made by CAD/CAM. The was the first airliner completely designed on computer.

AT:415-L4-P4 Computer reservation systems have led to code sharing— agreements between airlines that allow travelers to fly on more than one carrier on a single ticket. Code sharing increases and optimizes the flow of passenger through an airline’s network. A major carrier may have code sharing agreements with regional, commuter, and foreign airlines. Sunil Gupta

AT:415-L5-P5 Computers speed the check-in process. Delta Air Transport Heritage Museum

November 15, 2007, page 37 AT:415-L6-P6 In the late 1950s, American Airlines pioneered the use of a computer reservation system, and in 1963 American installed its Semi-Automated Business Environment, or . Other airlines followed American’s lead and developed their own computer reservation systems.

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AT:416-L1 Rail panel 470 Air Express Rapid transport and delivery of packages has become an important aspect of the airline industry. Federal Express led the way. After deregulation of the airline and trucking industries in the late 1970s, air express carriers specializing in rapid delivery of high-priority packages rose to prominence. In 1973, Federal Express became the first airline to operate exclusively as an express carrier. Air express airlines now operate their own aircraft and trucks to provide overnight package delivery.

AT:416-L2 “We started out with 8 planes and we covered something like 35 or 40 cities and we added each month.” —Fred Smith, founder of FedEx

AT:416-L3-P3 In a paper for his Yale economics class, Fred Smith proposed the idea of an express, door-to-door package service using a centrally located airport hub as a nighttime sorting house. Although his paper was not well received, Smith pursued his vision. In 1973 he created Federal Express and used his hometown of Memphis, Tennessee, as its hub.

AT:416-L4-P4 In the package delivery business since 1907, UPS experimented with air express in the early 1930s. In 1953 it began “Blue Label Air” second-day delivery through an integrated air and ground system. In 1982 it joined the ranks of air express airlines by introducing “Next Day Air.” The airline’s hub is in Louisville, Kentucky.

AT:416-L5-P5 UPS routes hundreds of flights carrying thousands of packages every day through its hub in Louisville, Kentucky.

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AT:417-L1 Rail panel 470 Airline Security Security measures to protect airliners from hijacking and terrorism began in the 1960s and increased to unprecedented levels after September 11, 2001. As flying grew increasingly popular, airlines became attractive targets for hijackers and terrorists. The hijacking of a National Airlines jet to Havana, Cuba, in 1961 sparked a decade-long rash of similar acts. By the late 1960s, political terrorists had attacked airliners and airports to draw attention to their causes. In response, the FAA placed armed sky marshals aboard airliners. In 1973 it began using metal detectors and x-ray machines to search for weapons and explosives. Despite such measures, airlines remained vulnerable.

AT:417-L2-P2 Combating Hijackings and Terrorism In the 1980s, the FAA and the airlines instituted further security measures: • Searching the interior of every of airliner before the first flight each day. • Guarding aircraft while on the ground. • Inspecting the property of all maintenance and support personnel. • Matching with the names of passengers. • Questioning passengers to ensure they have not accepted packages from strangers. Port of Seattle

November 15, 2007, page 40 AT:417-L3 September 11, 2001 On September 11, terrorists hijacked four airliners and used them to kill more than 3,000 people. Two airliners destroyed the World Trade Center towers in New York, a third slammed into the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., and the fourth crashed in rural Pennsylvania after its passengers courageously fought back. These terrorist attacks, the most deadly in U.S. history, caused even more extensive security measures to be imposed upon airports, airlines, and air travelers.

AT:417-L4-P4 © 2001, The Washington Post. Reprinted with permission.

AT:417-L5-P5 In response to September 11, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) was created by the Aviation and Transportation Security Act of November 2001. TSA soon took over and installed a new federal workforce to screen passengers and baggage. TSA became part of the newly formed Department of Homeland Security in 2003.

