Working Report 2010-07

Present Conditions in Greenland and the Kangerlussuaq Area

Anne Birgitte Nielsen

January 2010

POSIVA OY Olkiluoto FI-27160 EURAJOKI, FINLAND Tel +358-2-8372 31 Fax +358-2-8372 3709 Working Report 2010-07

Present Conditions in Greenland and the Kangerlussuaq Area

Anne Birgitte Nielsen

Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland

January 2010

Working Reports contain information on work in progress or pending completion.

The conclusions and viewpoints presented in the report are those of author(s) and do not necessarily coincide with those of Posiva. ABSTRACT

Greenland is the world’s largest island, with an area of 2.2 million square kilometres, 80 % of which is covered by the ice sheet. The climate is Arctic, but as Greenland stretches 2600 km from north to south, there is a huge variability in climate, with temperature decreasing from south to north. Due to the influence of oceanic currents, the west coast is slightly warmer than the east coast. Precipitation also decreases strongly from the south to the north, and also with distance from the coast. Kangerlussuaq is located in the dry, continental area of central west Greenland.

The bedrock of Greenland is dominated by Precambrian gneisses, with sedimentary rocks occurring in some areas of East and North Greenland, and smaller areas of basalts. All of Greenland has been glaciated several times and has thus been eroded and shaped by the ice, as it still is at the ice margin. Soils are generally thin, and especially in the gneiss regions rather poor in plant nutrients. Permafrost occurs throughout the ice free areas of Greenland. It is continuous in the north, discontinuous along parts of the central east and west coast and occurs as isolated patches in the south. Kangerlussuaq is in the southernmost part of the continuous permafrost zone.

The spatial variability in climate is also reflected in the vegetation zones, which range from Arctic dessert in the far north, through dwarf shrub zones with increasing plant height and density towards the south, to the arctic shrub zone in the continental parts of West Greenland and subarctic Birch forest in South Greenland.

The terrestrial food chains in Greenland are generally short and with few species. Cyclic variation in population sizes has been observed in some mammal species, including lemming and caribou.

Many species of mammals and birds are associated with the coastal environment, which is therefore also and important resource area for the human population. Fishery is the most economically important industry in Greenland, and meat from hunting plays an important role in local consumption. Human settlement has occurred since 2500 BC, when the first palaeoeskimo people arrived from Canada. However, occupation has been interrupted by periods of extinction associated with climate changes. Today the population is 57 000, which is ca. 0.2 people per km2 of ice free area. There is no arable agriculture, but sheep farming occurs in south Greenland, and impacts the vegetation locally. However, the main human impact on ecosystems is not land use, but direct impact on populations through fishing and hunting.

Keywords: Greenland, natural conditions, climate, bedrock, vegetation, human activity, settlement history

Grönlannin ja Kangerlussuagin luonnonolosuhteet ja ihmistoiminta

TIIVISTELMÄ

Grönlanti on maailman suurin saari ja sen pinta-ala on noin 2.2 miljoonaa neliö- kilometriä, josta noin 80 prosenttia on jään peitossa. Grönlannin ilmasto on arktinen, mutta koska saari on pohjois-etelä -suunnassa 2600 kilometriä pitkä, on ilmasto-oloissa suurta vaihtelua. Merivirtojen vaikutuksesta saaren länsirannikko on hieman itäran- nikkoa lauhkeampi. Sadanta pienenee selvästi etelästä pohjoiseen ja toisaalta siirryt- täessä rannikolta sisämaahan. Kangerlussuag sijaitsee kuivalla, mantereisella alueella läntisessä Grönlannissa.

Grönlannin kallioperää hallitsevat prekambriset gneissit. Sedimenttikiveä esiintyy pai- koitellen saaren itä- ja pohjoisosissa. Pienillä alueilla esiintyy myös basaltteja. Koko Grönlanti on jäätiköitynyt useita kertoja ja maaston muodot ovat näin ollen jään muokkaamia. Maaperä on tyypillisesti ohutta ja erityisesti kallioperältään gneissisillä alueilla vähäravinteista. Ikiroutaa esiintyy jäättömillä alueilla. Ikirouta-alue on yhtenäi- nen saaren pohjoisosissa, epäyhtenäinen osissa itä- ja länsirannikon keskiosia ja esiintyy erillisinä laikkuina etelässä. Kangerlussuag sijaitsee yhtenäisen ikirouta-alueen etelä- osassa. Ilmaston alueellinen vaihtelu heijastuu myös kasvillisuusvyöhykkeisiin, jotka vaihtelevat pohjoisen arktisesta aavikosta varvikko vyöhykkeiden kautta enenevämmän kasvikorkeuden ja -tiheyden luonnehtimaan etelään. Etelä-Grönlannissa kasvaa koivuja.

Maaekosysteemissä ravintoketjut ovat yleisesti ottaen lyhyitä ja vähälajisia. Popu- laatiokokojen syklisyyttä on todettu joillain nisäkäslajeilla kuten sopuleilla ja karibuilla. Monet nisäkäs- ja lintulajit elävät rannikolla, joka näin on myös merkittävä alue ihmistoiminnan kannalta. Kalastus on Grönlannin täkein elinkeino ja metsästys on merkittävä tekijä paikallisessa kulutuksessa. Ihmisasutusta on ollut saarella 2500-luvulta e.a.a. lähtien, jolloin ensimmäiset inuiitit saapuivat alueelle nykyisen Kanadan suunnalta. Yhtämittaista asutusta kuitenkin katkaisevat jäätiköitymiskaudet. Tänä päivänä väestöä on noin 57 000 ja väentiheys noin 0.2 as/neliökilometri jäättömällä alueella. Viljelytoimintaa Grönlannissa ei ole, mutta lampaankasvatusta on saaren eteläosissa, mikä vaikuttaa paikallisesti myös kasvillisuuteen. Pääasiallinen ihmis- toiminnan vaikutus ympäristöön ei kuitenkaan tule maakäytön vaan kalastuksen ja metsästyksen kautta.

Avainsanat: Grönlanti, luonnonolot, kallioperä, kasvillisuus, ilmasto, ihmistoiminta, asutushistoria

PREFACE

This report is produced as part of the Greenland Analogue Project (GAP), carried out as a collaboration project with the Canadian Nuclear Waste Managing Organization (NWMO), Posiva Oy and Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co (SKB) as collaborating and financing partners.

The overall aim of the project is to improve the current understanding of how ice sheets, during future cold periods, affect the groundwater flow and hydrochemistry around a deep geological repository in crystalline bedrock.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT TIIVISTELMÄ PREFACE

1. STUDY AREA ...... 3 1.1 Greenland ...... 3 1.2 Kangerlussuaq ...... 4 2. CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY ...... 7 2.1 General characteristics ...... 7 2.2 Spatial variation across Greenland ...... 8 2.3 The Kangerlussuaq region...... 12 2.4 Temporal variation ...... 13 3. BEDROCK ...... 15 3.1 Common properties ...... 15 3.2 Chemistry ...... 17 3.3 Processes ...... 17 3.3.1 Erosion ...... 17 3.3.2 Earthquakes ...... 18 4. SOIL ...... 19 4.1 Common properties ...... 19 4.2 Soil processes in the Kangerlussuaq region ...... 19 4.3 Soil chemistry in the Kangerlussuaq region ...... 20 5. PERMAFROST ...... 21 5.1 Common properties and definition ...... 21 5.2 Spatial variation ...... 22 5.3 Permafrost structures near Kangerlussuaq ...... 25 6. GLACIAL ENVIRONMENT ...... 27 6.1 The Greenland ice sheet ...... 27 6.2 Glaciation history ...... 27 6.3 Glacial processes ...... 28 6.4 Glacial geomorphology in west Greenland and the Kangerlussuaq region . 30 6.5 Eolian deposits ...... 32 7. LAND ECOSYSTEMS ...... 33 7.1 Common properties ...... 33 7.2 Vegetation ...... 33 7.2.1 Vegetation in the Kangerlussuaq region ...... 35 7.3 Fauna ...... 38 7.4 Wetlands ...... 41 8. LAKES AND PONDS ...... 45 8.1 Common properties ...... 45 8.2 Spatial variation ...... 46 9. RIVER SYSTEMS ...... 49 10. MARINE ECOSYSTEMS ...... 51 10.1 Common properties ...... 51 10.2 Fauna ...... 51 2

11. COASTAL SYSTEMS ...... 53 11.1 General properties ...... 53 11.2 Vegetation ...... 53 12. ANTHROPOGENIC SYSTEM...... 55 12.1 History ...... 55 12.1.1 The prehistory of Greenland ...... 55 12.1.2 Recent history of Greenland ...... 57 12.1.3 History of Kangerlussuaq ...... 58 12.2 Land use ...... 59 12.2.1 Settlements ...... 59 12.2.2 Agriculture ...... 59 12.2.3 Industry ...... 59 12.3 Impact on natural systems ...... 59 12.4 Impact of natural systems on humans ...... 60 REFERENCES ...... 63 APPENDIX ...... 69

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1. STUDY AREA

1.1 Greenland

Greenland is the world’s largest island, 2.2 square kilometres, and stretches 2600 km from north to south. Ca. 80 % of Greenland is covered by the Greenland ice sheet. The remaining, ice free area covers 410,449 km2 (Statistics Greenland, 2008) mainly along the coast, and is the habitat of the flora, fauna and human population. Nearly 80 % of the ice free land consists of mountain complexes (Sieg et al, 2006). The population of Greenland is 57.000, of which 15.000 live in the capital, Nuuk. Sisimiut is the second largest town, with 6100 people. Greenland is divided into 18 counties and 59 settlements (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Greenland is a self- governing overseas administrative division (home rule) within the Kingdom Denmark. In this report mainly the Greenlandic place names will be used. The location of most places mentioned can be seen from the maps in figures 1 and 2. From species of higher plants and vertebrates, both the scientific and English common name will be stated at the fist mention of the species. For mosses, license and invertebrates scientific names are used, while for species groups (families, orders etc.) the common English names are used in most cases.

Figure 1. Map of Greenland, showing the location of place names mentioned in this report. 4

1.2 Kangerlussuaq

This report will focus mainly on the area around Kangerlussuaq (in Danish Søndre Strømfjord) in central West Greenland. However, the exact delineation of the area varies a little between the studies of different parameters, according to the available material. The landscape of central west Greenland is a typical fiord landscape with numerous long (typically around 25 km), narrow, and up to 600 m deep fiords which terminate in U-shaped valleys. Some of these contain an outlet glacier, while the others are partially filled with terraces of glaciofluvial and marine sediments (Ter Brink, 1975). The latter is true for the valley where the town of Kangerlussuaq is located. It is at the head of a particularly long fiord (165 km), also called Kangerlussuaq or Søndre Strømfjord. (To add to the confusion, there is also another fiord on the east coast of Greenland called Kangerlussuaq. That is not the one referred to in this report, but its existence is important to keep in mind when searching the literature for information on the area). The Kangerlussuaq region is the part of West Greenland where the distance from the coast to the ice sheet is larges, ca 200 km (Funder, 1989). The position far from the sea and close to the ice margin influences the local climate, which is continental and dry, and this in turn affects the biota in the area. There is a strong climatic gradient from the inland towards the coast. The area north of the Kangerlussuaq fiord towards the Disko Bay is lowland, with only few hills above 400 m, and with rounded summits because of Pleistocene glaciation. South of the fiord towards the Maniitsoq ice cap (Sukkertoppen) is mostly highland, with some areas above 1000 m.a.s.l. (Fredskild, 1996). From the bottom of the fiord to the ice sheet are two valleys running roughly east-west, Sandflugtsdalen (which translates to Sand drift valley) and Ørkendalen (which means Dessert Valley), which merge 3 km east of the town. The town of Kangerlussuaq has a population of ca. 500, and is cantered around the airport, which is the largest in Greenland, with connections to Europe and to other parts of Greenland. It is in Greenlandic terms an easily accessible area, and this, combined with the research support centre at KISS, means that quite a lot of scientific studies have been carried out in the region.

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Figure 2. Map of the Kangerlussuaq region with place names. 6

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2. CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY

2.1 General characteristics

Greenland as a whole has an arctic climate –defined by the temperature of the warmest month being below +10 C. Otherwise, the climate across Greenland is very variable, both over long and short distances. A report by Cappelen et al., 2001, covers the Danish Meteorological Institutes’ observations from 42 sites for the period 1958 to 1999 of air temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind and other climatic parameters, and includes climate normals for 1961-90. For the station in Kangerlussuaq measurements do not go back as far as 1961, but provisional normal averages for 1973 to 1999 are presented. All over Greenland there is a strong climatic difference between coastal areas, affected by the cold and often ice filled water, and the inland areas between the coast and the ice sheet. Summers are much warmer inland, while winters are milder in those coastal areas that have open water in winter. Precipitation is also higher in the coastal areas. Greenland in general is characterised by relatively long periods with calm or slight breezes, and occasional strong winds, with very strong gusts. Temperature inversions, where temperature increases with height in the lowest few hundred meters of the atmosphere are quite common. In winter, the lowest layer of air is cooled by radiation cooling of the snow surface. In summer, the ice melt has a cooling effect. This temperature inversion means that the snow often melts earlier in the mountains than at sea level, and the vegetation is most lush at a few hundred meters altitude (Cappelen et al, 2001). The climate of Greenland is much influenced by the circulation of surface waters in the surrounding sea, and accompanying ice transport. The two main components are the North Atlantic Drift and the East Greenland Current (see figure 3). The North Atlantic Drift is a continuation of the Gulf Stream, with high salinity and warm water. It splits into two in the Atlantic around 60 north, and forms the Irminger Current, which turns west towards South Greenland. Here is meets the East Greenland Current, which has low salinity, cold surface water that flows south from the Arctic Ocean. The two currents gradually become mixed as they turn around the south tip of Greenland and continue north as the West Greenland Current (Jensen, 2003). Because of this mixing, and northward flow along the west coast, the west generally has a milder climate than the east coast at similar latitudes (Funder, 1989).

