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Object(s): Horse Slaughterer’s Cart Object number(s): STMEA:A.898 Researcher details: Paul Kettle, Volunteer

Note. The trade of Slaughterer and Knackerman are similar in many aspects. Research sources are much greater for knackermen than for slaughterers, so I have taken the liberty of using knackerman information where there is a lack of information for slaughterers and where I consider the information to be common.

Figure 1. A Dead Horse on a Knackers Cart, by Thomas Rowlandson 1756-1827.1

A water colour with pen and brown and red-brown ink over graphite on medium, slightly textured, beige, wove paper.

1 Knacker [Internet]. En.wikipedia.org. 2019. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knacker Attribution: Thomas Rowlandson / Public domain

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The loss of a working horse would be likely to impact greatly on a farmer’s livelihood and I believe this is reflected in the expressions of both the family and the Knackerman.

Figure 2. Horse slaughterer's cart of 1892, scale model. Including poleaxe 2

By observation and comparison the William Syke’s cart at MEAL is similar except that it incorporates a removable rear board between the centre and rear platforms.

2 Horse slaughterer's cart of 1892, scale model. Including poleaxe. [Internet]. Available from: https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co25914/horse-slaughterers-cart-of-1892-scale-model. Attribution: © The Board of Trustees of the Science Museum

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Downloaded from Science Museum Collection3

3 9. Horse slaughterer's cart of 1892, scale model | Science Museum Group Collection [Internet]. Collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk. 2019. Available from: https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co25914/horse-slaughterers-cart-of-1892-scale-model Attribution: © The Board of Trustees of the Science Museum

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A Detailed Description of the Horse Slaughterers Cart

The rough sketches above of the Horse Slaughterer’s Cart at MEAL are based solely upon observation of the cart itself, located in the MEAL Collection Storage area.

The horse slaughterer’s cart is a special, purpose-built, horse drawn cart used for loading and transporting slaughtered or fallen horses away for disposal in the days before motorized transport became available. These carts are built to a similar design to the model cart shown above, but cannot be found in James Arnold’s book ‘Farm Wagons and Carts’, so the following description is based upon observation of the cart held in storage at MEAL. Refer to the sketches above for clarification.

The floor of the cart consists of two parts, a cart floor, which is expected to be roughly level when a horse is harnessed between the shafts. The two shafts extend forward to accommodate a single horse to draw the cart. Immediately in front of the cart floor is a narrow driver’s platform, attached over the shafts to provide seating for the driver. Forward of this, mounted onto the shafts is a loading roller, complete with a ratchet mechanism to facilitate the loading of the cart. Attached to the rear of the centre floor is a fixed, rear platform that is angled slightly downwards and incorporates two rollers, located side by side, at the forward end of the platform.

There are two fixed side panels attached to the centre floor. Attached above these are two name plates that display the name and trade details of the owner. Between the cart floor and the rear platform is a rear panel, this being removable to facilitate loading of the cart.

Mounted immediately below the centre floor at each corner are fixtures that accommodate the attachment of two large, longitudinal leaf springs. The wheel axle is fixed to the centre of the leaf springs, with a hub and large wheel attached at each end of the axle. Fixed immediately below the middle of, and to the centre floor, is a curved structure that sits immediately above the wheel axle. This serves to provide some control of lateral suspension of the cart in conjunction with the stability offered by the two leaf springs. The large wheels help ease the cart over small undulations in the road or track.

There is a metal step attached at each side of the driver’s platform to ease driver entry and exit of the cart. There is a metal holder bracket at the front of each side panel to accommodate the fitting of lights for nighttime transportation. There are also two metal loops at the rear of the side panels. Their purpose is not clear but they may be anchor points for securing the load for transportation.

The nameplate bears details of the owner with the inscription WILLIAM SYKES JUN. LICENSED

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HORSE-SLAUGHTERER, WYVERSTONE TELEGRAMS: WYVERSTON. (Refer my note on MEAL Data sheet above). Red is the background colour with the lettering in a pale yellow or cream.

