NATIONAL REPORT by the KINGDOM of DENMARK – NOVEMBER 2015 Enhanced Black Carbon and Methane Emissions Reductions– an Arctic Council Framework for Action

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NATIONAL REPORT BY THE KINGDOM OF DENMARK – NOVEMBER 2015 Enhanced Black Carbon and Methane Emissions Reductions– an Arctic Council Framework for Action

National Report to the Arctic Council on Black Carbon and Methane Emissions

Kingdom of Denmark November 2015

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Contents 1. SUMMARY OF CURRENT BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS ...... 3 1.1. DENMARK’S BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS ...... 3 1.2. PROJECTIONS FOR DENMARK ...... 5 1.3. GREENLAND’S BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS ...... 7 1.3.1. Total black carbon emissions 1990-2013 ...... 7 1.4. PROJECTIONS FOR GREENLAND AND THE FAROE ISLANDS ...... 8 2. SUMMARY OF CURRENT METHANE EMISSIONS AND FUTURE PROJECTIONS ...... 9 2.1. DENMARK’S METHANE EMISSIONS ...... 9 2.1.1. Total methane emissions 1990-2013 ...... 9 2.1.2. Projections of Denmark’s methane emissions 2015-2035 ...... 10 2.2. GREENLAND’S METHANE EMISSIONS ...... 12 2.2.1. Total methane emissions 1990-2013 ...... 12 2.2.2. Projections ...... 13 2.3. FAROE ISLAND’S METHANE EMISSIONS ...... 13 2.3.1. Total methane emissions 1990-2013 ...... 13 3. SUMMARY OF NATIONAL ACTIONS, ACTION PLANS, OR MITIGATION STRATEGIES BY SECTOR ...... 15 3.1. DENMARK ...... 15 3.1.1. Black Carbon ...... 15 3.1.2. Methane ...... 17 Energy Sector ...... 17 Agriculture ...... 18 Waste 18 3.2. GREENLAND ...... 21 Shipping ...... 21 Road transport ...... 22 Heating ...... 22 Renewable energy ...... 22 3.3. FAROE ISLAND ...... 22 4. HIGHLIGHTS OF BEST PRACTICES OR LESSONS LEARNED FOR KEY SECTORS ...... 24 4.1. BLACK CARBON ...... 24 4.2. METHANE ...... 24 5. PROJECTS RELEVANT FOR THE ARCTIC...... 25 6. OTHER INFORMATION...... 28

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1. Summary of current black carbon emissions and future projections

1.1. Denmark’s black carbon emissions

The first Danish Black Carbon (BC) inventory was produced in 2010 and published in 2011 (Winther and Nielsen, 2008). This emission inventory related to fuel combustion for the historical years 1990 to 2008 and for the forecast years 2009 to 2030. The basis for inventory was the Danish TSP emission inventories and projections. The relevant emission factor information was based primarily on the European models GAINS and COPERT IV. Besides BC, the inventory also covered Organic Carbon (OC).

Residential sources are the largest contributor to TSP, BC and OC emissions, representing in 2008 70%, 62 % and 83% of the total, followed by road transport exhaust and non-exhaust, other mobile sources and other stationary sources as presented in Figure 1. The figure in- cludes emission for Greenland and the Faroe Islands, which counts for less than 1% of the total.

FIGURE 1: HISTORICAL EMISSIONS KINGDOM OF DENMARK 1990-2008 AND PROJECTIONS 2009-2030 FOR THE MAIN SOURCE, WINTHER & NIELSEN 2011

From 2015 Denmark report BC emissions annually to LRTAP. The latest inventory is sum- marized in Table 1 below.

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TABLE 1: EMISSION INVENTORY FOR DENMARK EXCLUDING FAROE ISLANDS AND GREENLAND. Reported NFR sector Main Pollutants Particulate Matter (2013) (2013) in kilotonnes in kilotonnes

NOx NM SOx NH3 PM2.5 PM10 TSP BC (as VOC (as

NO2) SO2) A Public 1A1a Public electricity and heat pro- 13,80 1,31 3,31 0,02 0,58 0,73 0,93 0,38 Power duction B Indu- 1A2e Stationary combustion in man- 1,38 0,06 1,45 NA 0,07 0,10 0,11 0,06 stry ufacturing industries and construction: Food processing, beverages and tobacco I Offroad 1A2 Mobile Combustion in manu- 7,45 1,08 0,01 0,00 0,61 0,61 0,61 0,43 gvii facturing industries and construction: (please specify in the IIR) F Road- 1A3 Road transport: Passenger cars 18,09 5,64 0,04 1,22 0,50 0,50 0,50 0,36 Trans- bi port F Road- 1A3 Road transport: Light duty ve- 6,23 0,55 0,01 0,03 0,34 0,34 0,34 0,27 Trans- bii hicles port F Road- 1A3 Road transport: Heavy duty ve- 16,19 0,39 0,02 0,03 0,26 0,26 0,26 0,18 Trans- biii hicles and buses port F Road- 1A3 Road transport: Automobile NA NA NA NA 0,56 1,01 1,37 0,15 Trans- bvi tyre and brake wear port I Offroad 1A3c Railways 2,36 0,16 0,00 0,00 0,07 0,07 0,07 0,05

G Ship- 1A3 National navigation (shipping) 8,06 0,27 1,24 NA 0,16 0,16 0,16 0,03 ping dii C Other- 1A4a Commercial/institutional: Sta- 0,72 0,20 0,12 NA 0,14 0,15 0,15 0,04 Stationa- i tionary ry Comb C Other- 1A4 Residential: Stationary 3,76 12,55 0,90 1,29 13,40 13,73 14,46 1,90 Stationa- bi ryComb C Other- 1A4c Agriculture/Forestry/Fishing: 0,58 1,38 1,16 NA 0,45 0,48 0,51 0,12 Stationa- i Stationary ry Comb I Offroad 1A4c Agriculture/Forestry/Fishing: 7,26 1,54 0,01 0,00 0,58 0,58 0,58 0,35 ii Off-road vehicles and other machinery I Offroad 1A4c Agriculture/Forestry/Fishing: 9,14 0,40 0,32 NA 0,15 0,15 0,15 0,05 iii National fishing I Offroad 1A5 Other, Mobile (including mili- 1,51 0,38 0,07 0,00 0,10 0,10 0,10 0,04 b tary, land based and recreation- al boats) D Fugi- 1B1a Fugitive emission from solid NA NA NA NA 0,03 0,30 0,74 0,50 tive fuels: Coal mining and han- Side 4

dling

L Agri 3F Field burning of agricultural 0,11 0,29 0,01 0,11 0,26 0,27 0,27 0,02 Other residues OTHER 27,22 88,24 4,97 71,63 2,97 12,66 67,92 0,05

NATIONAL National total for compliance 123,86 114,43 13,64 74,32 21,24 32,21 89,25 4,99 TOTAL assessment

Greenland and the Faroe Islands are exempted from obligations under the Gothenburg Proto- col, and therefore do not report to LRTAP on BC.