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Deep water formation

WGC

EGC

LC

Mixing NAC

IC

Figure 3. Overview of the dominant sea currents around Greenland. NAC: North Atlantic Current. IC: Irminger current. EGC: East Greenland current. WGC: West Greenland Current. LC: Labrador Current.

2.2 Spatial variation across Greenland

Cappelen et al. (2001) divide Greenland into seven weather- and climate regions (see figure 4). Because of Greenland’s large north-south extend (2600 km, 22 degrees of latitude), there is naturally a difference in climate between north and south. There are also large differences between the east and west coasts, caused by the pattern of sea currents linked to the global thermohaline circulation (see above). Nevertheless, the difference in mean July temperature along the coast from north to south is only a few degrees (see figure 5), as the 24 hours sunlight in the north compensate for the low sun altitude. The more local gradients in summer temperature from the coast to the inland are stronger. In winter, on the other hand, the temperature difference from south to north 9

is very large, ca. 30 C (see figure 6). Also, the length of the period with average temperatures above freezing varies from two months in the north to six in the south (Funder 1989; Cappelen et al., 2001).

North KAP MORRIS JESUP# STATION NORD # HALL LAND #

DANMARKSHAVN QAANAAQ # #

DUNDAS # Northeast PITUFFIK DANEBORG # Ice cap Northwest

UPERNAVIK SUMMIT ## UUNARTEQ # # SUMMIT ILLOQQORTOORMIUT

QEQERTARSUAQ # # ILULISSAT APUTITEEQ # # AASIAAT APUTITEEQ KANGERLUSSUAQ SISIMIUT # ## # DYE2 # TASIILAQ MANIITSOQ # # Southeast # NUUK DYE3 # SIORALIK TIMMIARMIUT Southwest # PAAMIUT # # IKERMIUARSUK KANGILINNGUIT # # # NARSARSUAQ QAQORTOQ # PRINS CHRISTIAN SUND South

Figure 4. Climate regions according to Cappelen et al., 2001, and the location of climate stations (red #). Some stations measure both temperature and precipitation, some only one of those.

There is also a very strong gradient in precipitation, which is very high in Southeast Greenland and gradually decreases towards the north and west (see figure 7). However, there are also strong local precipitation gradients from the sea towards the inland, and variations caused by local topographic conditions. Kangerlussuaq is one of the few inland weather stations that measures precipitation, and as seen from figure 7 this area is much dryer than the coastal areas at similar latitudes. The Greenland ice cap makes up its own climatic region, where air temperature in the central part is almost never above freezing, because of the elevation and the high albedo of the snow surface. In winter, temperatures can be as low as -60 C. There is an almost permanent temperature inversion over the ice, which causes katabatic winds that affect 10

the areas lying around the ice sheet. As these winds blow down from the ice sheet, the air is compressed because of the change in altitude, and is thereby heated by 1 C pr. 100 m drop (the adiabatic rate). This is called the Foehn effect. If this wind becomes warmer that the air close to the coast, it is felt as locally a warm Foehn wind at the bottom of the fiords. If on the other hand it is still colder than the coastal air (despite the adiabatic heating), it will also be heavier than the coastal air mass, and can push it’s way under it as a cold fall wind, all the way to the open sea. Such winds are most common on the east coast.

Figure 5. Mean July temperature. Data from Cappelen et at., 2001. The colours represent interpolations between the stations, not measured temperature at given localities other than the stations marked on the map.

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Figure 6. Mean January temperature. Data from Cappelen et at., 2001. The colours represent interpolations between the stations, not measured temperature at given localities other than the stations marked on the map.

Figure 7. Annual precipitation in millimetre. Data from Cappelen et al., 2001. The colours represent intrapolations between the stations, not meassured precipitation at given localities other than the stations. 12

The lowest temperatures at sea level are found in North Greenland, where winters are very cold (mean January temp. -30.1 C to -35.8 C), and summers short, although they can be relatively warm inland (Mean July temp. 4.9 C in Hall Land). Precipitation is generally very low, and much of the region is arctic dessert. At Station Nord the annual precipitation is 188 mm, but that is unusually high for the region (Cappelen et al., 2001). Northwest Greenland also has very harsh winters (mean January temp. -12.7 C to - 23.3 C) as Baffin Bay is almost completely ice covered. Most of the ice along all of the west coast melts away in summer, and temperatures become fairly mild (mean July temp. 4.5-7.5 C). Precipitation is low in the northern part of the region and increases further south. Northeast Greenland also has cold winters (mean January temp. -16.1 C to -23.1 C), and cool summers (mean July temp. 3.3-4.0 C) because of the ice filled, cold East Greenland Current. Annual precipitation is lowest in the north, higher towards the south of the region (141 mm at Daneborg to 502 mm at Uunarteq). Southeast Greenland is the wettest region of Greenland, with annual precipitation up to 2500 mm, with weather that is often affected by low pressures between Greenland and Iceland. Temperatures in the summer are relatively low (mean July temp. 5.0-6.4 C) because of the East Greenland Current. South Greenland has very strong temperature gradients from the coast (with cool summers and mild winters) to the inland (warm summers, locally with July means over 10 C, and colder winters), which result in a monsoon like system of sea breezes in summer and land breezes in winter.

2.3 The Kangerlussuaq region

Kangerlussuaq is located in the Southwest climatic region. This region, like south Greenland, is also characterised by steep climate gradients from the coast to the inland. The coastal zone has mild winters and cool summers with variable weather. The inland zone has warmer, more stable summers but colder winters. The difference in mean July temperature from the outer coast to inland is high, partly because the coastal areas are cooled by the cold water and sea ice nearby, partly because of warm katabatic Foehn winds that blow down from the ice sheet inland. This can be clearly seen by comparing the data from the stations at Kangerlussuaq with those from Sisimiut ca. 160 km away on the coast (see figure 4). Thus, the average July temperature at Kangerlussuaq is 10.7 C, while it is only 6.3 C at Sisimiut. The mean January temperature is -19.8 C at Kangerlussuaq and -12.8 C at Sisimiut. The average number of days with frost is 254.7 days/year at both stations. At the station Dye 2 on the ice cap ca. 200 km inland from Kangerlussuaq the mean July temperature is -2.6 C and the mean January temperature - 25.7 C. For a more detailed picture of the temperature gradient right at the ice margin, it is not sufficient to look at the permanent weather stations of the meteorological institute. In the Tasersiaq area about 150 km south of Kangerlussuaq, temperature was monitored along transects on the ice sheet in 1999 to 2001 as part of a glaciological project 13

(Ahlstrøm, 2003). At the lower stations about 900 m.a.s.l. monthly average temperatures ranged from 3.5 C to -22.3 C, while on the upper stations around 1200 m.a.s.l. the range was 0.8 C to -22.6 C. Local factors, especially wind pattern, as well as elevation, seemed to influence temperature at the different stations. At the coast fog is common in the period May-September, but it is much rarer further into the fiords, such as at Kangerlussuaq airbase (10.7 days/year, versus 51.4 days/year at Sisimiut). Precipitation is also higher at the coast (Sisimiut 383 mm) than inland (Kangerlussuaq 149 mm). At Sisimiut the winters are snow rich (average snow depth in March, which is the most snow rich month, is 69 cm), but there is only little snow in Kangerlussuaq (average snow depth in March 13 mm). However, snow does occasionally occur in all months, except July (Dijkmans & Törnqvist, 1991). The Maniitsoq ice cap and an outcrop of the ice sheet proper near Tasersiaq to the south of Kangerlussuaq provide topographical barriers to the prevailing movement of air masses, and therefore cause the very dry climate in the region. Annual average wind speed is 3.6 m/s at Kangerlussuaq. The dominant wind direction all year is from northeast, blowing of the ice sheet. Winds are strongest in winter (Dijkmans & Törnqvist, 1991). Greenland in general is characterised by relatively long periods with calm or slight breezes, and occasional strong winds, with very strong gusts. However, strong winds are rarer and less extreme at Kangerlussuaq than elsewhere, probably because of the above mentioned topographical barriers.

2.4 Temporal variation

On a daily scale, the weather in Greenland is very variable. For example, all year round short periods of relatively high temperatures can occur. Especially in the southern parts this can result in periodical snow melts, with temperatures around 10 C for a short time during the winter (Cappelen et al., 2001). Interannual and decadal variations in the climate of western Greenland (especially in winter) is affected by variations in the atmospheric North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) (Jensen, 2003), which accounts for much of the climate variability around the North Atlantic (Hurrell, 1996). The NAO is an index of the difference in air pressure between Lisbon, Portugal, and Stykkisholmur, Iceland (Hurrell, 1996). When the NAO is in its positive phase (which means that difference in the air pressure is larger than average), western Greenland is affected by winds from the northern arctic, with cold, dry winters, while Western Europe has westerly winds, and mild, wet winters. In periods with a negative NAO (smaller-than- average difference in air pressure), mild wet winders are dominant in West Greenland, while those in Europe are dry and cool (Jensen 2003). For the time of the instrumental records, stations in West Greenland experienced a warming trend from 1890 to ca. 1930, the a cooling until ca. 1985, and since then there has been a warming trend (Cappelen, 2008). During the period 1993-1998 a rapid thinning of parts of the ice cap in southern Greenland was meassured by airborne laser altimetry (Krabill et al, 1999). In some areas in the Southeast it was thinning by up to 10 cm pr year. The longer term temporal variation in climate through the Holocene has been governed by changes in sea currents and ice transport (the balance between the East Greenland 14

Current and influence of warmer Atlantic water from the Irminger Current), and has sometimes had profound effects on human life on the island. Holocene climate variations have been studied using palaeoecological methods on sediments from lakes (e.g. McGowan et al., 2008) and from marine cores (e.g. Jensen, 2003). 15

2. BEDROCK

3.1 Common properties

The systematical study of the geology of Greenland goes back to 1850 (Funder, 1989), and there are numerous publications on the geology of Greenland, too many to review here. Those published by the Geological survey of Greenland (and later the Geological survey of Denmark and Greenland), and certain other monographs, are listed by Dawes & Glendal, 2008. Precambrian crystalline rocks, especially gneisses, make up the bedrock of most of Greenland (See figure 8), including the parts under the icecap. Sedimentary rocks are mostly found in areas of East and North Greenland. In East Greenland there is sandstone, pelites and carbonates deposited in the Late Proterozoic and early Palaeozoic time, and metamorphosed in the Early Silurian. In other parts of East Greenland there are terrestrial sandstones of Devonian and Carboniferous ages, and Mesozoic sandstone and shale. In the southern part of North Greenland the Late Proterozoic and early Palaeozoic basin was a shallow sea with carbonate sedimentation, whereas further north the basin was deeper, with sedimentation of sandstone and shale. The sandstone and shale was later metamorphed. In West Greenland sedimentary rocks in the form of sandstone and shale are mostly confined to the shelf. Greenland obtained is approximate shape in the Late Mesozoic by active ocean floors spreading both to the west (separating it from North America) and to the west. In the early Tertiary volcanism followed the ocean floor spread formed plateau basalt in the Nugssuaq area north of Disko Bay, and locally on the east coast (Funder, 1989).

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Figure 8. Overview map of the bedrock Geology of Greenland. Sedimentary rocks are shown in blue and green tones, basalts in dark purple and crystalline rocks in pink, light purple and orange colours. GEUS.

The Kangerlussuaq area is located in the Precambrian region of West Greenland (Steenfelt et al., 2004), where the bedrock is dominated by gneisses. This is the parent material for most soils, resulting in generally acidic soil types. The crust is mostly of Achaean age, formed around 2.8 Ga (Steenfelt et al., 2004). From a little south of Kangerlussuaq to the southern shore of the Disko Bay is the Precambrian Nassugtoqidian belt, where the gneisses and granites are reworked and locally interlayered with folded belts of metasediments and metavolcanics. This belt was 17

formed during the Nassugtoqidian orogeny from 2.0-1.75 Ga, a period of continental rifting, subduction and a subsequent collision phase, which resulted in granite and pegmatite veining. The area, especially south of the Kangerlussuaq fiord around Safartoq contains alkaline ultramafic dykes, described as kimberlites or lamprosites (Jensen & Secher, 2004), which have been investigated for diamond occurrences.

3.2 Chemistry

A report and data CD by Schjøth et al. (2004) contains a compilation of geoscientific data from the area between 66 and 70.15 latitude, from a project concerning the mineral potential of the area. Another report by Jensen et al. (2003) includes analyses of heavy minerals from till and stream sediment samples collected by diamond exploration companies. For the ecosystems, the most important aspect is the availability of plant nutrients, which is generally higher in the areas of sedimentary rocks and basalts than in the gneiss areas. But nutrient content also varies over short distances. Terrain for example affects nutrient availability, which is lower at hilltops, where nutrients are washed away, than at the base of hills. The time since ice retreat, humidity, snow cover, permafrost and humus content in the soil all affect soil fertility, along and in interaction with each other, and thus determine the spatial distribution of plant species and communities and ecosystem productivity (Jensen & Christensen, 2003).