The basic colour of the cart is dark brown with red lines and decoration as a finish. It is possible that this colour scheme may be typical of farm carts from this area of Suffolk but I still have to find reference to this for confirmation.

Other equipment that would normally accompany the slaughterer’s cart would be a poleaxe, for the stunning and possible termination of a horse before its removal. For humane reasons, modern legislation requires the use of a mechanical or electric stun gun instead of the poleaxe of old. A lever to operate the ratchet roller during loading of the cart. Ropes, and possibly chains, would be used to secure the dead horse once it has been loaded onto the cart. A tarpaulin would likely be used to cover the dead animal during its transportation.

The Loading of a Cart

John Warman, a member of The Licensed Animal Slaughterers and Salvage Association (LASSA) describes the loading of a cart. Although it refers to a knackerman and the transport of other animals, the procedure would be the same for the loading of a horse by a horse slaughterer.

‘Up until motor transport was available, the horse and cart was the only way to transport dead cattle and horses. These knacker carts were specially built for the job, when a knacker man went to a farm to collect a dead animal he would take the horse out of the cart and tip it up in front of the dead animal’s head, he would then put a roller between the shafts of the cart this roller had a ratchet on it and would act as a type of winch to slowly pull the animal on to the back of the cart. He would then tip the cart up straight again, put the horse back in and go back to the knacker yard.’4

The Owners of the MEAL Slaughterer’s Cart from Find My Past

Based upon the limited information provided upon the MEAL data sheet, we know the horse slaughterer’s cart was donated by Michael Sykes and was used by Michael, his father, his uncle and

4 10. History - Licensed Animal Slaughterers' & Salvage Association : LASSA [Internet]. Licensed Animal Slaughterers' & Salvage Association : LASSA. 2019]. Available from: https://lassa.org.uk/history-of-the- knackerman/

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possibly his grandfather. Research of Ancestry websites and local trade directories has allowed us to identify who these people were, their occupations and where they lived.

Searches on Find My Past using birth, marriage, census, 1939 register and location information on the William Sykes household has been taken to provide greater information. The small number of hits on the name William Sykes in Wyverstone, Suffolk for each event were reasonably conclusive to give a very high degree of confidence that the persons identified are the people who worked with this cart.

Briefly, before providing more conclusive evidence, the users of this cart were Michael Sykes, the donor, his father, Edwin A Sykes, his uncle, Herbert W Sykes and his grandfather, the William Sykes Junior, the owner and named on the cart name plate. All were born and lived in or close to Wyverstone, Suffolk. By his own admission, Michael used the cart, although it is not possible to confirm that he was a slaughterer. However, the 1939 Register confirms that his father Edwin, his uncle, Herbert and grandfather, William, were all horse slaughterers.

The following is the evidence and its source used to determine the above summary. The relevant hard copy printouts are provided separately to confirm the information for file records.

At the 1871 Census (Find My Past) William Sykes, a 23 year old dealer in fowls, was living at Westhorpe, Suffolk. Living with him was his wife Emma and his son William, aged 1 year and born on Westhorpe, along with two others. With the additional records below, it has been concluded that the 1 year old William (born 1870) is the grandfather and cart owner identified by Michael Sykes, the donor of the cart. This is the William Sykes Junior named on the cart nameplate. It was also confirmed separately that the father of William (Senior) (born 1848) was named Samuel, therefore the use of the designation Junior for William would seem appropriate.

At the 1891 Census (FMP), William Sykes (Jun) is now 21 and married to Ellen (nee Cutting). He is a butcher and is living at the Street, Westhorpe, Suffolk along with a daughter.

At the 1901 Census (FMP) William Sykes (Jun) is aged 32, works as a Fowl Dealer, living at The Street, Finningham, Suffolk with his wife Ellen, his 8 year old son, Herbert W, his new baby, Edwin A, and two other children.