1.2. Projections for Denmark1

The 2010 projection for 2009-2030 showed that total Danish emissions of TSP, BC and OC were expected to decrease by 14%, 28% and 12%, respectively, from 1990 to 2030.

For diesel combustion the decreasing emissions are caused by legal requirements to have filters on new vehicles and machinery. For wood combustion there is an increase in emission until 2008. The increase is due to increased fuel consumption (more stoves and more exten- sive use), but also in part due to more precise estimates of the total wood combustion. From 2008 the 2010 projection estimated that emissions will decline due to technological improve- ments in wood combustion. This has been confirmed by the 2013 inventory. This development is supported both by eco-labelling of the best stoves and legal requirements banning the sale of stoves with bad environmental performance. Figure 2 shows how the emissions from different kind of stoves contribute over time to the total.

1 Projections are performed on a regular basis in Denmark, based on international guidelines. These projections are not scrutinized and accepted by the Danish Government as input for formal national obligations for future reductions Side 5

FIGURE 2 EMISSIONS FORM THE LARGEST SOURCE (WOOD COMBUSTION) DISTRIBUTED ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY

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1.3. Greenland’s black carbon emissions

1.3.1. Total black carbon emissions 1990-2013

Fishing, hunting and agriculture are the main sources of emissions of BC in 2011, see figure 3. Among other important sources are: road transport with 14 %, shipping with 13 % and households with 11 % in 2011.

The total emissions of BC in Greenland have decreased by 33 % from 1990-2011.

It should be noted that the figures on energy consumption for 1990-2003 are generally subject to higher uncertainty than the period 2004-2011 due to changes in the statistical inventory.

Emissions of BC are approximately 10 % higher per capita in Greenland than in Denmark.

FIGURE 3. BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS IN GREENLAND, TIME-SERIES FOR 1990-2011.2 Tons 20

18 Fishing, Hunting and Agriculture 16

8 Road Transport 6

4 Households Shipping 2 Other mobile sources Other Stationary Comb 0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

3 TABLE 2. BLACK CARBON EMISSIONS IN GREENLAND FOR 1990-2011 (TONS). 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 Households 3,4 2,8 3,0 3,3 2,5 2,6 Other Stationary Comb 0,9 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 1,2 Road Transport 16,6 9,7 7,1 5,9 3,4 3,2 Shipping 2,1 2,1 2,4 2,9 2,6 3,0 Fishing, Hunting and Agriculture 10,3 9,3 17,7 10,9 10,6 10,8 Other mobile sources 0,9 0,8 0,8 0,8 2,3 2,1 Total 34,3 25,3 31,8 24,7 22,6 22,9

Households Household emissions of BC have decreased by 24 % from 1990-2011, mainly because household consumption of gas oil heating has decreased due to better insulation and more efficient oil furnaces etc.

2 Lene Baunbæk, Grønlands Statistik. Emission af TSP, BC OC fra grønlandsk energiforbrug i perioden 1990- 2011. 3 Lene Baunbæk, Grønlands Statistik. Emission af TSP, BC OC fra grønlandsk energiforbrug i perioden 1990- 2011. Side 7

Road transport Emissions of BC from road transport dropped 81 % from 1990-2011. More efficient particle filters in diesel oil vehicles is the primary reason for this significant decrease. The consumption of gas oil for road transport has decreased, while consumption of gasoline has increased significantly from 1990 to 2011.

Fishing, hunting and agriculture Combined, fishing, hunting and agriculture is the largest contributor to emissions of BC in the period 1990-2011. Within this sector, fishing and hunting account for about 99 % of emissions while agriculture only contributes with about 1 % of BC. Energy use for fishing and hunting increases and decreases throughout the period 1990-2011, peaking in 2000. As mentioned above, the figures for 1990-2003 are uncertain. From 1990 to 2011, energy consumption in hunting and fishing increased by 13 %.

In total, agriculture, hunting, fishing and shipping account for 61 % of BC emissions.

1.4. Projections for Greenland and the Faroe Islands

Figure 4 BC EMISSIONS 1990-2030 FOR GREENLAND AND THE FAROE ISLANDS (2009-2030 FORECASTS)

BC Emissions from Faroe Islands and Greenland 60 1990-2030 Greenland Total 50

10 Emission per year in tonnes in year per Emission 0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030

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2. Summary of current methane emissions and future projections

2.1. Denmark’s methane emissions

Denmark’s methane emissions (CH4) are estimated as part of Denmark’s total greenhouse gas emissions reported annually to the European Commission and estimated as part of the King- dom of Denmark’s total greenhouse gas emissions (i.e. the sum of Denmark’s, Greenland’s and Faroe Islands’ methane emissions) reported annually to the secretariat for the United Na- tions Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

In 2015, the annual inventory submission in April 2015 to the UNFCCC has been delayed until November 2015 due to non-functioning reporting software from the UNFCCC. Estimates of Denmark’s emissions of methane contained in this document have been reported to the UNFCCC on 7 November 2015 as part of total methane emissions from Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands.

The methane emissions are estimated according to the IPCC 2006 guidelines.