3.3 Processes

3.3.1 Erosion

During the past ice ages there has been a substantial erosion of the valleys in Greenland, which has created the many deep fiords, and there has been a transport of sediment and cover rocks from land and coastal areas to the ocean (Bonow et al., 2007). However, a large part of the ice sheets have probably been cold based and therefore non-erosive, and therefore the erosion outside the valleys has been smaller. The erosion under an ice- sheet depends on ice thickness, basal temperature and the shear strength of the underlying material (Kelman & Hättestrand, 1999). The amount of erosion that has happened since a land uplift in the late Neogene, 10 to 11 million years ago in the Kangerlussuaq region varies from 500-1000 m in the valleys, even up to >1500 m in the fiord, and 0-200 m in the areas between valleys. This is a result of the combination of fluvial erosion in the periods before glaciations, and glacial erosion, which has been strongest in the pre-existing valleys (Bonow et al., 2006). Today glacial erosion continues in valleys with active glaciers. Some sediment is transported to the sea, and some is deposited on land in the form of moraines. Creation of moraines can be observed on series of aerial photographs (van Tatenhove, 1995). Fluvial erosion is also an ongoing process in river valleys. 18

3.3.2 Earthquakes

Greenland is generally has a low level of seismic activity, but in 2003 Ekström et al. reported a new type of earthquakes, called glacial earthquakes, which occur under large glaciers and ice flows. These are caused by abrupt movements of large ice masses over relatively short distances by stick-slip downhill sliding (Ekström et al., 2003). It happens as the glacier moves forward that the basal ice gets stuck against the surface beneath. This creates tension, and when it becomes too large the ice breaks loose from the surface and moves forward fast, releasing the earthquake. The duration of a glacial earthquake is typically 15-60 seconds, which is much longer than for tectonic earthquakes of similar magnitude. They do not give the high frequency seismic signal, know as the p-wave, which is normally used to detect earthquakes, which is part of the reason they were not discovered earlier (Jørgensen et al., 2005). From the period 1999-2001 analysis of the data from 100 seismometers worldwide revealed 46 of these glacial earthquakes, 42 of them in Greenland (Ekström et al, 2003). These had strengths of 4.7-5.1 on the Richter scale, which means they can be felt locally, so another reason they were not detected was that they happen in uninhabited areas, at the glaciers (Jørgensen et al., 2005). Smaller earthquakes could not be detected from the global data, but a network of seismographs in Greenland should detect them and locate epicentres (Jørgensen et al., 2005). A project at the Heimdal glacier near Tassilaaq in east Greenland works at relating ice movements, detected by GPS stations on the glacier, to seismological data, and thus contribute to a better understanding of the phenomenon (Benarroch, 2006). This is relevant both to documenting the dynamics of the Greenland ice sheet and to finding analogues to ice streams in the Scandinavian ice sheet and understanding glacial landscape formation. Glacial earthquakes happen all year round, but are most frequent in the late summer months, whereas tectonic earthquakes do not show this annual variation (Ekström et al, 2006). This indicates a link to surface melting of the glacier ice, which means that the frequency of glacial earthquakes is expected to increase if climate becomes warmer. Indeed, a strong increase has been observed in recent years, with a doubling from 2002 to 2005 (Ekström et al., 2006). Glacial earthquakes happen under the large glaciers and ice flows, especially in East Greenland, Northwest Greenland and around Disko Bay, but have not been recorded in the Kangerlussuaq region (Ekström et al., 2003; 2006). 19

4. SOIL

4.1 Common properties

In those areas of Greenland with basalt and sedimentary bedrock, soils are mostly neutral-alkaline, whereas in the granite and gneiss bedrock areas (including most of West Greenland), soils are more acidic, with measurements of soil pH usually in the range from 4 to 6 (Fredskild, 1996). The most common soil types in West Greenland are arctic brown soils, lithosols and upland and meadow tundra soils. Permafrost affects soil formation, as the decomposition of organic matter by bacteria, fungi and detritus feeding animals can only occur in the active layer above the permanently frozen depth (See also section 5). Despite limiting decomposition, permafrost also hampers the drainage of soils, so that the active layer in some places becomes waterlogged with precipitation and meltwater. On sloping terrain the waterlogged soil can begin to flow downhill, a process known as solifluction. It can be seen as characteristic patterns on the ground (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Movement of the soil as it thaws and freezes, cryoturbation, also results in patterned ground, with hummocks or polygons, as seen especially in the northern parts of Greenland. Around Kangerlussuaq and in other arid inland areas the soils show layers of eolian loess-like sediments, and pH typically ranges from 6-8. Acid soils are only found here in this area in dwarf shrub heaths with moss layers (Fredskild, 1996).

4.2 Soil processes in the Kangerlussuaq region

Ozols and Broll (2005) have studied soil chemistry and processes in three different vegetation types in areas by Mount Keglen in Sandflugtsdalen near Kangerlussuaq. The level valley floor at the study sites is covered in till mixed with fluvial and eolian sediments, and the soil texture is loam with coarse silt. Soil profiles and chemistry compared for Kobresia myosuroides dominated meadow, and stands dominated by Salix glauca and Betula nana respectively. The processes in the surface layers are driven mainly by vegetation and eolian silt deposition. Kobresia plants produce high amounts of below-ground biomass relative to their above- ground biomass. This results in the formation of a rhizomull with a high content of organic material and humus. Under Kobresia meadow stands the upper ca. 2 cm of the soil is very dark, and enriched in organic carbon and nitrogen, with a high C/N ratio. This type of soil is also found in grassland soils in other arctic, continental regions. The formation of the stable humus layer in such soils is also favoured by the continual deposition of small amounts of eolian sediment (Ozols and Broll, 2003). Under the Betula nana dwarf shrub heath stands, decomposition is slow, because of low soil moisture and the quality of Betula litter, which is rich in sklerencym, so they are not easily crushed and incorporated in the soil, and in phenolic acids which acidify the topsoils. This results in dystric or slightly podsolised soils. Under the low Salix shrub stands decomposition is also relatively slow, but the leaves of Salix are easily crushed and incorporated in the soil as fine particles by movements in the soil caused by frost. This leads to a high organic content in the topsoil, which is nutrient rich and biologically active (Ozols and Broll, 2003). 20

On slopes affected by solifluction or cryoturbation humic content is less, and the organic layer is thinner than on less disturbed flat sites (Sieg et al., 2006).

4.3 Soil chemistry in the Kangerlussuaq region

The pH under Kobresia and Salix stands increases with depth over the top 8 cm of the soil, and in relation to the gneissic parent material is relatively high, showing that acidification is weak, as the content of plant remains prevents acidification and leaching. Under Betula stands, on the other hand, there is a marked acidification of the upper centimetres of the soil, because of organic acids from the litter. This also leads to the cation exchange capacity (CEC) being lower in the Betula stands because of high release of Al and Fe ions by leaching and weathering. The average equilibrium pore solution of Fe is 3.8 mg l-1 under Betula, 2.0 mg l-1 under Kobresia and 0.9 mg l-1 under Salix stands. For Al the values are 2.3 mg l-1, 0.9 mg l-1 and 0.5 mg l-1 respectively. Apart from vegetation type, nutrient content and CEC also depends on soil moisture, being higher at the more moist sites. Leaching is reduced, even at the acidified Betula sites, by the low precipitation in the region (Ozols and Broll, 2003). 21

5. PERMAFROST

5.1 Common properties and definition

Permafrost can be defined as soil or rock which is below 0 C throughout the year. By some definitions, it must remain below 0 C for several years to be considered permafrost, while soil that freezes during exceptionally cold winters and remain for one or a few years are called pereletoks (Lunardini, 1995). The low temperature of course often means that ice is usually present, except in nonporous bedrock. The ice can occur in different forms, often as fillings in the pores of between grains in the soil, but it can also form more massive bodies such as ice wedges and layers, which can be several metres thick (Heginbottom, 2000). Above the permafrost is an active layer, a part of the soil which thaws in summer, and were biological activity takes place. As you move downwards, the annual variation in temperature decreases. The depth of zero annual amplitude is another characteristic of the permafrost at a given site. It is often defined as the depth where the annual variation is less than 0.1 C (van Tatenhove and Olesen, 1994). Further down still, the temperature gradually increases, until it reaches 0 C at the base of the permafrost. The thickness of the permafrost at a given site depends on the ground surface temperature (which again is determined by climate, topography, snow cover and vegetation) and on the thermal properties of the soil. An example of a temperature profile in permafrost is shown in figure 9.

Figure 9. An illustration of the range in temperatures experienced at different depths in the ground during the year. The active layer (shown in grey) thaws each summer and freezes each winter, while the permafrost layer remains below 0 °C all year. From the webpage of the Geological Survey of Canada (http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/permafrost/whatis_e.php). 22

Because the volume of ice is larger than of water, freezing and thawing causes movement in ice rich soils. In decreases soil stability, so that solifluction can occur on slopes, and it can result in the creation of polygonal patterns on flat ground.

5.2 Spatial variation

According to the circum-arctic map of permafrost and ground-ice (Brown et al., 1998; Figure 10), Greenland can be divided into regions with continuous permafrost in the north, discontinuous permafrost in middle latitudes along both coasts, and isolated patches of permafrost extent in the southern parts (see figure 10). The limit of continuous permafrost generally follows the -5 C mean annual thermocline (Funder, 1989). In all areas, the permafrost is characterised by low ground ice content (less than 10 % volume visible ice in the upper 10-20 m of the ground), thin overburden (<5-10 m) and exposed bedrock. This differs somewhat from the permafrost found in the Scandes mountains, which often has a high or medium ice content (>10 %) (Brown et al., 1998). According to Brown et al. (1998) there is no seafloor permafrost around Greenland. 23

Figure 10. Permafrost regions in Greenland. Light beige: Continuous permafrost extent with low ground ice content and thin overburden and exposed bedrock (clr); Yellow: Discontinuous permafrost extent with low ground ice content and thin overburden and exposed bedrock (dlr); Orange red: Isolated patches of permafrost extent with low ground ice content and thin overburden and exposed bedrock (ilr); Blue: Glaciers and ice sheet. Data from Brown et al., 1998.

Kangerlussuaq is located in the southern part of the area with continuous permafrost, but close to the limit to discontinuous permafrost, which is found along the coast (Brown et al., 1998; Weidick, 1968; Figure 10). van Tatenhove and Olesen (1994) present temperature measurements of two profiles from Kangerlussuaq (18 m deep) and Sisimiut (9 m deep), and for nine short (1.78 m) profiles in the area between Kangerlussuaq and the ice sheet. 24

The longer cores showed that the thickness of the active layer at Kangerlussuaq, on the flat, sand and silt terrace north of the airbase runway, was 1.7 m. on average over 9 years (minimum 1.17 m, maximum 2.30 m.) Thawing of the upper part starts at snowmelt in the end of May, and reaches its maximum depth in October. The depth of zero annual amplitude was ca. 15 m, and the temperature at that depth was -1.6 0.2 C. At Sisimiut on the coast, on a site with a peat layer over sand overlaying a layer of marine clay, the active layer is thicker, 2.33 m on average over 10 years. At 9 m. depth, which corresponded to the level of zero annual amplitude, the temperature was -0.3 0.1 C. The total depth of the permafrost at the two sites was not measured, but calculated based on the measured temperature profiles and assumptions about the thermal properties of the underlying strata, to 127 31 m at Kangerlussuaq, and 33 9 meters at Sisimiut. The thinner permafrost and thicker active layer in Sisimiut is caused by higher annual average air temperature and by the thicker snow cover in winter, which isolates the soil from the cold winter air. Sisimiut is in the region with discontinuous permafrost, whereas permafrost around Kangerlussuaq is continuous. Further North in West Greenland, at Paakitsoq just north of Ilulisat, the permafrost thickness at the edge of the inland ice sheet has been meassured as part of a project concerning problems of permafrost in relation to hydropower (Kern-Hansen, 1990). This area is in some ways similar to Kangerlussuaq in having a continental climate and low precipitation, but the annual mean temperature and especially the winter temperature is lower here. Seven boreholes were drilled in 1984-86, the deepest being 250 m. To total depth of the permafrost here was 215 2 m (van Tatenhove and Olesen, 1994), while the level of zero annual amplitude was at about 15 m depth where the temperature was -4 C (Kern- Hansen, 1990). The thickness of the active layer also varies over short distances depending on snow cover, drainage, soil type, organic layer thickness and vegetation (Woolfe et al, 2008). van Tatenhove and Olesen (1994) observed variations with soil and vegetation type in the area between Kangerlussuaq and the ice sheet. In a poorly drained site with a thick moss layer over an ice wedge there was an active layer of 0.26 m. On flat sites with a continuous vegetation of grasses and low shrubs, the active layer was 0.67 to 0.77 m thick. Sandy and gravely surfaces discontinuous vegetation, the active layer was up to 2.5 m thick. At the sand sheet in Sandflugtsdalen, permafrost has been found at a depth of 1.25-1.70 cm (Dijkmans & Törnqvist, 1991). Lunardini (1995) has calculated, using models of heat transfer in soil, and assumptions about past temperatures from northern Canada, that initial growth of permafrost after an ice sheet retreats is fast during the first years, but then the growth becomes slower and permafrost thickness approaches steady state asymptotically over very long periods. A 600 m think permafrost can, according to these calculations, form within 50.000 years, while 1500 m thick permafrost, which has been found in eastern Siberia, requires the whole Quaternary to form.