At the 1911 Census (FMP) William Sykes, aged 42 years, works as a Farmer and Dealer at Wyverstone, Suffolk with wife Ellen, sons Herbert W (age 18) and Edwin A (age 10) and four other relatives.

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At the 1939 Register (FMP) there are two separate records related to the Sykes household. The first includes William Sykes (Jun), now aged 70 and widowed, working as a horse slaughterer at Lodge Farm, Wyverstone, Suffolk. His son, Herbert W, aged 46, also lives here and works as a horse slaughterer. William’s other son, Edwin now lives at All Saints, Suffolk with his wife Edna (nee Aldrich) and 1 year old son Michael (the cart donor). Edwin works as a Small Holder and Horse Slaughterer.

The graveyard of St Georges Church, Wyverstone is the final resting place of William Sykes (Jun), who passed away on 10 July 1951 at age 82. Beside his grave is that of his son, Alfred Ernest Sykes, who passed away on 14 April 1950. A few yards away is the gravestone of William’s wife Ellen, who passed away on 11 May 1932. There was no other pertinent information on the three stones. This information was taken during a visit to the church and graveyard.

In the Electoral Register of 2002-03, Michael Sykes’ address is given as Broadway House, Stowmarket, which is the given address of the donor of the cart.

Further Discussion of Find My Past information on Sykes family

At the 1939 Register for William Sykes, he was living at Lodge Farm, Wyverstone. This farm was the subject of an Archaeological Survey that has relevance to the Slaughterer’s occupation and cart. Additional information on the Archaeological Report is given below.

The Owners from Trade Directories

There are various Commercial Directories that cover the county of Suffolk. Some are in hard copy in libraries while others are available on-line under Historical Directories from the University of Leicester. Not every edition is available from either source. A search of available directories has been completed as far as possible. The search has targeted William Sykes under Wyverstone, Westhorpe, Sudbourne, Horse Slaughterer and Farmer. Entries found, including an unresolved mystery, are as follows:

White’s Directory Suffolk 18915

Page 670 Under Sudbourne there is no Sykes listed

5 12. White W. White's 1844 Suffolk. Newton Abbot: David & Charles; 1970.

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Page 721 Under Westhorpe William Sykes is listed as Farmer Dealer

Page 757 Under Wyverstone there are no Sykes listed

Page 844 Under trade section William Sykes is listed as a Farmer at Westhorpe

Page 863 There is no Sykes listed as a Horse Slaughterer

Kelly’s Directory Pt 3 Suffolk 18926

Page 328 Under Westhorpe William Sykes is listed as a Cattle Dealer and Farmer but is not listed in the trade section as a Horse Slaughterer.

Kelly’s Directory Suffolk 19007

Page 368 Under Westhorpe William Sykes is listed as a Cattle Dealer and Farmer but is not listed in the trade section as a Horse Slaughterer

Kelly’s Directory Suffolk 19128 Page 446 Under Westhorpe William Sykes is listed as a Hunt Pig and Cattle Dealer and Farmer

Also under Wyverstone William Sykes is listed as Farmer Sudbourne. However, there is no William Sykes listed under Sudbourne. (See discussion below re Sudbourne.)

Under trade section there is no Sykes listed as a Horse Slaughterers

Kelly’s Directory Cambs, Norfolk & Suffolk 19169

6 13. Kelly's Directory of Cambs, Norfolk & Suffolk, 1892. [Part 3: Suffolk] - Page 39 [Internet]. Specialcollections.le.ac.uk. 2019. Available from: http://specialcollections.le.ac.uk/digital/collection/p16445coll4/id/245159/rec/2)

7 14. Kelly's Directory of Worcestershire, 1900 - Page 183 [Internet]. Specialcollections.le.ac.uk. 2019. Available from: http://specialcollections.le.ac.uk/digital/collection/p16445coll4/id/325923/rec/10

8 15. Kelly's Directory of Suffolk, 1912 - Page 5 [Internet]. Specialcollections.le.ac.uk. Available from: http://specialcollections.le.ac.uk/digital/collection/p16445coll4/id/222806/rec/12

9 12. Kelly's directory of the counties of Cambridge, Norfolk and Suffolk ... 1916. London: Kelly's Directories; 1916.