2.1.1. Total methane emissions 1990-2013

The largest sources of anthropogenic methane (CH4) emissions are agricultural activities contributing in 2013 with 78.0 %, waste (15.7 %), public power and energy industries (2.0 %) as shown in Figure 5. The emission from agriculture derives from enteric fermentation and management of animal manure contributing with 50.2 % and 27.8 % respectively of the national CH4 emission excl. LULUCF in 2013. The CH4 emission from public power and district heating plants increased in the nineties, mainly 1992-1996, due to the increasing use of gas engines in the decentralised cogeneration plant sector. Up to 3 % of the natural gas in the gas engines is not combusted. The deregulation of the electricity market has made production of electricity in gas engines less favourable, therefore the fuel consumption has decreased and hence the CH4 emission has decreased. Over the time series from 1990 to 2013 the emission of CH4 from enteric fermentation has decreased 8.7 % due to the decrease in the number of cattle. However, the emission from manure management has in the same period increased 10.9 % due to a change in traditional stable systems towards an increase in slurry-based stable systems. Altogether, the emission of CH4 from the agricultural sector has decreased by 2.6 % from 1990 to 2013. The emission of CH4 from solid waste disposal has decreased 43.1 % since 1990 due to an increase in the incineration of waste and hence a decrease in the waste being deposited at landfills caused by a ban on depositing waste fit for incineration that was introduced in 1997. When waste is incinerated for the purpose of energy production, the emissions from the incineration are included in the energy sector.

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FIGURE 5: DENMARK’S METHANE (CH4) EMISSIONS BY SECTOR/SUBSECTOR (SHARE IN % IN 2013)

FIGURE 6: DENMARK’S METHANE EMISSION LEVEL IN 1000 TONNES CH4 IN 1990-2013)

2.1.2. Projections of Denmark’s methane emissions 2015-20354

Projections of Denmark’s methane emissions are usually elaborated as part of projections of Denmark’s total greenhouse gas emissions. The most recent projection of Denmark’s greenhouse gas emissions is the “with existing measures” projection from 2014. The overall emission of methane in Denmark is projected as follows:

4 Projections are performed on a regular basis in Denmark, based on international guidelines. These projections are not scrutinized and accepted by the Danish Government as input for formal national obligations for future reductions Side 10

Figure 7 Total CH4 emissions projected, kilotons methane

Agriculture The overall CH4 emission is expected to increase from 218 Gg CH4 in 1990 to 260 Gg CH4 in 2035 corresponding to an increase of 15 %.

The decrease in emission from enteric fermentation 1990–2012 is due to a decrease in the number of dairy cattle, as a consequence of higher milk yield. Because the EU milk quota system does not continue from 2014, the number of dairy cattle is expected to increase from 2014 – 2035. The increase in number of dairy cattle and a continued increase in milk yield and feed intake lead to an increase of the enteric emission.

The CH4 emission from manure management has increased from 1990- 2012, which is a result of change in housing systems towards more slurry based systems. In future this trend is as- sumed to continue but mainly due to increase in number of animals.

Waste Solid waste disposal on land The CRF source category 6.A Solid waste disposal sites, gives rise to CH4 emissions. CH4 emissions are calculated by means of a first order decay (FOD) emissions model, where activ- ity data is annual data for the amount of waste deposited and where emissions factors, which are the amounts of CH4 emitted per amount of waste deposited, result from model assump- tions about the decay of waste and release of CH4 as described in Nielsen et al., 2014.

The emission projection uses the same CH4 emission model used for calculation of the histor- ic emissions. The resulting projections of the generated, recovered and net CH4 emissions can be seen in Figure 7.

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FIGURE 8 HISTORICAL AND PROJECTED AMOUNTS OF WASTE DEPOSITED AT LANDFILL (KILO TONNES) AND NET CH4 EMISSIONS (GG OR KILO TONNES CO2-EQVIVALENTS.).

Due to a combination of the Danish waste strategies and goals of minimising the amount of deposited waste in favour of an increased reuse and combustion for energy production, the sharp decrease in historical data on the deposited amounts of waste is observed.

2.2. Greenland’s methane emissions

2.2.1. Total methane emissions 1990-2013

The most significant source of anthropogenic CH4 emissions is agriculture which contributes with 47 % of total CH4 emissions in 2013; see Figure 9. Waste management accounts for 44 % of total emissions and the energy sector for 9 % of total CH4 emissions in 2013. The emission from agriculture derives from enteric fermentation (98 %) and management of animal manure (2 %).

Since 1990, the overall number of sheep has increased, while the overall number of caribou has decreased. From 1990 to 2013, the emission of CH4 from agricultural activities has decreased by 10.3 %.

The emission of CH4 from waste management derives from solid waste disposal (71 %) and incineration and open burning (29 %). From 1990 to 2013, the emission of CH4 from solid waste disposal has increased by 6.3 %, while emission from waste incineration has decreased by 29.6 %. Overall, emissions of CH4 from waste management ha ve decreased by 7.5 % from 1990 to 2013.

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FIGURE 9. CH4 EMISSIONS, TIME-SERIES FOR 1990-2013. PRELIMINARY DATA. Gg CO2-equivalent 18 Total including 16 LULUCF

14 Total excluding 12 LULUCF

10 Energy - Fuel 8 Combustion

6 Agriculture 4

2 Waste 0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012

FIGURE 10. CH4 EMISSIONS, DISTRIBUTION ACCORDING TO THE MAIN SECTORS IN 2013. PRELIMINARY DATA.

Waste - 44%

Energy - Fuel Combustion - 9%

Agriculture - 47%

Emission of CH4 is approximately five times less per capita in Greenland than in Denmark.

Natural CH4 emissions have not been factored out in the above data. Thawing of permafrost caused by climate changes seems to result in significant emissions of methane.

2.2.2. Projections

Based on the rather constant trend since about 2000, the best estimate for a projection of CH4 emissions is a constant level. It has not been possible to obtain projections for the number of livestock or waste production.

2.3. Faroe Island’s methane emissions

2.3.1. Total methane emissions 1990-2013

The Faroe Islands’ methane emissions are not reported separately under the UNFCCC in the Common Reporting Format (CRF), but as part of the CRF for the Kingdom of Denmark (i.e. the sum of Denmark’s, Greenland’s and the Faroe Islands’ emissions).

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FIGURE11. CH4 EMISSIONS OF THE FAROE ISLANDS

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3. Summary of National Actions, Action Plans, or Mitigation Strategies by sector

3.1. Denmark 3.1.1. Black Carbon

Denmark and the EU have taken considerable steps to ensure clean air. Particulate matter pollution has especially serious effects on public health and is therefore subject to sharp focus, and thereby also reduction of Black Carbon. Even though there has been considerable pro- gress, efforts to ensure cleaner air will continue.