25

5.3 Permafrost structures near Kangerlussuaq

Patterned ground is common in places around Kangerlussuaq, although some of it is no longer active (Ozols and Broll, 2003). It was probably formed during the mid Holocene warm period when the area may have been in the border area between continuous and discontinuous permafrost, where frost mounds are most commonly found (Funder, 1989). An active pingo has been found 200 m west of the present ice margin in front of the Leverett glacier (Scholz & Baumann, 1997). It is a cone shaped hill containing an ice lens. It is 15-20 m high and 60-70 m in diameter. On the summit there is a crater-like depression with a spring, and on the upper part of the slopes are radially orientated erosion furrows. The spring is not meltwater, but highly mineralised groundwater (Ca- Mg-HCO3-SO4-Cl type water) with high bromide, chloride and sulphate content probably originating from deep seated faults in the crystalline rock below the permafrost. The Leverett glacier valley is on a major fault system which is the boundary between the Nassugtoqidian belt to the north and the Archaean block to the south. The chemical composition, and the fact that it is capable of penetrating the permafrost, also indicates that the water is of thermal (>20 C) origin (Scholz & Baumann, 1997). The pingo has formed as the water, rising under pressure through the permafrost, freezes within the deposits on the valley floor in front of the glacier. The growth of the ice core then pushes the sediment upwards in a cone shape. The occurrence of the crater and furrows on the top of the cone indicate that in time, the sedimentary cover may erode away, leaving the ice core bare. It will then gradually melt, leading to the collapse of the pingo (Scholz & Baumann, 1997). 26

27

6. GLACIAL ENVIRONMENT

6.1 The Greenland ice sheet

Greenland has a general bowl shape with peripheral mountainous areas surrounding a central basin that extends below sea level. The Greenland Ice Sheet covers this central basin, and also much of the fringing mountains and in places pushes to the coast where it calves into the sea (Funder, 1989). The drainage divide of the ice sheet runs near the eastern margin, so that most of the inland ice flows towards the west, and only small parts flow eastwards. Much of the outlet of ice happens from calving glaciers in the Disko Bay, where the icebergs flow into Baffin Bay. The largest single outlet is the Ilulisat glacier, which produces icebergs corresponding to 25 km3 of water annually (Funder, 1989). The Greenland ice sheet has important impact on the climate in the entire Northern hemisphere, because of its high elevation and north-south orientation affects the main mean westerly atmospheric circulation (Ahlstrøm, 2003). If the Greenland ice sheet was to melt completely, it would cause the mean sea level to rise by more than 6 meters (Church et al., 2001). It contains approximately 9 % of all the fresh water on Earth (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Apart from the Greenland ice sheet, there are also ca. 20 000 local ice caps and glaciers in Greenland, 5000 of them in West Greenland (Ahlstrøm et al., 2007). On one of them, the Amitsulôq ice cap, approximately 200 km. south of Kangerlussuaq, ice mass balance was monitored in the period 1981-1990. The results showed that the summer melt of ice was more determining for the total mass balance of the local ice cap than the winter balance between ablation and precipitation. This is probably also true for the nearby Greenland ice sheet margin in this region. Summer meltoff is also more important for water discharge in the regions river systems (Ahlstrøm et al., 2007).

6.2 Glaciation history

Evidence from sea shelf areas surrounding Greenland indicates that an early glaciation occurred near the end of the Pliocene, about 2.4 million years ago, which was more extensive than any succeeding glaciation. Several areas also contain records of a Quaternary glaciation which occurred prior to the last interglacial. This is tentatively referred to the Illinoian (Funder, 1989). From the last interglacial period, no terrestrial deposits have been found, but there are records of subarctic marine fossils that occur near to or farther north than similar faunas do at present, indicating that the last interglacial was as warm as or a little warmer than the present. The ice-free areas of Greenland record only one main ice advance during the last ice age, after ca. 40 Ka (Funder, 1989). During the last glacial maximum the ice edge was located beyond the present coast line along most of the western coast of Greenland (Funder, 1989), and possibly reached the edge of the shelf, as it did in south Greenland (Bennike & Björck, 2002). However, the distribution of some mosses and other plants indicate that there may have been ice free refugia in the area around Disko Bay (Fredskild, 1996). Despite the fact that the ice sheet extended beyond the current coast, it was still land based, because the sea level was eustatically lowered (Funder, 1989). 28

The meltoff started around 14.000 years ago, and around 11.000 to 10.000 years ago during the so-called Tassergat stade the ice margin was very near the current coastline along most of the west coast, which indicates that the retreat was driven partly by probably triggered by a eustatic sea level rise which made the shelf based parts of the ice sheet unstable (Funder, 1989). 9500 years ago the ice margin retreated within the present coastline between Sisimiut and Kangerlussuaq, where a moraine system from this period can be seen. At around 8700 BP a new glacial advance created new moraine systems. After that, meltoff was quite fast; by ca 8000 BP the inner part of the fiord system was free of ice (Funder, 1989), and 6000 years ago all of the Kangerlussuaq region and the present ice margin were free of ice (Van Tatenhove 1995). The mean recession rate calculated from the available 14C dates in central west Greenland was 50- 60 m yr-1, which is slower than in many other parts of Greenland, probably because it happened through ablation rather than calving, due to topography of the region, with long, narrow fiords (Bennike & Björck, 2002). Around 3000 BP the ice started advancing again, and reached it maximum extent about 100-200 years ago, after which it has retreated at most places. However, in some places in the region the ice is still advancing slightly (unpublished excursion guide). The Holocene history is covered in more detail in the SKB report by Stefan Engels.

6.3 Glacial processes

Knight et al. (1994) studied the stratigraphy and characteristics of the ice at the ice margin near Kangerlussuaq, especially at the Russel and Leverett glaciers. The ice generally has a stratigraphy where the bottom layer, up to 5 m thick consists of frozen till, old snow and laminated ice/debris layers. This material is incorporated in the ice very close to the margin by overriding of proglacial material and by freezing-on of sediment and water to the base. Over this is an up to 20 m thick banded facies with bands of debris and layers of cleaner ice, and/or a facies of ice with clots of debris. Both of these are produced by subglacial erosion, but the distribution of the particle size in the banded and clotted types show that the clots form in a closed subglacial environment, where all the material is incorporated in the glacier, whereas the bands form nearer the ice margin where the fine particles are washed away by meltwater (Knight et al., 1994). In the interior of the ice sheet, the ice generally becomes cleaner but less transparent towards the top, as the size of debris clots decrease, while the size and number of air bubbles increase. This pattern is also seen at the ice margin in places where there is no basal melting. Where there is basal melting, particularly at glacier lobes where subglacial meltwater is present, the lower ice layers are lost, resulting in smaller clots than expected at the base of the ice margin. Where ice is diverted around topographical barriers the clot size distribution is also affected, as the lower layers are funnelled into ice lobes, while only the higher remain at the interlobate margin. Together these two effects result in the thickest basal ice and largest clots being found somewhere between the glacier snout and the interlobe apex (Knight et al., 1994). The increased flow of ice around hills provides a feedback loop where ice sheets deepen already existing depressions (Knight et al., 1994). 29

Another characteristic process at the ice margin is the occurrence of the so-called jökullaups, which is an Icelandic word for the catastrophic floods which happen when ice dammed water bodies drain suddenly (Tweed, 2000). A common mechanism for the drainage is flotation of the retaining ice dam. Lake level rises until it reaches a depth which makes the dam float, and then drains under the ice. Clean glacier ice has a density of about 0.9 g cm-3, which should mean flotation with a water level of ca. 90 % of the height of the dam (Tweed, 2000). However, a content of rock debris in the ice increases the density, and thus the water depth required before flotation, and hence leads to a larger water volume of outbursts. If the debris content is high the ice density may be higher than that of the water, and the lake cannot drain through flotation, but may instead flow over the dam or cause it to break (Tweed, 2000). There are several ice dammed lakes in the Kangerlussuaq area, which drain at more or less regular intervals. Very large water volumes can be released in the jökullaups, for example 36*106 m3 of water drained in 36 hours from a lake by the Russel glacier in August 1987 (Russel 1989). The same lake had also been observed to drain in 1974, 1982 and in July 1984, where 22*106 m3 drained in 19 hours (Sugden et al., 1985). The drainage of a smaller lake, also by the Russel glacier was observed at close hand in 1988. Within a five hour period 3.3*105 m3 drained, and for the peak 40 minute period the discharge was ca. 19 m3 pr second, through a tunnel with a 6 m diameter. This resulted in the collapse of moraine ridges, ice shearing around the tunnel mouth, a rapid incision of the lake bed and transport of lake material into the glacier (Russel et al., 1990). Jökullaups affect the ice-margin dynamics, for example by undercutting ice cliffs (Sugden et al., 1985) and the timing relative to melt season is likely to affect the water pressure in the subglacial drainage network, the configuration of this network, and the location of crevasses (Russel et al., 1989). Ice blocks derived from the lake basin, subglacial tunnels or from undercutting of the ice margin are carried by the flood and may become grounded on higher relief areas of the proximal outwash plain. They then form obstacles to the flow of the water, which produces localised flow acceleration and leads to the formation of scour marks, typically with a u-shaped hollow in front and on the sides of the obstacle where material is eroded, and sometimes a ridge on the downstream side (Russel, 1993). This can in turn lead to changes in the overall channel system on the outwash plain (Russel, 1993). 30

Figure 11. Ice dammed lake by the Russel glacier. Photo by Dorthe Pedersen.

6.4 Glacial geomorphology in west Greenland and the Kangerlussuaq region

In most areas of west Greenland the last glaciation resulted in erosion, and not in sediment accumulation. Glacial deposits are mostly restricted to valleys and lowlands. Sandy and gravel rich meltout till is the most widespread deposit, and can form a continuous cover in the lowlands towards the current ice margin. Lateral and terminal moraines made up of thicker till deposits form zones parallel to the ice margin. The valley floors are covered by glaciofluvial and fluvial deposits, occurring as terraces and outwash plains. Glaciofluvial sand can also be found as kame terraces along valley sides, deposited in a proglacial environment. Subglacial deposits like eskers are rare. The ice marginal deposits in central west Greenland has been mapped by Weidick (1968) and Ten Brink (1975), who dated them relative to former changes in sea level. From Tasersiaq Lake to Ørkendalen, there is a 5-15 km wide belt where bedrock is mostly overlaid by thick till deposits with close lying moraine ridges parallel to the current ice margin. The area from Kangerlussuaq itself towards Sandflugtsdalen has moraines as well as marine terraces of clay with shells, and came terraces consisting of coarse gravel with boulders. The moraine is in places cut by river terraces 15 to 30 m above the present river level (Weidick, 1968). The central part of Sandflugtsdalen is filled with a ca. 100 m thick layer of Holocene sand and gravel, but in narrower parts the bedrock is exposed. It is a characteristic subaerial ice margin environment (van 31

Tatenhove, 1995). From Sandflugtsdalen, lowland with similarly well developed moraines stretches ca 100 km further to the north (Ten Brink, 1975). Van Tatenhove (1995) carried out a more detailed mapping and dating of the moraine systems in the area between Kangerlussuaq airport and the present ice margin. Over a 35 km long transect in Sandflugtsdalen, 181 positions of the ice margin could be reconstructed from the occurrence of frontal and lateral moraines from the period 7900- 6500 14C years B.P. The many, close lying moraines show that ice-marginal deposition occurred almost continuously throughout this period. The volume of the moraines was usually small, (defined as less than 162 m3). Moraines of similar sizes have been observed to form at the present ice margin by comparing aerial photographs from 1948 and 1963. This was a period with slightly higher temperatures between colder periods, which is also reflected in the 18O record from the GISP2 ice core. The older 18O record from the GRIP ice core show many similar short term variations in the period when the moraines in Sandflugtsdalen were formed. Thus, it seems likely that they formed as a result of short term fluctuations in temperature, most likely as a result of short (1-30 year) periods of ice advance followed by longer periods of retreat (van Tatenhove, 1995).

Figure 12. Glacier with end moraine near Kangerlussuaq. Photo by Dorthe Pedersen.

The ice marginal deposits are clustered together in moraine systems, the locations of which are probably determined by topographical barriers in the bedrock. There is one system near Mount Keglen, which was dated to 7500-6500 14C years B.P. When the ice started to retreat, the sea invaded beyond the present shore and created marine terraces at the head of the fiord. The maximum sea level was around 25-35 m above present (Weidick, 1968). After 4000 years B.P. the sea level was close to present (Weidick, 1993). 32

The Ørkendalen moraine system 1-2 km from the present ice margin was dated to 6200- 5600 years B.P. (van Tatenhove, 1995). Moraine systems of similar ages are found near the ice margin in the Ilulisat and Disko Bay area and near Ivigtut/Narssaq (Weidick 1993). After this period, the ice retreated beyond the present margin during the mid- Holocene climatic optimum. How far it retreated is unknown, but it may well have been tens of km (van Tatenhove, 1995).

6.5 Eolian deposits

In the valleys east of Kangerlussuaq, Sandflugtsdalen and Ørkendalen, Dijkmans and Törnqvist (1991) have studied eolian deposits. Active, cold climate eolian systems are otherwise rare, but can provide insights into relic inland dunes, eolian sand sheets and loess deposits in Europe which were created under periglacial conditions in the past. Ørkendalen is a broad valley with a 1-2 km wide river system, while Sandflugtsdalen has a wide eastern part with the river incised into 5-10 m high terraces, and a narrow western part where the river flows through a gorge. Both valleys have eolian sand sheets on the north sides of the wide part of the valleys (Dijkmans and Törnqvist, 1991). Sand is transported from the flood plains to the northwest onto the sides of the valleys. Furthermore, eolian silt deposits occurs widely as a thin cover over moraine material and bedrock between Kangerlussuaq and the ice sheet, giving rise to less acid soils than expected from the bedrock type (Fredskild, 1996). Much of the sand and silt was probably brought to the area in the period where the ice margin had retreated some distance beyond the present position (van Tatenhove, 1995).