AT:417-L6-P6 Items confiscated from departing passengers at San Francisco International Airport. Katy Raddatz, San Francisco Chronicle/Corbis

November 15, 2007, page 41 Mannequin case 5 (4.7) AT:418-L1-A1 Captain Artifact: Uniform , 1998 Patrice Clarke-Washington wore this uniform while flying for UPS, where in 1994 she became the first African American woman to serve as a captain for a major U.S. airline. Gift of Patrice Clarke-Washington and United Parcel Service

AT:418-L2-A2 Captain Artifact: Uniform US Airways, 1999 The military style of the captain’s uniform has changed little since uniforms were introduced in the early 1930s. This one, worn by Capt. James Webster of US Airways, is typical. Gift of James Webster

AT:418-L3-M3 Model Introduced in 1967, the 150-seat Boeing 737 was designed to A19761535000 serve short routes. After deregulation, the slow-selling aircraft became a best-seller, thanks to its twin-engine efficiency and low operating costs. Well over 6,000 have been sold, more than any other jetliner. Gift of Frontier Airlines

AT:418-L4-M4 Airbus A320 Model The European company Airbus entered the market for narrow- body aircraft in the mid-1980s. The 150-seat Airbus A320 was designed to compete with Boeing’s 737. The A320 pioneered the computerized “glass cockpit” and introduced such innovations as winglets. It was also the first civil airliner built with digital “fly-by-wire” flight controls. Gift of Airbus

AT:418-L5-M5 Boeing 777 Model Introduced in 1995, the Boeing 777 is the world’s largest T20050082004 twin-jet airliner. The wide-body airliner can carry up to 440 passengers and has a maximum range of 13,350 kilometers (8,300 miles). It was designed to replace early versions of the four-engine Boeing 747. Gift of The Boeing Company

November 15, 2007, page 42 Beneath 747 nose AT:419-L1 How Does Air Travel Affect You? Air travel affects your life, even if you don’t fly. Can you imagine a world without airplanes? How does it affect you? Explore the baggage to find out some of the many ways.

AT:419-L2 Jet transportation combined with refrigeration allows people Family labels, luggage pile around the world to enjoy foods that used to be available only in certain regions. Someone in landlocked Kansas can enjoy fresh Maine lobster, shipped live. Where do your favorite foods come from? Courtesy of East Coast Seafood, Inc., Lynn, Massachusetts

AT:419-L3 People in the northern hemisphere in the winter can enjoy grapes harvested in or pears from Argentina. We are no longer limited to eating only what is “in season.” Where do your favorite foods come from? Courtesy of Whole Foods, Inc., and Washington’s Green Grocer

AT:419-L4 The speed of jet travel and low airfares enable more people to travel than ever before. Today it is not uncommon to fly across the country for a few days of recreation, or to travel to an exotic location for vacation. Where do you think these people have been? Courtesy of Blue Sky Tours Hawaii, Amanda Padilla, Ethan Brennan, and Dennis Odom

AT:419-L5 The speed of jet travel and low airfares enable more people to travel than ever before. Today it is not uncommon to fly across the country for a few days of recreation, or to travel to an exotic location for vacation. Where do you think this person is going?

November 15, 2007, page 43 AT:419-L6 Some vacation spots, such as in Orlando, have become popular in part because they have worked with airlines to make themselves easily accessible by air. Have you traveled by airplane on a vacation? Where did you go?

AT:419-L7 Today, a sports team’s biggest rival may not be the neighboring team but one thousands of miles away. With the coming of jet travel, major league baseball expanded into new markets west of the Mississippi River. The New York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers found new homes in California. Who is your team’s biggest rival? Courtesy of the Washington Nationals

AT:419-L8 The speed of jet travel and low airfares have contributed to family members living farther apart. People are more willing to move to distant places for a new job or to attend college because they are just a flight away from friends and family. Do any of your family members live an airplane ride away? Photograph courtesy of National Air and Space Museum intern Shannon Turner and the Woodsen and Fountain families

AT:419-L9-P9 My family traveled from all over the country for our annual reunion in Roanoke, VA.

AT:419-L10 Jet travel helps doctors to save lives. Donated organs can be quickly transported over long distances to people in need of organ transplants. The easiest organ to ship is the kidney— more and more kidneys are donated each year. Do you know anyone who needed to travel by airplane for their health? Courtesy of the Washington Regional Transplant Consortium

AT:419-L11 Although jet travel allows germs to spread faster and farther, air travel also allows health officials to rapidly transport vials of vaccine anywhere in the world. Have you ever gotten sick after riding in a plane?

November 15, 2007, page 44 AT:419-L12 Jet travel helps shape politics by making it easier for our representatives to stay in contact with the people they serve, especially during election years. A politician’s schedule may include stops across the country in just one day. Have you ever met your member of Congress? Courtesy of Boise State University, Frank Church Collection

AT:419-L13 Online shopping combined with jet travel allows you to order items from far away right from your home computer. If you are willing to pay the cost, you can receive them the next day. What do you order online?