At international level, large cities are expected to grow rapidly, not least in the growth econ- omies. In this context, the OECD has assessed that, by 2050, the primary cause of death in the major cities of the world will be air pollution unless regulations are tightened. Threshold values, guidelines and objectives for air quality as well as product requirements are primarily set by the EU and in international fora.

A number of initiatives have resulted in substantial decreases in particulate matter pollution in Denmark over the past 20 years. Denmark is complying with its reduction commitments to the LRTAP Convention and the EU.

Today, wood-burning stoves are the largest Danish source of particle emissions, and together with diesel exhaust particulate matter, they are a very significant source of pollutants harmful to health. The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified particulate matter and diesel exhaust particles, in particular, as cardiogenic. The following sections describe in more detail a selection of Government initiatives and results in the air area.

TABLE 3 NATIONAL ACTIONS TO REDUCE PM AND BC EMISSIONS Initiative and date of Content of the initiative and results achieved or expected implementation

Clean Air Package The Government is aiming to promote cleaner air in Denmark and (May 2014) is focusing on: 1) Retrofitting cleaning systems (SCR + filters) on 300 older buses in Copenhagen. 2) Particulate matter pollution in Denmark must be reduced through targeted focus on wood-burning stoves and control of sulphur requirement to ships. Electrification of rail- As part of a larger political agreement to boost Danish railways, all ways major railways will be converted from diesel to electricity over the (January 2014) coming 10 years, and thereby reduce the emission of diesel exhaust particles. Sulphur requirements During the Danish EU Presidency, a directive on the sulphur con- to marine fuels tent in marine fuels was adopted. The directive introduces interna- (2012) tional requirements in EU legislation and ensures more effective enforcement of international regulations. The regulations will lead to a reduction in sulphur and particulate matter emissions from shipping in the Baltic Sea and the North Sea by 90% and 30%, respectively. The Government is cooperating with the shipping industry on en- suring international enforcement of the sulphur limit values to prevent distortion of competition. More controls of ships in Danish

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ports, air surveillance monitoring as well as international cooperation will ensure prosecution of any regulatory infringements. Campaign: Quit In 2011, the Ministry of the Environment launched a new campaign Smoking under the slogan “Quit Smoking”. The campaign aimed at motivat- (2011-) ing owners of wood-burning stoves to follow four simple guidance about correct use of the stove or boiler that will significantly reduce particle emissions from wood-burning stoves. The campaign has been repeated each year since 2011 at the start of the heating season to encourage correct heating. The campaign is considered a cheap initiative to reduce particle pollution. Revised Statutory Or- The 2007 Statutory Order on Wood-Burning Stoves - that included der on Wood-Burning national emission standard - has been revised and entered into force Stoves in January 2015. The environmental requirement for new wood- burning stoves has been tightened, and, as something new, a mini- mum requirement for the stack height of new chimneys was introduced. The emission limit values for particulate matter will also apply to straw fired boilers. This requirement will enter into force in 2018. The Statutory Order on Wood-Burning Stoves will be followed up by national guidance for the local regulation in municipalities. Common EU limit val- Following Danish pressure, under the Eco-design Directive, EU ues for wood-burning Member States decided that, from 2022, environmental require- stoves ments corresponding to the requirements applicable in the new (2014) Statutory Order on Wood-Burning Stoves will apply in all EU Member States. Very few countries in the EU today have statutory requirements for new wood-burning stoves and boilers and therefore the new EU requirements will reduce particulate matter emissions in the EU considerably, as older heating installations are replaced by new ones. Convention on Long- Under the Convention on Long-range Trans-boundary Air Pollution Range Trans boundary (the LRTAP Convention), the Gothenburg Protocol has been re- Air Pollution vised setting new goals for reduction of inter alia fine particles (2009-2012) (PM2.5) and black carbon. BAT for large combus- The EU Directive on tightened industrial emission limit values for tion plants and part- air emissions from large combustion plants was incorporated into nerships Danish legislation. (2011) New BAT (Best Available Techniques) conclusions for large combustion plants with further tightened emission limit values are expected to be published in early 2015. In order to qualify Denmark’s contribution to the negotiations, an innovation partnership was set up with Danish enterprises. Tax on diesel cars An annual tax of DKK 1,000 on all new commercial vehicles without particulate filters was introduced in 2010. The tax helped to ensure that particulate filters became standard equipment in diesel vehicles in good time before a statutory requirement came into effect in 2012/13. Partnership on Non- A partnership was established that focused on emissions from con-

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road machinery struction machinery and cost-effective options for retrofitting cleaning equipment, both to obtain an overview of emissions and to obtain a qualified assessment of the need and opportunities for a reduction in NOx and particulates from construction machinery. Low emission zones Denmark has introduced low-emission zones, where particulate filters are required on heavy vehicles (trucks and buses). These rules have been introduced in the country’s four largest cities with effect from 2008. By the summer of 2010, all four cities had introduced the zones, and the rules were tightened to cover Euro 3 vehicles, that are vehicles more than four years old in 2010. Air Quality Monitor- The monitoring of particulate pollution in Denmark has been ing strengthened by increasing funding for particulate pollution measurements, emissions inventories, and the establishment of one extra monitoring station to assess particulate emissions from wood- burning stoves. The Cycle Strategy In 2014 the Ministry of Transport adopted a new national cycling strategy “Danmark – op på cyklen!” (Denmark – On Your Bike!). The focal areas of the strategy are everyday cycling, active holidays and leisure and new and safe cyclists that also reduce air pollution, including particles. Eco-Innovation The development of new technologies that reduces air pollution has been given high priority by the Environmental Technology Devel- opment and Demonstration Support Programme (MUDP). A large number of projects on reduction of particle emissions from wood- stoves and shipping have received financial support. Renewable Energy in As part of the implementation of the EU RES Directive, Denmark Transport has set a target for the proportion of renewable energy in the transport sector to be 10% by 2020, which will also reduce particle emissions. Centre for Green The Centre for Green Transport, 2009-2013, had the task of energy- Transport labelling cars, advising on public procurement etc. Moreover, the centre funded test projects on electric cars, electric buses, changes in behaviour in connection with mobility, and technology development in the transport sector, etc. The Centre for Transport, Envi- ronment and Climate replaced the Centre for Green Transport in 2013 and one of the new centre’s responsibilities is to prepare analyses of green transport solutions

3.1.2. Methane

Energy Sector

In 2013, total emissions of methane from the energy sector accounted for about 1.1% of the sector's greenhouse gas emissions, corresponding to about 0.4 million tonnes CO2 equivalents. Many small sources contribute to this overall relatively minor source of greenhouse gas emissions.