Figure 13. Sand sheet in Ørkendalen. Photo by Dorthe Pedersen. 33

7. LAND ECOSYSTEMS

7.1 Common properties

Almost all of Greenland’s land area is in the Arctic zone- only a small area inland in South Greenland can be characterised as Subarctic, with a milder climate and woodland vegetation. As in all arctic regions, the physical conditions like temperature, moisture, soil etc. play a very dominant role in determining the distribution of species and their biomass etc., whereas competition between species plays a relatively smaller role than in more southern ecosystems. Yearly photosynthetic production in Greenland is low compared to areas further south because of the low temperatures and short growing season (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). As virtually all of the land area of Greenland was covered by ice during the last ice age, the terrestrial species found in Greenland today, both plants and animals, have immigrated since the ice age from either North America or Europe. The difficulties in colonising the island for different groups of organisms have been a determining factor for the composition of the present day flora and fauna (Jensen & Christensen, 2003).

7.2 Vegetation

There are around 500 species of seed plants and Pteridophytes in Greenland. A map of the bioclimatic zonation of vegetation has been created as part of the Circumpolar Arctic Vegetation Mapping project (Daniels and Wilhelm, 2001; CAMV team 2003; Figure 14). Along the north coast is a narrow belt belonging to the Arctic herb zone, where there is a lot of bare soil, and a low cover of vascular plants (<5 %), mosses and lichens. Inland North Greenland belongs to the Northern Arctic dwarf shrub zone (Daniels and Wilhelm, 2001); with a slightly higher plant cover (5-25 %) dominated by dwarf shrubs with a prostrate growth form (CAMV team 2003). Northwest Greenland, and the northern half of the east coast is in the Middle Arctic dwarf shrub zone, which typically has a patchy vegetation of mosses and prostrate or hemi prostrate dwarf shrubs (5-50 % cover). The southern part of the east coast, and much of coastal areas in the west belong to the Southern Arctic dwarf shrub zone, with a still higher plant cover (50- 80 %) dominated by erect dwarf shrubs with some herbs and an underlayer of moss. Further inland in central east and west Greenland is the Arctic shrub zone, where there is often a closed canopy (80-100 % cover) of erect dwarf shrubs and shrubs such as Willows (Salix sp.), over a thick layer of moss. In the far south is an enclave of subarctic vegetation, with low forest of Birch (Betula pubescens), Rowan (Sorbus groenlandica) and Alder (Alnus crispa). This description of vegetation however, is only valid for lowland, relatively flat, drained sites (so-called zonal vegetation, because it is this vegetation that defines the vegetation zones). On mountains, slopes, snowbeds and bog etc. the vegetation can be very different (Sieg et al, 2006).

34

Bioclimatic zones Ice sheet Arctic herb zone Northern Arctic dwarf-shrub zone Middle Arctic dwarf-shrub zone Southern Arctic dwarf-shrub zone

Arctic shrub zone Subarctic

Figure 14. Bioclimatic zones in Greenland from the Circumpolar Arctic Vegetation Mapping project (CAMV team 2003).

Foersom et al. (1982) describe some of the most common vegetation communities in Greenland. At the bottom of the large fiords and close to the ice cap, dwarf shrub heathlands dominated by Dwarf Birch (Betula nana) are common. Where the snow cover is longer, Betula nana/Ledum palustre (Narrow-leafed Labrador-tea) heathlands dominate. In both types Empetrum nigrum (Crowberry), Vaccinium uliginosum (Arctic Blueberry) and Phyllodoce coerulea (Blue Mountain-heath) are also common, but they do not dominate, as they often do in coastal areas. Salix shrubs, especially Salix glauca (greyleaf willow), occur in the bottom of valleys and on south facing slopes in the Arctic Shrub Zone. In places with snow cover in winter, but rather early snow melt, very species rich herb communities occur. On nutrient rich soil there are many forbs, and poorer soil grasses and sedges are more dominant. In places that are covered with snow until late in the year, the vegetation is dominated by liverworts and mosses. Dwarf shrubs or herbs that grow in the snow fields have poor growing conditions, and as a result are usually very small. On exposed areas, especially without snow cover in winter, the vegetation can be very sparse. Lichens are most common in such places. On slopes with clay rich soils, soil slides are common, and only few plants, such as some species of Draba (Draba) can survive. On dry, sandy or gravely locations inland, steppe like vegetation is found, with plants like Kobresia 35

myosuroides (Bellardi bog sedge), Calamagrostis purpurascens (purple reedgrass), Carex supina (weak arctic sedge) and Carex rupestris (curly sedge).

7.2.1 Vegetation in the Kangerlussuaq region

The vegetation in West Greenland is fairly well explored (Fredskild, 1996), by among others Böcher (1954; 1959; 1963); Fredskild & Holt (1993) and Vestergård (1978). These studies and yearly GBS (Greenland Botanical Survey) reports are summarised by Fredskild, 1996. After that, Sieg et al. (2006) have studied the altitudinal zonation of vegetation in the Kangerlussuaq area and in the Angujârtorfik area 50 km further to the south west, using phytosociological methods, as part of the AZV project (Altitudinal Zonation of Vegetation in continental west Greenland). The following description is mainly based on these. Sieg et al. (2006) distinguised three altitudinal vegetation belts, 0-400 m.a.s.l.; 400-800 m.a.s.l and above 800 m.a.s.l. The high elevation belt was mostly found in the Angujârtorfik area, not near Kangerlussuaq itself. The distribution of plant species, and differentiation of the vegetation belts is not determined only by temperature, but also by factors like wind exposure, cryoturbation and solifluction, humidity, snow cover and competition among species. In the Kangerlussuaq area erect dwarf shrub heaths are the dominant vegetation (Fredskild, 1996). Both the low- and mid altitude belts are dominated by Betula nana with Cassiope tetragona (white arctic mountain heather), Empetrum nigrum, and Vaccinium uliginosum as well as some herbs like Kobresia myosuroides, Pedicularis lapponica (Lapland lousewort) and Pyrola grandiflora (Large-flowered Wintergreen). These occur in mesic sites with acidic, humus rich soils. Heath vegetation dominated by Betula nana and Ledum palustre, with a high cover of Sphagnum species and other bryophytes, occurs in moister and more humus rich sites on north facing slopes, where there is constant snow cover in winter. In places that a slightly more mesic (for example because the slope is steeper), there are also many species of lichens. Steeper slopes are affected by solifluction, and the vascular plants are often very small due to the unfavourable conditions. Another heath-type, dominated by Cassiope tetragona, occurs at generally higher altitude sites (usually above 550 m.a.s.l.) with snow cover, which a typically affected by solifluction or cryoturbation. They contain some snowbed plants (Luzula arctica (arctic woodrush), Salix herbacea (snowbed willow) etc) as well as lichens and bryophytes, which are favoured by the reduced competition from dwarf shrubs caused by the frequent disturbance. These sites a very species rich, especially concerning cryptogams. Where pH is higher, some basiophilous species, like Dryas integrifolia (Entire-leafed Mountains Avens), and Rhododendron lapponicum (Lapland Rose-bay) and the moss Hypnum revolutum can occur in the Cassiope heaths. pH is often raised by base enrichment due to cryoturbation. On wind exposed, dry sites heath vegetation dominated by Empetrum nigrum ssp. hermaphroditum and Betula nana, with some grasses and herbs, and relatively low bryophyte cover. Actual shrub-vegetation with Salix glauca is restricted to low altitudes. The mean height of the vegetation is 1 m but single shrubs can be up to 4 m high. Shrubs vegetation 36

occurs on south facing slopes, on level, dry ground, such as on the high river terraces in the Kangerlussuaq area, and along rivers. On the south facing slopes it occurs with steppe species like Artemisia borealis (field sagewort), Calamagrostis purpurascens and others. On level ground the understory consists mainly of Betula nana, Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium uliginosum and Calamagrostis lapponica (Lapland reedgrass). There are some southern species, favoured by the milder climate in the Salix stands. Cryptogams are rare, and the species number low. On riparian sites Salix shrub occurs with mosses of the genus Plagiomnium, and plants of moist, disturbed sites, like Equisetum arvense (common horsetail) and Polygonum viviparum (alpine bistort).

Figure 15. Heathland plants from Kangerlussuaq. A: Betulan nana. B: Vaccinium uliginosum. C: Pyrola grandiflora. D: Ledum palustre. E: Dryas integrifolia. F: Rhododendron lapponicum. Photos by Dorthe Pedersen 37

In north facing sites with a shallow active layer, Salix glauca forms dwarf shrub vegetation (<50 cm high), which is rich in cryptogam species, like the other types of dwarf shrub heaths. On south facing slopes or flat areas with thin, loess-like soils, which a more base rich than other soils in the area, there is a steppe like vegetation dominated by Kobresia myosuroides and Carex supina. Grasses like Calamagrostis purpurascens, Poa glauca (glaucous bluegrass) and others are frequent, and forbs like Potentilla hookeriana (Hooker's cinquefoil), Artemisia borealis and Campanula gieseckiana (common harebell) occur sporadically. Kobresia myosuroides is very tolerant of low snow cover and drifting snow in winter, making it successful on wind exposed sites (Ozols and Broll, 2003).

Figure 16. Plants from Kangerlussuaq. A: Salix glauca. B: Draba glabella. C: Campanula giesekiana. D: Equisetum arvense. Photos by Dorthe Pedersen.

At mid altitudes snowbed communities begin to occur at sites with prolonged snow cover. These sites have a short growing season, low summer temperatures and high humidity. Snowbed communities are rare around Kangerlussuaq, because of the low precipitation, but found more commonly closer to the coast and at higher altitudes (Sieg et al., 2006). The difference between the mid- and high altitude belts is more pronounced than between low- and mid altitude, with a change in dominant vegetation type from erect dwarf shrub communities to communities dominated by prostrate dwarf shrubs and by gramminoids like Carex bigelowii (Bigelow's sedge), Luzula confusa (northern 38

woodrush) and Poa pratensis/arctica (Kentucky/arctic bluegrass). Some herbs are indicator species for high elevation, like Potentilla hyparctica (arctic cinquefoil) and Cardamine bellidifolia (alpine bittercress). Cryptogams play a large role. Gramminoid dominated stands cover large areas on north facing slopes, on acidic, relatively humus rich soils. Carex bigelowii dominate on the less steep slopes, whereas Poa pratensis/arctica and Luzula confusa dominate on steep slopes, where solifluction damages the rhizomes of Carex and the roots of dwarf shrubs, and thus favours tuft- forming species and a vegetation resembling polar semidesert (Sieg et al., 2006). The temporal variation in terrestrial vegetation during the Holocene has been studied at a number of sites in West Greenland using pollen and plant macrofossils (Fredskild, 1996). This will be described in the SKB report by Stefan Engels.

7.3 Fauna

There are four wild terrestrial herbivorous mammals in Greenland: muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus), caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus), arctic hare (Lepus arcticus) and lemming (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus) (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Caribou occur along much of the west coast and are common in the Kangerlussuaq area. Their diet consists mainly grasses and sedges in the summer, with the addition of lichen in the winter (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). The caribou have no natural predators in West Greenland, but are hunted by people. In South Greenland, around Nuuk and near Disko bay there are introduced domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) instead of wild caribou (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Cuyler et al. (2005) report on the Kangerlussuaq-Sisimiut caribou population size, age and gender structure and calf recruitment, based on extensive surveys carried out from helicopter in March 2005. It was estimated that there were ca. 90500 caribou in the region, with densities varying across the region from 2.3 to 6.2 animals pr km2. This number is a conservative estimate, considering the difficulty of surveying caribou in such a large area. It far exceeds any previously reported population estimates (see figure 17), although comparisons between years must be considered with some caution, as they are based on different survey methods. 39

Caribou population estimates

160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 Kangerlussuaq 80,000 Greenland total 60,000 40,000 20,000 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Figure 17. Available estimated of caribou population in the Kangerlussuaq-Sisimiut region and in Greenland as a whole. Data from Cuyler et al., 2005.

The caribou population also exceeds the number which has been estimated as the maximum sustainable population in the region, which is 31200 animals (1.2 pr km2). The high population leads to density dependant effects caused by intraspecific competition, overgrazing and trampling of the vegetation etc. The annual recruitment in the caribou population in 2005 was 16 calves per 100 cows (Cuyler et al., 2005). This is very low compared to populations in North America and Scandinavia, and these populations often have natural predators, unlike the one near Kangerlussuaq. There are no studies of the fecundity of the females, but a cause high calf mortality related to high population density is faeces contamination of the feeding areas, which leads to diarrhoea in calves when they start taking in other food than milk. Shortage of food resources because of competition, overgrazing and trampling may also lead to problems for the caribou bulls, as they need to build up large reserves before the mating season, where they do not eat much and spend a lot of energy. This could be the cause of the low bull to cow ration in the Kangerlussuaq-Sisimiut population, which is only 1:3 (Cuyler et al., 2005). Selective hunting of the bulls is also a possible cause, and this is common in Greenland, but the hunting harvest in recent years has not been large enough to explain the pattern observed alone. It is feared that the caribou population may at some point crash, as it has done several times in the past, if it remains unchecked. Since 2000 the number of licences to shoot caribou and the length of the hunting season has both been increased, but the number of caribou shot was obviously not enough to stabilise or decrease the population between 2000 and 2005. Muskoxen occur naturally in North and East Greenland and were introduced to the Kangerlussuaq area in 1962, where the population increased fast. The were 27 animals in 1965, and ca. 4000 in 1993. From Kangerlussuaq Muskoxen have since been introduced to other areas in West Greenland, where they also thrive (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). 40

Both muskox and caribou seek out special calving areas in the spring, and are more sensitive to human disturbance during the calving season than the rest of the year.

Figure 18. Caribou in Kangerlussuaq. Photo by Dorthe Pedersen.