November 15, 2007, page 45

AT:420-L1 Upright panel 400b (back of one 400 intro panel) The Computer Revolution in the Cockpit To manage the complex technology of modern airliners, flight crews rely on computers to fly aircraft and to monitor aircraft systems. The first were used on airliners in the mid-1930s. In the late 1950s, electronic computers became small enough to be used aboard aircraft. Sophisticated digital computers can now fly aircraft in virtually any situation, while ensuring that all systems are functioning properly. Digital technology has enhanced safety and efficiency and reduced the flight crew’s workload.

AT:420-L2 Fly-by-Wire “Fly-by-wire” technology translates the pilot’s actions into electronic signals, which computers use to manipulate flight controls. The computers constantly monitor pilot input and prevent the aircraft from exceeding its flight envelope, thereby increasing safety. And because fly-by-wire replaces heavy, complex mechanical linkages with lighter electrical wires, it is more efficient. Invented by NASA in the 1970s and first used in , this technology was a direct -off from the space program, which used fly-by-wire systems to maneuver the lunar module.

AT:420-L3-P3 In 1972, NASA research pilot Gary Krier became the first to fly a digital fly-by-wire aircraft when he piloted NASA’s highly modified F-8C Crusader jet fighter.

AT:420-L4-P4 The (now Lockheed) F-16 Fighting Falcon was the first production aircraft designed to fly with digital fly-by-wire controls.

November 15, 2007, page 46 AT:420-L5-P5 The Airbus A320 revolutionized commercial aviation by introducing digital fly-by-wire technology in civil airliners. Featuring a glass cockpit with a unique side-stick controller to fly the aircraft, the A320 set a new standard for safety and efficiency. Every new airliner designed since it entered service in 1988 has incorporated glass cockpit and fly-by-wire technology.

AT:420-L6-A6 Airbus A320 Simulated Takeoff and Landing Artifact: Simulated cockpit Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport Airbus A320 simulated cockpit gift of Airbus

AT:420-L7 Shown here is a computer-simulated takeoff and landing of an computer interactive Airbus A320 from Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport.

Use the track ball to change your point of view. Airbus A320 simulated cockpit gift of Airbus

AT:420-L8 Glass Cockpit A modern airliner typically features a “glass cockpit”— computer monitors that show flight, engine, and aircraft performance data in easily understood displays. A set of up to six computer monitors can replace hundreds of gauges and switches, greatly simplifying the tasks of the flight crew. Pioneered by NASA and the aerospace industry, the glass cockpit was introduced in 1982 and is now the industry standard. Gift of Airbus

Near glass cockpit AT:420-L9-MI9 Flight Control Then and Now Aircraft control systems interactive Aircraft Control systems have changed over the past 100 years. Each system has advantages and disadvantages. • Try out the three systems below. • Which would you rather fly?

November 15, 2007, page 47 AT:420-L10 Mechanical, 1920s and ’30s A system of cables and pulleys was used to control the airplane in flight. Today, mechanical controls are used only on small aircraft. Advantages: • Simple, inexpensive Disadvantages: • Requires frequent adjustment • Depends solely upon the pilot’s strength to operate

AT:420-L11 Curtiss JN-4 1920s

AT:420-L12 Hydraulic Boost (1940s–1980s) In the 1940s, aircraft became larger and faster. Hydraulics helped pilot control the airplane. Advantages: • Safe • Easier to operate Disadvantages: • Heavy and complex

AT:420-L13 Douglas DC-7 1950s

AT:420-L14 Digital, 1980s to Present In “fly-by-wire” systems, as the pilot moves the controls, computers send signals through wires to electrical motors, which adjust the aircraft’s control surfaces. Advantages: • Much lighter, more reliable, and more precise • Safer and more efficient Disadvantages: • Complex and costly

AT:420-L15 Airbus A-320 1990s

November 15, 2007, page 48

AT:421-L1 The Leading Edge Air Transportation Today and Tomorrow

AT:421-L2 Monitor courtesy of Sharp Electronics Corporation

November 15, 2007, page 49 Bridge to Boeing 747 AT:422-L1 Boeing 747 Designed for Pan American to replace the 707, the giant Boeing 747 revolutionized long-distance air travel when it entered service in 1970. Carrying 400 passengers—two and a half times more than the 707—it offered far lower seat-mile costs. Propelled by four powerful and efficient high-bypass turbofan engines, the “Jumbo Jet” spawned a new generation of wide-body airliners from Airbus, Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and later Boeing.