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The biggest single contribution comes from gas-fired CHP plants, which emit unburnt natural gas. With a view to minimising the emissions, a 1998 Statutory Order, in force from 2006 to 2013, has limited emissions of nitrogen oxides, unburnt carbon hydrides, including methane, and carbon monoxide etc.. However, the limit value for unburned hydro carbons was removed in a revision of the Statutory Order entering into force on 7 January 2013.

As of 1 January 2011 a tax on methane emissions - equal in terms of CO2 equivalents to the CO2 tax - from natural gas fired power plants was introduced. This is expected to reduce methane emissions from gas engines through behavioural changes such as changing from motor operation to boiler operation and establishing mitigation measures. Consumption is also expected to fall as the price of heat will increase. These behavioural changes will result in falls in the emissions of unburned methane from power stations. In addition, CO2 emissions will fall and consumption of natural gas will fall. In total, a decline of 0.06 million tonnes CO2 equivalent emissions in 2 out of 5 years is expected, corresponding to an average annual reduction effect of approximately 0.02 million tonnes CO2 equivalent per year in 2008-12.

Other taxes on energy, mineral oil, gas, coal and electricity are through the reduction of energy consumption also contributing to the reduction of Danish methane emissions

Agriculture

Methane comes mainly from the agricultural sector, contributing with 78% of total Danish methane emissions in 2013. The emissions in 2013 corresponded to 5.4 million tonnes CO2 equivalents. The methane is formed through enteric fermentation in farm animals and from conversion of carbohydrates in manure.

Agriculture's biggest contribution to the methane emissions comes from dairy cows.

In the digestion process, methane is a by-product of the fermentation of feed in the rumen, primarily from grass and green fodder. In addition, methane is formed during conversion of manure under anaerobic conditions if the temperature is sufficiently high. These conditions normally occur in manure stores and housing systems with liquid manure or deep litter.

The emission of methane from agriculture has remained more or less stable in the period from 2003 to 2013, and is expected to increase slightly in the years up to 2035 due to a liberalisa- tion of the European milk-market with scrapping of the milk-quota system in 2015. At present the number of dairy cows in Denmark is projected to increase slightly in combination of an increased milk production per dairy cow which cause the feed intake and methane emissions from enteric rumen fermentation to rise.

The methane from manure is only expected to increase slightly because of increasing shares of the manure is expected being treated in biogas plants.

Waste

The direct contribution from the waste sector to greenhouse gas emissions consists primarily of methane from the decomposition of organic waste at landfills. Of the total greenhouse gas emissions from the waste sector the proportion from landfills equals 66%, from compost production 19%, from wastewater treatment 13% and 2% from other minor sources such as acci- dental fires.

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Due to several initiatives under national waste and resource strategies and the differenced tax system on waste 63 % of all waste was recycled in 2012, 29 % was incinerated and only 6 % was deposited at landfills (+1% temporary storage and 1 % for special treatment).

The national strategy Denmark without Waste II- Strategy for Waste Prevention (2015-27) aims to reduce the generation of waste and prevent the loss of valuable resources in households and businesses The waste prevention strategy contains 72 specific initiatives to help prevent waste, spread across two cross-cutting themes: a) Transition in Business, b) Green Consumption, and five focus areas: Avoidable food waste, construction & demolition, clothes & textiles, electronics and packaging.

The resource strategy Denmark without Waste – Recycle more, Incinerate less (2013-18) and the related waste management plan aims at treating waste as a resource to prevent losses of valuable materials. The implementation of the strategy is expected to have a number of specific impacts, e.g. 50% recycling of 7 specific fractions of household waste, 70% recycling of packaging waste, and 60% recycling of organic waste from the service sector. Furthermore 70 % recovery of shredder waste, recycling of 80% of phosphorus in sewage sludge, better quality of recycling of building & construction waste, and increased collection and recycling of e.g. waste electronic equipment and batteries.

Both strategies have the purpose of keeping materials in circulation to reduce the extraction of virgin materials, which is often energy demanding. The two strategies thus lead to indirect greenhouse gas savings, which are not directly quantifiable.

The waste sector's contribution to the direct reduction of greenhouse gas emissions consists mainly in: • banning the landfilling of organic waste, • utilising gas from closed as well as operating landfills, • optimising the oxidation of gas in landfill covers (biocovers), • recovery of shredder waste from landfills.

Further a number of measures are indirectly reducing greenhouse gas emissions: • increasing recycling of plastic-, paper-, cardboard-metal-, WEEE-, wood-, and glass-waste, that will substitute primary production of materials • using waste as an energy source in dedicated incineration plants • digestion of organic waste to produce biogas.

The emission of methane from Danish landfills is calculated to have been 71,000 tonnes gross in 1990, decreasing to approximately 33,800 tonnes in 2013, corresponding to a 52 per cent reduction.

As a consequence of the municipal obligation to assign combustible waste to incineration, from 1 January 1997, methane emissions from the Danish landfills will continue to decrease in the years ahead.

According to the Danish Energy Authority's inventory Biogas, Production, Forecast and Target Figures, there were 25 gas plants at Danish landfills in 2002. These installations produced 10,000 tonnes of methane annually, compared to approx. 1,700 tonnes in 1993. In 2004, methane recovery from landfills amounted to 7,700 tonnes methane5. The same study shows that, through

5Willumsen, 2004 Side 19

optimising existing gas plants, a further 1,800 tonnes methane per year could be recovered over the next five years. Furthermore, the establishment of new gas-collection equipment at five landfills could contribute with additional 1,300 tonnes methane per year over the next five years.

However, optimisation of existing plant and establishment of new gas plants will probably require subsidies. The previous subsidy scheme to promote gas collection at landfills was discontinued at the end of 2001.