Figure 19. Muskox bull near Kangerlussuaq. Photo by Dorthe Pedersen. 41

Lemming are common in North Greenland, where they play a key role as food for many predators, like arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), ermine (Mustela erminea), snowy owl (Nyctea scandiaca), Arctic Skua (Stercorarius parasiticus) raven (Corvus corax), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), and by the arctic wolf (Canis lupus), which has been extinct from Greenland but re-immigrated to North and Northeast Greenland in recent years, although it is unknown whether it breeds in Greenland (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Arctic fox occurs all over the country, but in two different races. White foxes occur in Northeast Greenland, where they hunt mainly lemming, and therefore have a population size that varies with the lemming cycles, and Blue foxes live in the coastal zone of the rest of Greenland, which has a more diverse diet, and therefore more stable population size (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Apart from the mammal herbivores, birds like geese, grouse and some ducks are also grazers. Among the arthropods there are also some herbivores, such as butterfly larvae, aphids, seed bugs and some beetle larvae. Some butterfly larvae can become very abundant in certain years and be a pest on hay crops in South Greenland, but generally insects do not consume more than a few percent of the terrestrial primary production (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Pollen and nectar on the other hand plays an important role for many insects, and they in turn are important to the plants as pollinators (Phillip et al., 1990). Most arthropods in Greenland, however, are detritus feeders in the soil and water, and are very important for the decomposition of organic matter. These include beetle mites, springtails and insect larvae like mites and mosquitoes. There can be 0.2- 1.0 million springtail pr m2 in some arctic soils, and around 27000 midge larvae pr m2 in especially lush ponds, but other arthropods occur at much lower densities (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Midges and mosquitoes are important food for many land living and wading birds, and even for arctic fox. Boertman et al., 1996, summarised the available information on sea bird colonies in Western Greenland. They map 1032 colonies. In these, ca. 1 million birds of 19 different species breed. In addition to this, there is ca. 20 million little auk (Alle alle) breeding at Avernasuaq. The next most common species are Brünnich’s guillemot or thick-billed murre (Uria lomvia), northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) and eider (Somateria mollissima). Along the fiord Kangerlussuaq there are only four recorded sea bird colonies, one with Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), and three with Iceland Gull (Larus glaucoides). Along the outer coast there are many colonies, but they tend not to be very big in this part of the country (Boertman et al., 1996). The wild fauna, both terrestrial and marine, contributes significantly to the food production of the Greenland society, with 7000 tons of meat every year, while sheep farming provides another 250 tons of meat pr year (Hansen, 2002). See more on food production in chapter 12.

7.4 Wetlands

In Greenland, bogs with Sphagnum species and other mosses occur on very wet areas. Eriophorum angustifolium (tall cottongrass) grows in tussock on the bogs, where some 42

dwarf shrubs also thrive (Foersom et al., 1982). The shores of salt lakes are often surrounded by plants that also grow along the coast, such as Puccinellia phryganodes (creeping alkaligrass) (Foersom et al., 1982).

Figure 20. Eriophorum scheuchzeri. Photo by Dorthe Pedersen.

In the Kangerlussuaq area, fens are restricted to the shores of lakes and ponds, and are dominated by Eriophorum angustifolium, E. shceuchzeri (arctic cotton-grass), Carex rariflora (looseflower alpine sedge) and Calamagrostis neglecta (slimstem reedgrass), and areas that dry out in the summer are dominated by Calamagrostis lapponica (Fredskild, 1996). There is a marked difference in vegetation composition and species diversity between base rich fens (mean pH 6.3) and more acid fens (mean pH 5.4) (Sieg et al, 2006). The acidity of fens is determined mainly by the bedrock of the fens water catchment area, with base rich fens in regions with sedimentary or basalt bedrock and acidic fens in gneiss areas. But influx from aeolian deposits may also create a more base rich environment locally. The mean species richness in the base rich fens was 32, in the acidophytic fens 15. Species like Euphrasia frigida (Scandinavian Eyebright), Juncus castaneus (chestnut rush), J. triglumis (three-hulled rush), Kobresia simpliciusculla (simple bog sedge), Pinguiculla vulgaris (common butterwort) and Saxifraga aizoides (yellow mountain saxifrage) are restricted to base rich fen. Some stands in base rich fen are transitional to salt-march vegetation, with Carex maritima (curved sedge), Lomatogonium rotatum (marsh fellwort) and Triglochin palustris (marsh arrowgrass). 43

The acidophytic fen vegetation types are characterised by dominance of Carex saxatilis (rock sedge) on windward, steep lake shores, or Carex rariflora on leeward, shallow lake shores. Other common species in the acidophytic fens include Calamagrostis neglecta, Eriophorum angustifolium and Salix arctophila (northern willow). Apart from pH and nutrient availability, the species composition is determined by wind exposure, and on weather a peat layer is developed or mineral soil is exposed. 44

45

8. LAKES AND PONDS

8.1 Common properties

The species composition and productivity of lakes depend on because of climatic variations, lake chemistry and nutrient availability. All standing fresh water in Greenland freezes in winter. Ponds freeze to the bottom, while lakes by definition do not (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). In dry, continental regions of Greenland, such as the Kangerlussuaq area, there are lakes without flow-through which are saline with high conductivity (above 3000 μS cm-1; Fredskild, 1996), because of the low precipitation. The salinity reflects the balance between evaporation, precipitation and temperature. The lakes receive meltwater that contains salts eroded from the bedrock by the ice, and if evaporation is higher than precipitation the concentration of these increases Jensen & Christensen, 2003). The Greenland salt lakes are generally less saline than salt lakes elsewhere in the world, including the Canadian High Arctic (Williams, 1991). The dominant cations in the lakes are Sodium and Magnesium, while the sulphate concentration is always low (Williams, 1991). Macrophytes are often rare or absent from lakes in Greenland (Foersom et al., 1982) because vegetation along the shores of especially large lakes is often destroyed by the movement of ice during spring (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). In smaller lakes macrophytes occur, along with mosses and algae. During fieldwork in 1996 to collect Holocene lake sediment cores, Anderson and Bennike (1997) found Potamogeton praelongus (whitestem pondweed) and Chara baltica (Baltic stonewort) in one lakes each in the Kangerlussuaq area, and Nitella opaca flexilis (Dark brittlewort) in several lakes on the Svartenhuk peninsula. Williams (1991) reports several species of macrophytes from lakes near Kangerlussuaq (see table 1). Mosses form dense mats on the bottom of many lakes (Anderson et al., 1999). Drepanocladus exannulatus is common in low salinity lakes, while D. aduncus is more salt tolerant and common in more saline lakes (Williams, 1991).

Table 1. Macrophytes found in saline lakes (Brayasø, Store Saltsø and Lille Saltsø) and fresh water lakes in the same vicinity. (+): present in “small” amounts. +: present in “considerable” amounts. After Williams, 1991.

Species Common name Saline lakes Fresh water lakes Chara sp. Stonewort (+) Hippuris vulgaris Common mare's-tail (+) + Menyanthes trifoliata Buckbean + Myriophyllum spicatum Spiked watermilfoil (+) + Nitella sp. Brittlewort (+) Potamogeton filiformis Fineleaf pondweed (+) + Ranunculus confervoides White water-buttercup + Sparganium sp. Bur-reed +

46

The phytoplankton in most lakes is dominated by Golden brown algae, diatoms and desmids, while green algae can be important in the most nutrient rich waters (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). The balance between benthic and pelagic primary production is largely determined by lake morphometry (McGowan et al, 2008). The largest groups of zooplankton are crustaceans and rotifera, but the zooplankton in Greenland lakes is relatively species poor. The zooplankton found in a high arctic lake in North Greenland includes Branchionecta palludosa and Daphnia pulex and well as chironomid larvae, copepods and ostracods (Blake et al., 1992). There is no special salt lake fauna in Greenland, so the fauna in the saline lakes consist merely of the most salinity tolerant among the fresh water species (Williams, 1991). On the bottom of lakes many detritus feeding invertebrates live, such as beetle mites, springtails and insect larvae. There can be up to 27.000 midge larvae pr m2 (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Three fish species, Arctic char (Savelinus alpinus), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), spawn in fresh water in Greenland. The salmon always migrates between the sea and fresh water, but some populations of char and stickleback stay in lakes for their whole life cycle. Many bird species, including ducks, geese and divers, are associated with lakes especially in their breeding season. Different species forage on insect larvae, crustaceans, fish, aquatic plants and seeds (Jensen & Christensen, 2003).

8.2 Spatial variation

Lakes are spatially variable in species composition and productivity because of climatic variations, lake chemistry and nutrient availability. In the gneiss bedrock areas of Greenland most lakes are very poor in nutrients, while those on in areas on basalt or calcareous sedimentary rocks are more nutrient rich. Runoff from loose soil and raised marine deposits can also lead to increased nutrient content, and close to bird cliffs very eutrofic lakes and ponds can be found (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Lakes and ponds in coastal areas of West Greenland are usually oligotrophic and slightly acid, whereas lakes in the interior of the country are mesotrophic due to some input of nutrient with aeolian sedimentation. West Greenland lakes generally have a low productivity of phytoplankton (such as Pediastrum and Botryococcus) at present, while it has often been higher in the past, when lakes were slightly more nutrient rich (Blake et al., 1992). In the high arctic North Greenland most lakes are ultra-oligotrophic (Blake et al., 1992). Ice dynamics and the length of ice cover also plays a role, especially in governing light availability, and thus limiting primary production. In North Greenland some lakes are permanently ice covered, in the south it may only be half the year. Algae growth begins as a thin layer underneath the ice as soon as the snow on top has melted so some light can get through. Only when or if the ice melts the algae spread in the water (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). There are also physical and biological differences between headwater lakes, ice- dammed lakes, salt lakes and flow-through lakes. Lakes close to the glaciers can have many clay particles and appear grey, while others can be very clear. The level of 47

knowledge about spatial and temporal variability is limited by the fact that relatively few limnological studies have been carried out, and each lake has at most been studied a few times. However, a study of 19 lakes in the Kangerlussuaq area were investigated, 5 saline and 14 fresh water lakes (Andersen et al, 1999). Two of the saline lakes in the Kangerlussuaq area have been studied in more detail in connection with palaeoecological investigations. The lakes Braya Sø and SS6 ca. 15 km west of Kangerlussuaq have mean specific conductivities of 2640 μS cm-1 and 3200 μS cm-1 respectively (McGowan et al, 2008). None of these lakes have outflows, but they are fed by small inflowing streams (McGowan et al, 2003). The salts are not of marine origin, as they can be in saline lakes in coastal areas, but have been washed out from the soils and accumulated over time (Anderson et al., 1999). The lakes are meromictic, which means that the water column is permanently stratified. The stratification is chemical, with elevated salinity waters at the bottom and overlying fresher water (McGowan et al, 2008). In Braya Sø, which has a maximum depth of 23 m, the stratification occurs as a pycnocline at a depth of 5.3-5.5 m, where there is an abrupt 30% increase in conductivity. Below the pycnocline temperature and oxygen content decrease gradually. At the bottom conditions are anoxic, partly because there is no macrovegetation in Braya Sø below 4 m depth, whereas other saline lakes which had macrovegetation were not anoxic (Anderson et al., 1999).

Figure 21. Salt lake near Kangerlussuaq. Photo by Dorthe Pedersen. 48

The fresh lakes that were studied in the area were mostly dimictic, which means that they are stratified in the summer, with mixing in the autumn when the surface waters cool. Some of the lakes contained fish, Stickleback and Arctic Char. The occurrence of fish populations has a large impact on the biological structure of the lower trophic levels in the lake, i.e. on the zoo- and phytoplankton biomass and species composition (Anderson et al., 1999).