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Page 447 Under Wyverstone is listed William Sykes Jun Farmer Sudbourne (See discussion below re Sudbourne.)

William Sykes is not listed in the trade section as a horse slaughterer.

In the trade section William Sykes Jun is listed as a farmer, the entry being ‘Sykes William Jun. Sudbourne, Wyverstone, Stowmarket. (See discussion below re Sudbourne)

Kelly’s Directory1937 Suffolk10

Under Wyverstone is listed William Sykes Farmer Lodge Farm Bacton

William Sykes is not listed in the trade section as a horse slaughterer.

Discussion of Entries found in Commercial Directories

In all entries found in the Commercial Directories listed above there were none that listed William Sykes as a horse slaughterer, however, the 1939 Register on Find My Past clearly shows that he and others of his family were definitely slaughterers. I have found no records that indicate how long they practiced this profession.

In the Kelly’s Directories for 1912 and 1916 there is an unresolved mystery concerning William Sykes. Listed under the village of Wyverstone William Sykes is listed as a ‘Farmer, Sudbourne’. Find My Past information suggests that he is correctly listed under Wyverstone, but the reference to Sudbourne cannot be explained. In both of these directories there is no William Sykes listed under the entry for the village of Sudbourne. Searches on websites for Sudbourne and Sudbourne Hall do not reveal any link and I have been unable to find any link between William Sykes and the village of Sudbourne other than that shown in the two directories. So, for the moment the reference to William Sykes, Sudbourne under the village of Wyverstone in these two directories remains a mystery.

Lodge Farm, Wyverstone, Former Home of William Sykes in 1939

The 1939 Register on Find My Past shows that William Sykes was at Lodge Farm, Wyverstone at the

10 13. Kelly's Directory of Suffolk ... 1937. London; 1937.

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time the register was taken.

I viewed the General and Special Rates book for half years ending 30 September 1938 and 31 March 1939 for the Rural District of Hartismere at the Suffolk Records Office at Ipswich to confirm ownership details of the farm at the time.

For half year ending 30 September 1938 on Page 577 for the Parish of Wyverstone register;

Under Assessment no 7016, William Sykes is listed as occupier and Owner of Lodge Farm. The farm had a Rateable Value of £11 with a General Rate of £3 1s 5d.

Under the next entry, Assessment no 7017. William Sykes is listed as owner of a slaughterhouse at Lodge Farm with Ratable Value of £10 and General Rate of £2 15s 10d.

Similarly, for half year ending 31 March1939 for the Parish of Wyverstone the General Rates for the Farm and Slaughterhouse were £2 19s 4d and £2 14s 2d respectively.

Additionally, this register showed on Page 578 that William Sykes owned a Cottage on the Street, Wyverstone. This property was occupied by David Offord. AE Sykes is shown as the owner of and living at a cottage at the Croft, Wyverstone but it is unclear whether this is William’s daughter, Agnes E Sykes or William’s son, Alfred E Sykes.

In January 2008, on behalf of Suffolk County Council, an archaeological survey report was completed on redundant buildings at Lodge Farm, Wyverstone as a condition for planning permission for the partial demolition and domestic conversion of some buildings.11

Much of the report, whilst interesting, is not relevant to this study, except as follows:

Page 5 refers to a shed that was used to ‘house the large ‘tip-up’ wagon of the then owner, who operated as a cattle slaughterman and used it to transport carcasses.’ From the 1939 Register it is reasonable to assume that this was the storage area for the horse slaughterer’s cart that was owned and used by William Sykes (Jun).