As a consequence of the new Danish landfilling strategy, only a few landfill gas plants are expected to be established in the future. The maximum quantity of methane recovered peaked in 1998 at about 13,200 tonnes. The quantity of methane recovered will continue to fall gradually over many years.

The total quantity of waste incinerated rose from 2,216,000 tonnes in 1994 to 3,064,000 tonnes in 2012, i.e. an approximately 57% increase. This is a slight decrease compared to 2006 where 3,489,000 tonne of waste was incinerated. The energy produced from the incineration plants is included as part of the renewable energy production in the Danish energy statistics. The international greenhouse gas inventories include greenhouse gases from incineration of the content of oil-based products, such as plastics in waste.

A tax on landfilling and incineration of waste was introduced in Denmark in 1987. Since 1993 the tax has been differentiated to reflect the political priorities of the different forms of treatment. It thus costs most to dispose of waste, less to incinerate the waste and nothing in tax to recycle waste. The waste tax has been increased several times and today (March 2015) the waste tax is DKK 475 per tonne waste disposed of at landfills and the energy tax associated with incineration of waste is 60,9 DKK/GJ (equalling an approximated average of DKK 330 per tonne waste for incineration). The size of the taxes thus provides an incentive to recycle as much of the waste produced as possible and to use non-recyclable, combustible waste as fuel in energy production instead of disposal of the waste at landfills.

In 2007 subsidies from the enterprise scheme were given for establishing methane recovery and test pumping at 11 landfill sites. The results were reported in 2011 and showed a reduction of the emission of methane over a five year period equalling 84,435 tonnes of CO2 equivalents.

In 2005, the Danish EPA supported a development project aiming at documenting the oxidation of methane in landfill biocovers. By applying covers mainly consisting of compost, optimal oxidation in covers can be ensured and methane emissions from landfills can be reduced. If the reduction can be documented it can be credited to the CO2 accounts. This bio-cover project was carried out by the Technical University of Denmark with funding from the EU LIFE Programme. The bio-cover project has established a viable methodology for documentation of the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions gained by installation of a bio-cover system on a landfill. The methodology consists of a logical order of tasks using well documented measuring technologies. The demonstration project also proved that several obstacles may occur in relation to the biocovers on landfills which can prevent an efficient greenhouse gas reduction, and the project has obtained an understanding of which precautions should be taken.

The most important obstacles are: a) Ability to control point gas releases, b) Ability to distribute the landfill gas to active parts of the bio-cover system, and

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c) Ability to obtain a spatially even gas distribution to active parts of the bio-cover. Due to the obstacles the goal of reaching a 90% reduction of the methane emission was not reached; the obtained reduction was in the 20-30% range.

To address the obstacles and to improve the method, another biocover-project was initiated in 2007 as part of the Enterprise Scheme. The project was performed on another landfill, and was taking the identified difficulties into account. A reduction of the methane emission of 79- 93 % was reported in the project.

Based on the promising results of the latest large scale biocover-project combined with a low shadow price, approximately 180 mio. DKK has been allocated to a Subsidy programme for biocovers at landfill sites. The subsidy programme is expected to run from 2015 – 2017, and the estimated reduction in methane-emission in the year 2020 is 300,000 t CO2-equivalents.

3.2. Greenland

As described in 1.3 and 2.1, there are various important sources of BC and CH4 in Greenland. A number of actions have been taken to increase the level of available information on these sources and to describe possible measures.

Shipping Niras (2014) 6 examines the pros and cons of regulating the emissions of particles and methane from ships within the Greenlandic three-mile limit. The report presents scenarios for emissions in 2020 based on the adoption of international maritime law.

The study also points out regulatory options to reduce maritime emissions of SLCP (see Table 4).

TABLE 4. REGULATORY OPTIONS FOR CO2 AND SLCP SUGGESTED IN NIRAS (2014). BOX 14 IN MINISTRY OF NA- TURE, ENVIRONMENT AND JUSTICE (2015) 7

Regulatory Option CO2 reduction SLCP reduction Withdrawing reservations for an- Reduction due to reduced fuel Up to 93 % reduction nex VI in MARPOL - Require- consumption. ments on energy efficiency for newly-built vessels. Demands for slow steaming with- Between 10-40 % reduction of Small reduction related to reduced in the 3 nautical mile zone CO2 emissions. fuel consumption. Particle filters None or little negative effect due Up to 93 % reduction to increase in fuel consumption.

Obligatory use of cleaner fuel (low No effect. 50 % reduction in particle pollution, sulfur). including soot. Provisions for the use of shore Reduced emissions due to use of Reduction related to reduced fuel power by expansion of Nuuk Har- hydropower. consumption. bor

A study on the opportunities and barriers for introducing shorepower from hydropower for ships at berth at Nuuk Harbor is planned to be carried out in 2015-2016.

6 Niras (2014). Emissioner fra skibe. Departementet for Miljø og Natur December 2013. 7 Ministry of Nature, Environment and Justice (2015). Naalakkersuisut. Skibsfart og Klimaforandringer. Mulig- heder for tilpasnings- og reduktionstiltag. Side 21

Road transport The number of electric cars in Greenland has increased from approximately zero to about 40 in the last five years. The government actively promotes the use of electric cars by exempting them from levies.

Heating New standards for insulation of new buildings are negotiated at the moment. The standards are expected to lead to better insulation of new buildings.

A study has been made on geothermal heating8. Also a small pilot plant is under installation. If small oil heating plants are replaced with geothermal heating plants, black carbon emissions will be reduced.

Renewable energy High basic energy demand and the expected emergence of an industrial sector indicate that Greenland’s energy consumption is likely to increase over the coming years.

During the last decades, it has been a consistent priority to expand the use of renewable energy. Today, about 11 % of the total energy consumption is from renewable sources and approximately 50 % of the national energy supply of heat and electricity is based on renewable energy of which about 92 % is hydropower and about 8 % waste incineration. Concurrently, potentials for solar energy, wind energy, geothermal heat and tidal energy production are being explored on a smaller scale with possibilities for future expansion.

Policies and measures targeting energy production and energy consumption have multiple purposes. In addition to emission reductions, the shift to renewable energy sources is associated with a decreasing dependence on imported fossil fuels and positive effects on the local and regional environment. Improving the efficiency of the current energy production and supply system is cost-effective and at the same time it contributes to reducing GHG emissions and unemployment.