In Paakitsoq just north of Ilulisat, temperature profiles were measured in a 38 m deep lake right at the edge of the inland ice. Throughout the year, the temperature profile from top to bottom is practically uniform. The warmest temperature in summer is 3.0 C. From September to May the lake is ice covered, and temperature ranges from 0.0 to 0.5 C (Kern-Hansen, 1990). 49

9. RIVER SYSTEMS

Most of the rivers, streams and brooks in Greenland originate from meltwater from the ice cap, glaciers and snow, which mostly becomes runoff rather than ground water, due to the poor drainage that is a result of the permafrost layer. At the origin the meltwater streams are cold and carry a lot of sediment, and only a few algae are present. Further downstream there is a vegetation of mosses and attached algae in the streams, but the strong current and coarse substrate usually does not allow aquatic higher plants to stay attached. Smaller brooks with less current, on the other hand, can have a lush vegetation of aquatic plants, mosses and many different algae. Many small brooks, and even larger streams, dry out in the summer. Outflows from lakes generally have slower water flow and are more nutrient rich than the meltwater streams. They support a rich vegetation and a fauna of midges and crustaceans not found in the meltwater streams. The fish arctic char, arctic salmon and three-spined stickleback can be found in some water courses when the migrate between the spawning areas and the sea (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Springs are another source of flowing water. Most freeze in winter, but some springs are homeothermic, i.e. have the same temperature above freezing all year round. They are also called “hot springs” even though they may not always be warmer than the surroundings. Most are found in the basalt areas around Disko bay and in East Greenland, and some on the island Uunartoq in South Greenland. Many of them are radioactive. The high temperature around the springs, and the longer growing season due to early snow melt give rise to a species rich vegetation, and many plants have their northernmost occurrence at homeothermic springs. In the warmer of the springs, which can be 38-62 C, the vegetation consists of heat loving blue-green algae, many of which are not found anywhere else on Greenland. The fauna is also special with many snails, beetles, tardigrades etc. The mite Lebertia groenlandica is endemic to a cold homeothermic spring on Qeqertasuaq (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). 50

51

10. MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

10.1 Common properties

The ecosystems of the seas around Greenland are, like the climate, affected by the oceanic currents described in chapter 2. At the southwest coast the waters are temperate and almost ice free because of the effect of the West Greenland current. Here we find the four “open sea towns” of Paamiut, Nuuk, Maniitsoq and Sisimiut, which are free of sea ice all year round, and where 90 % of Greenland’s population lives and most business is located (Cappelen et al. 2001). Along the more northern parts of the West coast the so called west ice forms in winter and is 3-4 meter thick. Only a small fraction of it survives the summer. The East Greenland current carries drift ice from the Arctic Ocean south along the east coast. Open areas in the ice which form more or less in the same places every year, known as polynia, are important habitat for many species. The sea ice distribution and extent varies from year to year depending on the weather conditions. Since 1953 there has been a generally declining trend in the extent of Arctic sea ice, as recorded by aircrafts and ships and since 1979 by regular monitoring using microwave measurements from satellites (Stroeve et al. 2007). The decline has been 7.8 % pr decade on average for the period 1953–2006, and 9.1 % per decade for 1979 – 2006. After 2006 the ice extent has declined even more, with the smallest ice cover ever measured recorded, 4.28 million km2, and only a small increase in extent to 4.67 million km2 in September 2008 (NSIDC, 2008). When satellite observations started in 1979 there were 7.2 million km2 ice in the Arctic Sae at the end of the summer season. The loss of ice is a self- perpetuating process, in that the loss of ice allows more solar energy to enter the ocean, heating the water masses and thus leading to more ice melt from the sides and bottom. Furthermore, if several year old ice is lost from an area one year, it is only replaced by thinner, one year ice at the beginning of the next melting season, and is thus more likely to melt again during the next summer. This was why the ice extent did not recover much from 2007 to 2008, and may even have decreased in volume, despite 2008 being colder and cloudier in the region (NSIDC, 2008). Apart from the ice, the sea currents also affect water temperature, salinity, nutrients and the dispersal of marine species. Primary production is largely determined by nutrient availability and light conditions. The upper water layers receive nutrients from the bottom water through mixing during winter storms, and when the light increases in spring large algal blooms occur, starting off the south coast and moving north as the ice retreats. During the spring bloom the phytoplankton is dominated by large diatom species, but later in the year smaller species, as well as dino- and nanoflagelates become dominant (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). An upwelling of nutrient water throughout the summer leads to an especially high production at the front between the Irminger and East Greenland currents.

10.2 Fauna

Mikrozooplankton, like bacteria and protozoa contribute to mineralisation and recycling of nutrients in the water column. Of the larger zooplankton, crustaceans, especially 52

copepods, are the most numerous, comprising 86 % of the biomass. They graze the phytoplankton, and are in turn important food for several other species, like fish, fish larvae, birds and marine mammals. This is especially the case for the copepod genus Calanus and the larger krill. The larvae of larger crustaceans, fish, echinoderms, molluscs and polychaetes form so-called meroplankton, animals that are planktonic for only part of their life cycle. They are especially abundant close to the coast (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). The adults of these groups, along with tunicates and sea anemones make the benthic invertebrate fauna, which ecologically can be divided into filter feeders, detritus feeders and predators. The northern limit of subarctic molluscs like Mytilus edulis, Chlamys islandica and Littorina saxile in shallow waters mark the limit between subarctic and arctic water masses, and has varied through time (Funder, 1989). There are 15 species of Cephalopods (squids and octopods) reported from Greenland waters, and they play an essential role in the ecosystems as food for many other species including fish, seabirds and marine mammals (Frandsen & Wieland, 2004). They are a valuable food resource for these animals because of their high content of lipids. The most common species is Gonatus fabricii, an oceanic species that lives at depths of 400- 1100 meters in the water column. Because of it’s high biomass and the high lipid content it might be of interest for commercial fishery for both consumption and industrial use, although there is not at present or historically a tradition of commercial fishery of cephalopods in Greenland (Frandsen & Wieland, 2004). Among the fish, polar cod (Gadus morhua) and capelin (Mallotus villosus) are the most important, as they are prey for many predators, including larger fish like salmon. Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) and skates (Raja sp.) eat a mix of pelagic and benthic animals like bivalves and shrimp, while catfish (Anarhichas sp.) and sanddabs (Hippoglossoides platessoides) only feed on the sea bottom fauna. Fifteen species of whales occur around Greenland, including blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) and bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus), which live on crustaceans and other planktonic organisms, while for example Minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) supplement the planktonic dies with cephalopods and fish. Killer whales (Orcinus orca) eat mostly fish and cephalopods but also some birds and marine mammals, which can be as big a narwhals (Monodon monoceros) and walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus). Sperm whales (Physeter catodon) also eat mostly cephalopods, but also states and sharks. Beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) eat different kinds of fish, as does the narwhal, which also takes some benthic animals. The five different species of true seals in Greenland eat fish and crustaceans, while walruses live almost exclusively on bivalves. Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a top predator, feeding mainly on seals and occasionally birds. It spends most of its life, and catches most of its prey on sea ice, so it is considered a marine animal rather that terrestrial. 53

11. COASTAL SYSTEMS

11.1 General properties

The littoral zone is defined as the area between the highest and lowest tidal water levels, and the organisms here endure extremely variable conditions, with daily changes in water availability and mechanical impact of waves in summer and ice in winter. Only especially adapted species can survive here. Looking at the coastal area in more general terms, it provides important habitats for many different species. Many of Greenland’s seabirds breed in colonies on bird cliffs and small islands. There are more than a thousand bird colonies in West Greenland. King eiders (Somateria spectabilis) and eiders are unable to fly for 3-4 weeks each year when they moult their feathers, and for that period gather in fiords and bays with good foraging possibilities. Birds are very sensitive to disturbance from human activities like hunting and fishing in the breeding colonies and moulting areas. The coast also provides haul-outs for harbour seal (Phoca vitulina concolor) and walrus, where the animals come on shore. Due to hunting pressure there are not longer any walrus haul-outs on the west coast, but only in the national park in East Greenland. Harbour seals breed on the haul-out areas, and are the only seal to breed on land in Greenland. This makes it more vulnerable to hunting than the other species. In the Kangerlussuaq fiord there were 500-600 harbour seals in the 1960’s and only about 20 today. It is unknown how large the total population of harbour seal is, and if climate change has also contributed to its decline (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). Ringed seal (Phoca hispida) and bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus) are associated with ice along all of the coasts, while harp seal (Phoca groenlandica) and hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) are migratory species that breed in the pack ice and after breeding migrate north along both the east and west coast (Jensen & Christensen, 2003).

11.2 Vegetation

On clayey coastlines salt meadows with Puccinella phryganoides, Stellaria humifusa, Potentilla egedii and Carex sp. can be found in places. On sand or gravel coastlines, the same plants are often found, along with Honckenya peploides and others. Elymis mollis is common on dunes, both where these occur also the coast and inland. Macro algae are found along the cliff coasts and form bands in the littoral zone. For example green algae like Alaria sp. and Ulvaria fusca grow just below the high water mark, with brown algae like Fuscus vesiculosus slightly lower. Laminaria longicruris occurs on 3-8 meters depth, Agarum cribrosum at 5-10 m. and Lithothamium sp. at greater depths (Foersom et al., 2008). Barnacles (Balanus balanoides) are also attached to cliffs in the littoral zone, while Periwinkles graze the green and brown algae. The forests of macro algae below the low tide line provide important spawning areas for certain species of fish, including capelin. 54

55

12. ANTHROPOGENIC SYSTEM

12.1 History

12.1.1 The prehistory of Greenland

Greenland has been settled by a succession of different cultures from North America and from Europe. It has been inhabited by humans since middle Holocene times, from about 2500 BC according to archaeological evidence. The first immigrants were of the Saqqaq culture, who, according to new findings using ancient DNA was related to peoples in eastern Siberia and the Aleuts, rather than modern day Greenlanders and natives of North America (Thomas et al., 2008). The Saqqaq were distributed in west Greenland from Thule to Nanortalik, and in East Greenland south of Scoresby Sund. There were especially many sites around Disko bay, Sisimiut and Nuuk. They lived in family groups and used all available resources, including seals, whales, caribou, birds, fish, molluscs and berries. Raw materials, like the stone killiaq, were traded all over the Saqqaq area. People of the Independence I culture were the first in Northeast Greenland, were they arrived around 2400 BC (Elling, 1996). They settled in Peary Land and a few places along the east coast. In Peary Land the main terrestrial animal was muskox, but others were also hunted, including arctic fox and polar bear. The Independence I people lived in family size dwellings, often gathered in small groups, and usually inland or at least away from the outer coast. Many of the differences between the Independence I and Saqqaq cultures are probably due to different resources available to them, and adaptations to different environments (Elling, 1996). It not presently possible to determine if they came from two independent immigrations into Greenland, or if they were originally one group, and adapted differently once in Greenland (Jensen, 2006). The next immigration was of the Early Dorset culture, which populated western, southern and eastern Greenland ca. 700 BC to 200 AD. In approximately the same period people inhabited Peary Land and Northeast Greenland. Their culture has been called Independence II, but recent studies of their stone technology indicate that they are the same people as the early Dorset, and that differences seen between them are adaptations to the resources and more extreme climate in the northeast (Grønnøw & Sørensen, 2006; Jensen, 2006). The economy and settlement pattern of early Dorset is very similar to the Saqqaq culture, but the datings of archaeological materials indicate discontinuity in the settlement between the two periods (Jensen, 2006). There may also be some indications that the Saqqaq were mainly open water hunters, whereas the Dorset were more adapted to sea ice conditions (Jensen, 2003). Finds from the Middle Dorset period, which is known from Canada, have not been found in Greenland, which seems to have been uninhabited from ca. 200-800 AD. People of the Late Dorset culture inhabited the northwest coast of Greenland from ca. 800 to 1300 AD –possibly with an expansion into northeast Greenland. The Late Dorset build bigger houses than the earlier peoples, half dug into the ground, indicating a more sedentary lifestyle, although they also used tents, probably in the warmer part of the year. They depended mostly on marine mammals like walrus and ringed seal, whereas terrestrial mammals and birds were less important and fishing very minor. Neither early 56

nor late Dorset used dog sledges, and also no boats or kayaks have been found (Appelt et al., 1998). Norse immigrants settled in Southern Greenland around 985 AD and lived there for around 500 years. They were concentrated in two areas, the Eastern Settlement in southern Greenland around Igaliko, and the Western Settlement 500 km further north, in the eastern part of present Nuuk municipality. The last documentary evidence of the Norse in Greenland is an Icelandic document describing a wedding in the Eastern Settlement in AD 1408. Clothing and bone from graves have been 14C dated and show that there were still Norse living in the area around 1430 (Arneborg et al, 1999), but after that they disappeared. The reason behind there disappearance, and what happened to them has been the focus of a lot of research, including palaeoecological. The Norse were originally farmers, and especially depended on animal husbandry. They settled in Greenland in the Medieval Warm Period, when climate in Greenland was favourable for growing hay, and they settled only in the most suitable locations for this purpose. A cooling period in the 14th century made farming more difficult. Also, lowlying fertile hay meadows and grazing areas were lots to rising sea levels (Mikkelsen et al., 2008). Bone material from an archaeological investigation of a Norse farm was studied (Enghoff, 2003), and the results show that sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals, with a few cows. The bone finds show that the Norse hunted reindeer and birds. Seal bones were also common in the archaeological material, and their proportion increased during the 400 year settlement period. Although the Norse did thus adapt from relying almost entirely on farming to a diet much based on marine wildlife resources (Arneborg et al, 1999), in the end they either died or emigrated, probably to Iceland where there ancestors had originally come from. The Thule people, which are thought to be the ancestors of the modern Greenlanders, developed in Alaska around 1000 AD, during the next 200 years spread quickly across northern Canada, and arrived in Greenland around 1200 AD. They were genetically related to modern Alaskan Yupik and Inupiat and the Canadian Inuit (Thomas et al., 2008). Archaeological finds show, that early on they came into contact with the Late Dorset people, probably something described in old legends, where the Dorset people are called Tunit (Appelt et al, 1998). Further south they also came in contact with the Norse population, but the nature of the contact is unclear. The Thule people travelled all along the coast of Greenland, and settled in all but the northernmost part, in relatively large settlements. All terrestrial and marine animals were hunted for food and other resources, and internal trade contacts were substantial. From the 17th century there was trading between Eskimo and European whaling expeditions to the west coast.

57

Table 2. Overview of archaeological cultures in Greenland.