11 15. [Internet]. Suffolkarchaeology.co.uk. 2019. Available from: http://suffolkarchaeology.co.uk/expanse/uploads/suffolkarchaeology/editor/files/Wyverstone%20Lodge%20Far m%20Archaeological%20Record.pdf

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Figure 5 (Page 6) Shows a site block plan of the farm, with buildings 14 and 15 being the cart or trap shed and cart or trap stable respectively. This was the likely storage area for the cart.

The Rate records of the farm confirms that there was a slaughterhouse located on the property. Page 12 of the archaeological report suggests the possibility of some slaughtering activity, albeit of cattle, in the 1950s but a slaughterhouse is not definitely identified within the survey area. It would seem logical that the slaughterhouse and the slaughterers cart would be located close to one another but there is insufficient evidence to confirm this or which part of the complex was used by William Sykes as a slaughterhouse.

Was Bayley the Maker of the Cart?

The name Bayley is marked upon the hub of the cart. It is not clear whether he was the maker of the complete cart or whether, being marked on the hub, he was the wheelwright for the wheels of the cart only. For my searches, I have made an assumption that he was local to Suffolk although this is by no means a certainty.

A search for Bayley as a Cartmaker, a Cart, Van and Wagon Builder, a Cartwright or a Wheelwright in the following on-line trade directories produced no hits:

Post Office Directory Pt 3 Suffolk 1869 Kelly’s Directory Suffolk 1892 Kelly’s Directory Suffolk 1900 Kelly’s Directory Suffolk 1912 Kelly’s Directory Suffolk 1916 Kelly’s Directory Suffolk 1937 Eastern Counties of Directory 1901

I searched Census records on the Find My Past website against the name Bayley, using Suffolk as his location. I searched on Census and the 1939 Register because these also gives the occupations of people. This search gave 390 hits for Bayley but none proved to be a cart maker or wheelwright. There were only two hits that could be considered as possibly loosely related. They were:

Kenneth Bayley, who at the 1861 Census, was boarding at 20 Church St, Ipswich whilst serving as an Apprentice Mechanical Engineer. Born in 1839 in Kent, he is listed as visiting London as a Civil Engineer at the 1881 Census. Based upon this information, as a civil engineer it is considered that he is unlikely to be the maker of the cart.

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Arthur M Bayley is recorded on the 1939 Register as being an Agricultural Mechanical Engineer Draughtsman. At the time he was living at 61 Princes Rd, Felixstowe and was born on 1 December 1893. Unfortunately, the only other two census records I could find for this individual were as a scholar, so I was unable to determine how his working career developed to determine whether this designer could have been an agricultural equipment maker at some time, although it is perhaps unlikely.

There are a number of ‘People in the News’ involving the name Bayley of Suffolk on the Find My Past website but I do not have access to this particular section so cannot proceed further on these to determine whether they are relevant.

In the book ‘Wagons and Carts’ by James Arnold there is mention of a particular cart maker, who I believe was named Bayley in Hertfordshire. Unfortunately, I have been unable to confirm this due to the lack of access to the MEAL Library. As for Suffolk, I searched Census records for a Bayley in Hertfordshire. There were 245 hits but none showed an occupation of cart maker or wheelwright. Similarly, I browsed the Hertfordshire edition of Kelly’s Directory of 1895 with no hits found.

For the moment I am unable to identify Bayley, the cart maker or wheelwright. To search further afield, outside Suffolk and Hertfordshire, would be an enormous undertaking, so I will rest here for the moment and perhaps revisit at a later date when I have made more progress with other aspects of the research.

The Law concerning Treatment and Slaughtering of Animals

The laws concerning the treatment and slaughtering of animals are too large to repeat here. The main points are summarized below.

The 1911 Protection of Animals act was the main statute relating to the protection of any captive animal, including farm livestock.12

The main offence under this Act is cruelty, which is summarized as follows: - beating, kicking, ill-treating, over-working, torturing or frightening any captive animal. - causing unnecessary suffering by doing or omitting to do any act.