A number of energy policies and acts which consider challenges, benefits and initiatives associated with reducing emissions and improving energy efficiency have been introduced.

3.3. Faroe Island

In the spring 2008 the Faroese Government started a process formulating a Climate Strategy, and in the autumn 2008 a catalogue of potential options to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases was published.

In December 2009 the Faroese Climate Policy was adopted by the Faroese Parliament. The policy was adopted by all the political parties in the Parliament. The national target is to reduce the domestic emissions of greenhouse gases by at least 20% in the period 2010 to 2020 compared with the level of emissions in 2005.

Renewable energy was less than 5% of total energy supply in the Faroe Islands in 2012. How- ever, there is unexploited potential, especially in wind and wave power.

8 Qaqortoq/Narsaq forstudie. Hovedrapport. Projektnummer 1250121000. SWECO Environment AB Malmö Geoenergi. In- ternal report. Side 22

Oil consumption has increased since 1990, with a slight drop up to 1994. In 2012 hydropower was 24% of electricity production. Electricity supply in the Faroe Islands is carried out by the supply company SEV, which is owned by the Faroese municipalities jointly.

The Faroe Islands work with DCE - Danish Centre for Environment and Energy, Aarhus Uni- versity on the annual inventory of greenhouse emissions for the Climate Convention. In the latest inventory of April 2013, total greenhouse gas emissions from the Faroe Islands in 2011 were calculated at 0.736 million tonnes CO2 equivalents. It is vital that the statistics are pre- pared and the cooperation on the annual emissions inventories and other information for the Climate Convention continues and grows so that the Realm can meet its commitments under the Climate Convention.

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4. Highlights of best practices or lessons learned for key sectors

4.1. Black Carbon

The lessons learned in Denmark regarding reduction of black carbon are:

- Prioritising reduction efforts with synergies to reduction of particles, for general health reasons. - A good effect from extra tax on diesel cars without particle traps and low emission zones for heavy duty vehicles. - Reduction of particle emissions from residential biomass stoves and boilers is a long term process, but can be accelerated with a combination of incentives and programmes.

4.2. Methane The lessons learned in Denmark regarding reduction of methane emissions are:

- The ban on landfilling of waste from 1997 has significantly reduced methane emissions from landfills – and will continue to do so. - Such a ban was possible due to the increased waste incineration capacity with energy utilization as part of Denmark’s energy planning and expansion of district heating networks. - Methane emissions from landfills have also been reduced through recovery of methane for energy purposes or flaring where energy utilization was too costly. - Research projects have proven that low concentration methane emissions from landfills can be reduced the establishment of bio-covers – a measure which under implementation. - Significant increases in methane emissions from agriculture have been avoided - to a large extent – due to the establishment of biogas plants.

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5. Projects relevant for the Arctic

In 2013 a workshop on monitoring of short lived climate forcers in the Kingdom of Denmark (KoD) was hosted by the Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) on behalf of the Danish En- ergy Agency and the Environmental Protection Agency. This section contains an extract of the workshop report amended by information about the regular measurements of near ground methane fluxes preformed under the Greenland Ecosystem Monitoring Programme.

Main SLCPs include black carbon, tropospheric ozone and methane. These are all monitored at stations in Greenland, part of the KoD and results are reported in national and international programs such as the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, the World Meteorologi- cal Organization Global Atmospheric Watch or the global Network for the Detection of At- mospheric Composition Change. Apart from basic reporting the monitoring also serves as a basis for improved scientific understanding of climate and environmental related processes in the atmosphere. The monitoring activities are financed by Danish Cooperation for Environ- ment in the Arctic and Danish Cooperation for Climate in the Arctic (DANCEA).

In KoD two research institutions cover atmospheric SLCP monitoring activities in the Arctic, the Danish Centre for Environment and Energy (DCE) at Aarhus University (AU) and the Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI). In addition the University of Copenhagen and Aarhus University (Department of Bioscience) monitor soil-atmosphere methane fluxes at three research stations under the Greenland Ecosytem monitoring Programme.

Monitoring activities at the AU Villum Research Station/Station Nord (VRS) are part of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) (http://www.amap.no/) and results are part of AMAP and the European Monitoring and Assessment Programme (EMEP) network (http://www.emep.int/) with reporting to the AMAP/EMEP secretariats and regularly joint efforts produce Assessment reports to the Arctic Council and other stakeholders. Den- mark is a party to the UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) with the purpose of reducing air pollution including long range transported pollutants (www.unece.org/env/lrtap). Denmark has ratified the convention with a territorial ex- emption for Greenland. EMEP is a monitoring body within the LRTAP-convention. VRS is also part of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW) programme.

Monitoring of ozone in the KoD takes place at stations and serve the purpose of monitoring the recovery of the stratospheric ozone layer under environmentally and climatically changing conditions. The monitoring is part of the KoD contribution to the Vienna convention for the protection of the ozone layer and DMI holds a position in the associated Ozone Research Managers Meeting which reports monitoring efforts and results to the conference of the parties. These monitoring activities, however, also include monitoring of surface and tropospheric ozone, since ozone sondes measuresfrom the surface upon deployment.

The DMI ozone monitoring stations at Pituffik (Thule), Kangerlussuaq (Sønderstrøm) and It- toqqortoormiit (Scoresbysund) are part of the global Network for the Detection of Atmospher- ic Composition Change (NDACC) and DMI is a member of NDACCs steering committee (http://www.ndsc.ncep.noaa.gov/). The measurements are reported to international databases under the WMO World Ozone and UV Data Centre (WOUDC), as well as GAW (http://www.woudc.org/). Ozone is defined as an essential climate variable (UNFCCC) and the measurements are also part of the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) (http://gosic.org/gcos). Monitoring at the DMI stations is also used as input to WMO’s Global

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Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) (http://www.gfcs-climate.org/). Monitoring data are used for calibration/validation of satellite data as well as basic research. In addition, DMI has established a warning system on ozone and UV in cooperation with the Government of Greenland.

In addition to the above mentioned (atmospheric) measurements methane flux measurements (automated chambers and gradient systems) are preformed regularly at Zackenberg research station (NE-Greenland), at Kobbefjord (SW-Greenland) and (non-continously) at Arctic Sta- tion on the Disko Island (Central W-Greenland), as part of the Greenland Ecosystems Moni- toring Programme (GEM).