AT:422-L2-P2 The Boeing 747 generated great public interest because of its huge size. Airlines offered spacious legroom, piano bars, and lounges aboard their 747s to attract passengers. These amenities were soon replaced by revenue-producing seats.

AT:422-L3-P3 Jennings Heilig

AT:422-L4-P4 The 747’s cockpit was located well above the main cabin floor, because the aircraft was originally designed as a cargo transport. Pan Am suggested that passengers could sit in the area behind the cockpit. This inspired Boeing to connect the upper level with the main cabin by a graceful spiral staircase similar to the one used in its 377 Stratocruiser. © The Boeing Company

AT:422-L5 Did You Know? Family label The entire fleet of 747s has logged many tens of billions of kilometers—enough to make more than 70,000 trips to the Moon and back!

AT:422-L6 Did You Know? Family label The Wright brothers could have flown their first powered flight within the 45-meter (150-foot) long economy section of a 747-400.

November 15, 2007, page 50 AT:422-L7A7 Boeing 747-151 Artifact: 747 nose section This nose section is from a Northwest Airlines Boeing Second of three panels 747-151. First flown in 1970, this 747 was the first built for Northwest and the first 747 to open service across the Pacific. It was retired in 1999. Gift of Northwest Airlines, Inc. Wingspan: 59.6 m (195 ft 8 in) Length: 70.5 m (231 ft 4 in) Height: 19.3 m (63 ft 5 in) Weight, empty: 158,220 kg (348,816 lb) Weight, gross: 333,400 kg (735,000 lb) Top speed: 958 km/h (595 mph) Engine: 4 Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3, 19,730 kg (43,500 lb) thrust Manufacturer: Boeing Co., Seattle, Wash.

AT:422-L8 747 Superimposed Over the Museum Family label If the entire Boeing 747 were on display, its tail would extend all the way back to the far wall of the Milestones of Flight gallery.

AT:422-L9 Did You Know? Family label Four World War I vintage JN-4D “Jenny” airplanes could fit on each of the Boeing 747 wings.

AT:422-L10-P10 Third of three panels Boeing and Airbus “Jumbo Jets” The Boeing 747 design has evolved through a series of models with greater range or capacity. Airbus, Boeing’s chief competitor, has responded with its own cutting-edge jet airliners.

AT:422-L11-P11 The 747-400 can carry 416 passengers and fly 13,450 kilometers (8,360 miles). It has an extended upper deck and winglets. The fuselage of the 747-8, the latest version, is about 5.6 meters (18 feet) longer and has engines derived from the Boeing 787. It can carry 467 people and fly 14,800 kilometers (9,200 miles).

November 15, 2007, page 51 T:422-L12-P12 The , the world’s largest passenger airliner, can carry 525 passengers on two full-length decks. Designed to ease congestion along the world’s most heavily traveled routes, it can fly 15,200 kilometers (9,450 miles).

AT:422-L13-P13 An Airbus A380 above the National Air and Space Museum and the National Mall.

AT:422-L14-P14 The Airbus A350 is made mostly of composite materials and can seat 270 to 350 passengers. It’s designed to compete with Boeing’s 777 and 787.

AT:422-L15-P15a,b The Boeing 787, the first airliner built mostly from strong, lightweight composite material, may revolutionize airliner construction. It can seat 210 to 330 passengers and can fly direct, long-distance routes—thus avoiding crowded hub airports. © The Boeing Company

AT:422-L16 Did You Know? Family label The 747 fleet has flown 3.5 billion passengers—the equivalent of more than half the world’s population.

November 15, 2007, page 52 Artifacts displayed in 747 nose. AT:422-L17-A17 Captain’s Uniform Artifact: Uniform Northwest Airlines Northwest Airlines pilots wear typical naval style uniforms first pioneered by Pan American in the 1930s. In recognition of Northwest’s roots as one of the earliest contract air mail carriers, pilots wear wings patterned after the original U.S. Air Mail badges. Gift of Capt. Darrel F. Smith

AT:422-L18-A18 Flight Attendant’s Uniform Artifact: Uniform Northwest Airlines This uniform was worn by Northwest Airlines flight attendant Tami Tucker during the late 1990s. Gift of Tami Tucker

AT:422-L19-M19 Boeing 747-100 Model Braniff Airways was one of 22 customers who purchased the A19761277000 initial Boeing 747-100 series aircraft.

November 15, 2007, page 53