12 16. Protection of Animals Act - Summary [Internet]. Adlib.everysite.co.uk. 2019. Available from: http://adlib.everysite.co.uk/adlib/defra/content.aspx?id=18088

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- conveying or carrying any animal in a manner which may cause unnecessary suffering. - performing any operation without due care and humanity. - allowing the fighting or baiting of any animal or use of any premises for such acts. - administering any poison, injurious drug or other substance to any animal

The following is a summary of what I consider to be relevant law relating to the slaughtering and supply of meat to the public. It is taken from the book Slaughterhouses by Paul Siegart and JB Whalley from Sweet & Maxwell in 1960 (MEAL Library). It is based upon modern legislation for slaughterhouses and knacker’s yards as reflected by the Slaughterhouse Act, 1958 so may not entirely reflect the regulations that were in place at the time that William Sykes was operating as a Horse Slaughterer. It should be noted that William Sykes was a mobile slaughterer as well as the owner of a slaughterhouse at Lodge Farm, Wyverstone. The summary is presented as my interpretation of the relevant sections, with reference given to the particular part of the book that it is taken from.

The authors are both Barristers-at-Law. (Title page)

The aim of the book is to make the law more accessible in one book, rearranged to present it in an orderly and narrative form. (Page v of Preface)

A Table of Statutes lists those introduced from 1627 to 1958. (Pages xiii to xvi of Preface)

A Table of Statutory Instruments lists those that were introduced between 1920 and 1958. (Pages xvii to xix of Preface)

Stunning of Animals – An animal must be killed instantaneously unless it is made insensible to pain (by stunning) until its death. Instantaneous stunning can be administered by mechanical, electrical or anaesthetic means. This requirement was first introduced in the Slaughter of Animals Act, 1933. (Page 69)

Licensing of Slaughtermen – Only a person licensed to do so by the local authority may slaughter or stun animals. This license is conditional to include Jewish and Muslim methods. (Page 70/71)

Validity – A license is valid for up to one year and is renewable by the local authority. (Page 72)

Slaughter of Horses – There are provisions specifically for the prevention of suffering of horses, good welfare and treatment of horses pending slaughter. (Page 75/76)

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Slaughter Outside a Slaughterhouse or Knacker’ Yard – There are also provisions for the emergency slaughter of animals outside the slaughterhouse. (Page 79)

Knacker’s Yard Restrictions – An animal slaughtered in a knacker’s yard or whose carcass has been brought into a knacker’s yard cannot be sold for human consumption. (Page 148)

Interpretation of a Knacker’s Yard – This is a place used for the slaughter of animals and preparation of meat that is not intended for human consumption. (Page 172)

Interpretation of a Slaughterhouse – this is a place licensed for the slaughtering of animals, the meat of which is intended for human consumption. (Page 173)

Not only would the slaughterhouse at Lodge Farm, Wyverstone need to operate within the legislation that prevailed at the time to get an operating license, it would also need to comply with local authority Byelaws. The Suffolk Records Office at Ipswich was unable to find copies of any records pertaining to the issue of licenses to support the trade of slaughterer and the operation of a slaughterhouse or any local Byelaws relating to Private Slaughterhouses in the Rural District Council of Gipping prior to 1939. The best they could provide was a later document titled ‘Byelaws made under section 68 of the Food and Drugs Act 1955, by the Rural District Council of Gipping relating to Private Slaughterhouses’ This details local regulations for securing that slaughterhouses in the district are kept in a sanitary condition and are properly managed and the penalties for not conforming with them. The byelaws were made and confirmed in 1956, which is probably later than the period when the Sykes family were slaughterers. A photocopy of this byelaw is provided for reference purposes.