The GEM programme provides an active response to recommendations in international as- sessments such as “Arctic Climate Impact Assessment” (ACIA) and “Snow, Water, Ice, and Permafrost in the Arctic” (SWIPA); and is continuously being adapted based on Arctic Moni- toring and Asessment Programme (AMAP) and other international founded recommendations. Furthermore, the GeoBasis programme is directly involved in several international networks and research projects (e.g. the Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring (CALM) programme, the Nordic Centre of Excellence DEFROST, the Danish Centre of Excellence CEN- PERM, the EU-projects PAGE21 and INTERACT, and other national and international efforts.

TABLE 5. OVERVIEW OF SLCP MONITORING STATIONS IN GREENLAND: Station Location Species Method Surface/profile/Column Organization Period

VRS 81.60N;16.66W O3 API +/-/- DCE 1997-2002; 2006-present

Pituffik (Thule) 76.51N;68.74W O3 ORS +/+/- DMI 1991-present

Pituffik (Thule) 76.51N;68.74W O3 SAOZ -/-/+ DMI 1990-present

Pituffik (Thule) 76.51N;68.74W O3 API +/-/- DMI 1996-2003

Kangerlussuaq 67.01N; O3 BS -/-/+ DMI 1990-present (Sondrestrom) 50.65W

Kangerlussuaq 67.01N; O3 API +/-/- DMI 1995-1997 (Sondrestrom) 50.65W

Ittoqqortoormiit 70.48N; O3 ORS +/+/- DMI 1999-present (Scoresbysund) 21.95W

Ittoqqortoormiit 70.48N; O3 SAOZ -/-/+ DMI/CNRS 2007-present (Scoresbysund) 21.95W

Ittoqqortoormiit 70.48N; O3 API +/-/- DMI 1994-2000 (Scoresbysund) 21.95W VRS (Station 81.60N;16.66W BC PSAP/MAAP +/-/- DCE 2008-present Nord) VRS (Station 81.60N;16.66W EC/OC EC/OC ana- +/-/- DCE 2009-2012 Nord) lyser VRS (Station 81.60N;16.66W Particle SMPS in- +/-/- DCE 2010-present Nord) number; strument size dist. Pituffik (Thule) 76.51N;68.74W AOD SR -/-/+ DMI/NASA 2007-present Kangerlussuaq 67.01N; AOD SR -/-/+ DMI/NASA 2008-present (Sondrestrom) 50.65W

Ittoqqortoormiit 70.48N; AOD SR -/-/+ DMI/NASA 2010-present (Scoresbysund) 21.95W Side 26

Narsarsuaq 61.16N; AOD SR -/-/+ DMI/NASA 2013-present 45.44W

Pituffik (Thule) 76.51N;68.74W CH4 FTIR +/+/- DMI/NCAR 1999-present

VRS (Station 81.60N;16.66W CH4 CRD -/-/- DCE 2012-present Nord) Mast (3.6 m, 20 m, 40 m, 60 m and 80 m above ground level)

Zackenberg Re- 74º28 N;20º34 CH4 CRD +/-/- DCE 2006- seach Station W Present

Kobbefjord 64°07N; CH4 CRD +/-/- KU/DCE 2008- (Nuuk) 51°21'W Present

Arctic Station 69°15N; CH4 CRD +/-/- KU Non-contious (Disko) 53°34W measurements TABLE 5 OVERVIEW OF SLCP MONITORING ACTIVITIES BY DANISH INSTITUTIONS. IN THE TABLE METHOD ABBREVIATIONS REFER TO: AOD (AEROSOL OPTICAL DEPTH) BC (BLACK CARBON) OC (ORGANIC CARBON) API (ADVANCED POLLUTION INSTRUMENT), ORS (OZONE RADIOSOUNDING), SAOZ (SYSTEME D'ANALYSE PAR OBSERVATION ZENITHALE), BS (BREWER SPECTROMETER), PSAP (PARTICLE SOOT ABSORPTION PHOTOMETER), MAAP (MUL- TI ANGLE ABSORPTION PHOTOMETER), SR(SPECTRAL RADIOMETER), FIR (FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY), CRD (CAVITY RING DOWN SPECTROSCOPY). AOD REFERS TO AEROSOL OPTICAL DEPTH WHILE OTHER ABBREVIATIONS ARE STANDARD. NOTE THAT ORS PROFILES ALSO PROVIDE SURFACE OBSERVATIONS.

Other long term non-KoD research stations and monitoring efforts in Greenland (as for in- stance measurements at the US “Summit”-station) may encompass measurements of SLCPs, but are not mapped here.

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6. Other information

Further information can be obtained from:

- Denmark’s Sixth National Communication under the UNFCCC ;January 2014: - http://unfccc.int/files/national_reports/annex_i_natcom/submitted_natcom/application/ pdf/nc6andbr1-dnk-2jan2013[1].pdf

- Denmark’s National Inventory Report 2014 to the UNFCCC, April 2014: - http://unfccc.int/national_reports/annex_i_ghg_inventories/national_inventories_subm issions/items/8108.php

- Denmark’s GHG projection, October/December 2014: - http://www.ens.dk/info/tal-kort/fremskrivninger-analyser-modeller/fremskrivninger and - http://dce2.au.dk/pub/SR129.pdf

- Denmark’s preliminary GHG inventory 1990-2013, June 2015: http://envs.au.dk/videnudveksling/luft/emissioner/greenhouse_gases/

- Denmark’s proxy inventory for 2014, July 2015: http://cdr.eionet.europa.eu/dk/eu/mmr/art08_proxy/envvayj6a/2014_proxy_estimates_ for_Denmark.xlsx/manage_document

- Winther, M. and OK Nielsen; Technology dependent BC and OC emissions for Den- mark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands calculated for the time period 1990-2030; At- mospheric Environment 45 pp 5880-5895; (2011a)

- Winther and Nielsen, Joint TFEIP/EIONET Meeting and Workshop, 2nd - 4th May 2011, Stockholm, Sweden (2011b)

- Denmarks Emission Inventory 2013 – air pollution, EMEP (2015) http://cdr.eionet.europa.eu/dk/Air_Emission_Inventories/Submission_EMEP_UNECE /envvn3kw/

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