Archaeological cultures in Period Geographical area Greenland Saqqaq culture 2500-800 BC West and Southeast Greenland Independence I 2400-1300 BC North and Northeast Greenland Independence II 800-0 BC Peary land and Northeast Greenland Early Dorset 700 BC-200 AD West, south and East Greenland Late Dorset 800-1300 AD Northwest Greenland Norse 935-1440 AD South and southwest Greenland Thule From 1200 AD All of Greenland except the northernmost part

12.1.2 Recent history of Greenland

The Norse Greenlanders submitted to Norwegian rule during the 13th century, so became part of the realm of Denmark when Norway entered a union with Denmark as part of the Kalmar union in 1397. Norway and Denmark was one kingdom until 1814, and when the rule over Norway was then transferred to Sweden, Greenland remained under Danish rule as a colony. The last communication with the Norse colony in Greenland was in 1408. During the 17th century European whaling ships hunted bowhead whales off the coast of Greenland and occasionally traded with the local Inuit population. In 1721 the Lutheran missionary Hans Egede was sent by King Frederik IV of Denmark to establish a mission and re- establish the colonial claim to the island. He did not find descendants of the Norse, but he started a mission among the Inuit and founded the town of Nuuk (then Godthåb) in 1724. The Danish state hereafter kept a tight control of trade with Greenland. In 1931, Norway attempted to claim eastern Greenland, but in 1933 the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague decided that the entire island belonged to Denmark. During the Second World War, supplies to Greenland from Denmark were cut off, and replaced by supplies from North America. The USA built military bases and installations in Greenland, including the airfields at Kangerlussuaq and Thule. In 1953 the colonial status ended, and the Danish constitution was extended to Greenland. An integration policy intended to equalise the population with that of Denmark economically, socially and legally, but had many problems. During the 1970 there was a drive towards more self government, expressed for example by many authors and singers writing in Greenlandic. In 1979 the home rule (hjemmestyre) became established, and except for foreign, monetary and legal policy, most policy areas are now governed by the home rule (www.nanoq.gl). 58

12.1.3 History of Kangerlussuaq

The area around Kangerlussuaq has been used by palaeoeskimo and Inuit hunters who have hunted reindeer in the area during the summer. Archaeological finds from surveys carried out in the area to the south of the fiord in 2001, 2002 and 2003 include temporary shelters, tent rings, remains of reindeer, different hunting implements and loose finds, but only few graves (Gabriel et al., 2001; Odgaard et al., 2003; 2005). Some finds have been dated by 14C. This includes a tent ring from 3600 BP, belonging to the Saqqaq culture, and a Thule culture camp site from 1350 AD (Odgaard et al., 2003). A settlement with seven small tent houses was registered west of Lake Fergusson near Kangerlussuaq in 2003 (Odgaard et al., 2005). It is known from historical sources that reindeer hunting was going on in the high plain south of Kangerlussuaq in the 18th and 19th centuries, while in later years the summer hunting was more restricted to areas along the coast of the fiord (Odgaard et al., 2003). While the region around Kangerlussuaq has thus been used for summer hunting for thousands of years, it has probably never been used for permanent settlement until the air base was founded by the Americans during the second world war in 1941. Apart from a brief intermission in 1950-51, where it became Danish for a short time, it remained an American base until 1992, when it came under Greenland home rule. From 1954 to 1965 SAS used the base for refuelling commercial planes on the route to Los Angeles, and in 1960 the base was expanded with a civilian part and a hotel. The small town today has around 500 inhabitants, and the airport and tourist industry are the main employers.

Figure 22. View of Kangerlussuaq air base. Photo by Dorthe Pedersen. 59

12.2 Land use

12.2.1 Settlements

There are 59 settlements in Greenland (Jensen & Christensen, 2003), and 13 towns with more than 1000 inhabitants. Considering the size of the country, even when taking only the ice free areas into consideration, settlements take up a very small part of the total area.

12.2.2 Agriculture

Agriculture plays a relatively minor role in the Greenland economy. There is no arable farming, but there is extensive sheep farming in south Greenland, with 60 farms (Thorkelsson, 2003), covering and an area of ca. 240000 ha. There are approximately 21000 sheep (Statistics Greenland, 2008) and they produce 250 tons of lamb meat every year (Hansen, 2002). In 2006 there were also ca. 23000 tame reindeer in Greenland, which contribute to food production along with wild caribou. Apart from these there were 217 horses and 24 cows (Statistics Greenland, 2008). Permanent pasture covers approximately 9 km2 in Greenland, forest 1 km2 (Agerskov, 2008).

12.2.3 Industry

The economy of Greenland has to a large extent been based traditionally on fishery, and to some degree on mineral resources. The fishing industry accounts for 87 % of Greenland’s exports today, while other industries include handicrafts, hides and skins and small shipyards (Statistics Greenland, 2008). Greenland is not economically self reliant today, but receives an annual subsidy of 3,120 mill. Dkk from Denmark (2006). It is hoped that exploitation of mineral and oil resources can lead to economical independence in the future. Tourism is another potential growth area. The ice sheet represents a large potential source of hydropower. For example, the Tasersiaq Lake could provide more than 2000 GWh pr year. This could in theory cover the entire energy consumption of Greenland, but the scattered population and large distances makes it impossible to share electricity installations for the entire country. Instead, there have been different plans of using the hydropower for various high energy demanding industries (Ahlstrøm, 2003).

12.3 Impact on natural systems

The population density in Greenland is only 0.2 people pr km2 of ice free area, and transport between cities and settlements is by air, sea or dog sled, so there are only few roads outside cities, and no railroads. Therefore, fragmentation of natural habitats due to human impact is very limited outside the small areas covered by settlements. Mining and mineral exploration has had some effect on ecosystems due to disturbance and destruction of local biota and pollution with for example heavy metals, but specific changes to biodiversity due to mining has not be documented (Jensen & Christensen, 60

2003). Oil exploration will potentially some impact in the future, and arctic ecosystems are very sensitive to pollution with oil. Sheep farming occupies a relatively large area in South Greenland, 240000 ha, but still only a small fraction of the total land area. Grazing and trampling by sheep can lead to increased erosion due to destruction of the plant cover. Sheep farming negatively impacts birch forest and willow shrub ecosystems. In the past animals grazed these vegetation types heavily in the winter. Now the sheep are kept indoors over winter, and therefore do not graze, but instead scrub and forest are cleared to grow winter fodder (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). However, the main source of human impact on the natural systems in Greenland is the direct exploitation of animal species. Hunting and fishing has traditionally played a major role in the economy of Greenland, and the fisheries still do, while hunting is mostly for local consumption. The use and status of 25 animal species is described by Jensen & Christensen (2003). The information presented by them is summarised in table 3. Fish and seafood products make up 87 % of Greenland’s exports –pink shrimp alone 55 % (Statistics Greenland, 2008). Other important species are Greenland halibut, Atlantic cod and snow crab. The shrimp and halibut fisheries are regulated by quota and license regulations (Statistics Greenland, 2008). For several of the species that are fished, including Greenland Halibut, Atlantic cod, Ocean perch and Atlantic salmon, the populations and catches have declined due to over fishing (Jensen & Christensen, 2003). This can also be seen by comparing catches in 1996 and 2006 (table 3). The catch of Cod, Stonefish (Sebastes sp.), and shrimp have all declined. About 2700 people have a professional hunting licence, and ca. 7000 have a non- commercial licence (Statistics Greenland, 2008). Every year they catch around 7000 tons of meat for human consumption, which is about twice as much as the amount of meat that is imported to Greenland (Hansen, 2002). Most of the meat is of different species of seals and walrus. But also whales, reindeer, muskox, hare and many birds, especially Brünnich’s guillemot and eider are hunted for food. To many seabirds, hunting and collection of eggs for food are the most important threats today, and currently have a large impact on the populations. Oil spills could become an additional threat in the future if potential oil offshore the west coast becomes exploited (Boertman et al., 1996).

12.4 Impact of natural systems on humans

The location of settlements in Greenland is very much impacted and limited by the natural environment, particularly topography and the occurrence of ice, both inland ice and sea ice, which limits transportation by sea. A large proportion of the population lives in those areas along the west coast which are ice free all year.

The cold climate, which prevents arable farming, is probably the main reason for the low population density in Greenland. As mentioned above, the natural system in Greenland directly provides a substantial amount of the meat consumed locally. Also birds’ eggs and berries are collected for food. In earlier times the human population was completely dependant on the local natural food resources, and hence vulnerable to 61

variations in availability, for example due to climate changes. Nowadays, food can be and is imported from the south, reducing this dependence to some degree. However, the biological resources, especially in the sea still play a large economical role for Greenland. Geological resources in the form of minerals and especially oil or gas are by many hoped to play a larger role in the future, and maybe provide economical independence for the Greenland society.

Table 3. Use, catch and status for animal species summarised from Jensen & Christensen, 2003. Catch 2006 from Grønlands Statistik, 2007 listed where available.

Scientific name Use Reported Reported Population size Species catch 1996 catch 2006 and status Common Somateria Meat, eggs 68-82 000 unknown, eider mollissima collected for probably declining consumption King eider Somateria Meat 4-5 000 280 000 wintering spectabilis birds Brünnich’s Uria lomvia Meat 188-200 000 360 000 pairs, guillemot decreasing (Thick-billed murre) Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea Eggs collected Unknown 30-60 000 for consumption probably declining Caribou Rangifer tarandus Meat, hide and Ca. 2600 Varies, 20 000 in groenlandicus antlers 1996 Muskox Ovibos moschatus Hunted for 500-600 9500-12500 trophies and meat (North and Northeast) Polar bear Ursus maritimus Meat, fat, hide East ca. 100, East unknown, Northwest ca. Northwest ca. 180 3800 Atlantic Odobenus Meat, fat, hide, East ca 25, East 500-1000, Walrus rosmarus tusks West ca. 450 west unknown Ringed seal Phoca hispida Meat and skin 60-70 000 44000 Unknown, probably stable Harp seal Phoca Meat and skin ca. 50 000 64000 ca. 5.3 million groenlandica Harbour seal Phoca vitulina Skin 260-280 Unknown, concolor declined during 20th century Total 4000 Bearded seal Erignathus Skin 18-1900 Unknown,

barbatus probably stable Hooded seal Crystophora Hunted for skin 7-8 000 ca. 350 000 cristata Beluga Delphinapterus Hunted for 6-700 Declining whale leucas Mattak (skin and blubber) Narwhal Monodon Hunted for 380-700 Probably stable monoceros Mattak, meat and teeth Minke whale Balaenoptera Hunted for meat. ca. 180 24-48 000 acutorostrata No commercial use. 62

Fin whale Balaenoptera Hunted for meat. 5-19 0 520-2100 phusalus No commercial use. Greenland Reinhardtius Fished for export 19 000 tons 26000 tons Has declined due Halibut hippoglossoides to fishing pressure Atlantic cod Gadus morhua Local 17 000 tons 8700 tons Has declined due consumption and to fishing pressure export Ocean perch Sebastes marinus Local 50 tons Has declined due consumption and to fishing pressure export 9600 tons Deepwater Sebastes mentella Local 130 000 tons Benthic population redfish consumption and has declined, export oceanic stable Atlantic Salmo salar Local 92 tons Has declined salmon consumption and export Arctic char Savelinus alpinus Mainly for local More than 79 Unknown consumption tons (1997) Pink shrimp Pandalus borealis Mainly for export 71 000 tons 60500 tons Unknown Snow crab Chionoecetes Mainly for export 817 tons 2966 tons Ca. 14 000 tons in opilio 1996 Iceland Chlamys islandica Mainly for export 2000 tons Unknown scallop 63

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Appendix 1 Species list

Latin English Swedish Desription Alnus Alder Alar Deciduous tree; species in the Betulaceae family Bacillariophyceae Diatoms Kiselalger Eukaryotic algae Betulaceae Birch family Björkväxter Deciduous trees and shrubs, order Fagales Betula nana Dwarf-birch Dvärgbjörk Species in the Betulaceae Botryococcus (not available) Sågspånsalg Green colonial microalgae Caryophyllaceae Pink / Carnation family Nejlikväxter Flowering plants, order Caryophyllales Characeae Stonewort family Kransalger Green algae / green plant, order Charales Chara Stonewort Sträfse Genus in Characeae family Chenopodiaceae Goosefoot family Mållväxter Flowering plants in the family Amaranthaceae, order Caryophyllales

Cyperaceae Sedge family Halvgräs Flowering plants, order Poales 69 Chironomidae Non-biting midges Fjädermyggor 2-winged insects (Insecta:Diptera) Chydorus arcticus Water flea Cladocera (Crustaceae) Daphnia pulex Water-flea Vattenloppa Water-flea Distichium (not available) Planmossor Aquatic moss Dryas Avens Fjällsippor Genus in the Rosaceae family Dryas octopetala Mountain avens Fjällsippa Species in the Rosaceae family Empetrum nigrum Common crowberry Sydkråkbär Species in the Ericaceae family Ericaceae Heath family Ljungväxter Flowering plants, order Ericales Ilyocypris bradyi (not available) Freshwater ostracod Myriophyllum spicatum Eurasian watermilfoil Axslinga Species in the order Saxifragales Nitella Brittlewort Slinke Genus in the Characeae family Papaver radicatum Arctic poppy Vallmoväxter (= Species in the family Papaveraceae, order Papaveraceae) Ranunculales Pediastrum (not available) Tagghjul Green algae

Poaceae Grasses Gröen Flowering plants, order Poales Potamogeton filiformis Slender-leaved pondweed Trådnate Aquatic plant, order Alismatales Rosaceae Rose family Rosor Flowering plants Sagina-type Pearlworts Smalnarvar Genus in the Caryophyllaceae family Salix Willow Videväxter Deciduous trees and shrubs, order Malpighiales Salix arctica Arctic willow Ishavsvide Species in the Salicaceae Salix glauca northern willow, grayleaf Ripvide Species in the Salicaceae willow Salix herbacea Dwarf willow, snowbed Dvärgvide Species in the Salicaceae willow Saxifragaceae Saxifrage family Stenbräckeväxter Flowering plants, order Saxifragales Saxifraga caespitosa-type Tufted alpine Saxifrage Tuvbräcka Number of species in the Saxifragaceae family Saxifraga stellaris Starry Saxifrage Stjärnbräcka Species in the Saxifragaceae family Spongilla (lacustris) Freshwater sponge Spretig Freshwater sponges sötvattensvamp 70 Tolypella Great Tassel Stonewort Rufse Genus in the Characeae family Vaccinium Blueberry, cranberry etc Skogsbär Genus in the Ericaceae family Warnstorfia exannulata Hook-moss Kärrkrokmossa Aquatic bryophyte