Licensed Horse Slaughterers

As we know from the cart nameplate on the slaughterers cart at MEAL, William Sykes (Jun) was a licensed Horse Slaughterer. This meant that he met the criteria set by national and local authority regulations to practice his trade as a Horse Slaughterer. Furthermore, at a regular basis, he had to prove that he continued to meet these criteria in order to renew his license and continue to practice his trade. Modern standards are very strict and spelt out in a Gov.uk website and local authority byelaws, but what were the standards in the early 1900s and what conditions were needed to be met to obtain a license? Unfortunately, the Suffolk Records Office at Ipswich was unable to provided past records of licenses issued for Horse Slaughterers so it is not possible to outline names of licensees, conditions, cost, validity and an area of operation. The Records Office believe that such records may be retained within the archives of the County Council. At a later date

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it may be possible to gain access to such records but for the moment they remain unavailable.

I contacted the Secretary of LASSA (David Lovatt), by e-mail, requesting details of licensing criteria for Horse Slaughterers prior to 1939. To date I have received no response and, due to the time that has elapsed since, do not expect to receive a response.

Horses in General

The occupation of the Horse Slaughterer and Knacker are very similar, providing an important role in farming life for the termination of horses and the disposal of their bodies. The details of these two occupations may sound gruesome but it is similar to that of a butcher, a trade practiced by William Sykes (Junior) at the time of the 1891 Census as detailed on Find My Past.

The horse played an important role on the farm. Before the introduction of motorized transport, horses were widely used on farms for all manner of tasks including the transport of produce and most equipment was horse drawn. Outside of farms, horses were also used for commercial and recreational activities.

As part of the Archaeological Survey Report of William Sykes’ 1939 residence, Lodge Farm at Wyverstone, there is an indication of the number of horses that may be expected to be found on a farm. To quote the report at page 12 ‘It has been suggested by Wade-Martins and others that a horse was necessary for every 20-30 acres of an arable farm, so this stable would have met the needs of the 7 to 10 animals required here (even assuming the 201 acres of 1838 at Lodge Farm had not increased since the 16th century).’

According to William Marshall a horse was reckoned to have a working life of 10 years. It was estimated there were 800000 working horses on farms in Britain in 1811, another 487000 were used for profit or pleasure (Source: The Oxford Companion to Family and Local History, edited by David Hey, Page 432). The blog by Dr Rosen, at the end of this study, suggests a much shorter working life.

At the end of the life of a horse it would be important to dispose of the body promptly to prevent the possible spread of disease and contamination. I have found no specific data concerning the distribution of Horse Slaughterers in the local area, so I have used an example of a knackerman to provide some ideas of the number of slaughterers there may have been. In the words of LASSA’s knackerman, John Warman,13 the spread of knackers yards during the era of the horse was as

13 History - Licensed Animal Slaughterers' & Salvage Association : LASSA [Internet]. Licensed Animal

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follows:

‘As far as I know Knacker Yards are unique to the . Years ago, they were all over the country including towns and cities. In rural areas where there was a high density of cattle, knacker yards could be as close as four or five miles apart. This was because getting the dead cattle to the knacker yard in the pre-motor vehicles age was a problem; the only way to move them was by horse & carts and this cut down the area that a knacker yard could cover to only a few miles.’

A book, The Meat Trade in Britain14 specifically addressed the handling of meat for human consumption only. The percentage of horsemeat used for human consumption was very small, being less than 0.5% of all animals slaughtered. The processing and disposal of other horse remains that are not for human consumption are summarized by John Warman as follows:

‘…could include food for the hunt animals, oils to soften leather or treat cricket bats, bone handles for knife manufacturers, the boiling of fat for tallow and the grinding of bones for fertilizer……I know of one knackerman who used to make neatsfoot oil for the local doctor who used to rub the oil into her patient’s joints after coming out of plaster. Certain bones would be collected and sent to a knife manufacturer for bone handles. The remaining bones and waste would be boiled to remove all the fat which would be sold as tallow, the rest ground up and sold as fertilizer.

The hide would be sold to the local tannery, the meat would be sold for pet food going mainly to specialist cat food shops. These shops were mainly in big cities and towns and did not disappear until the middle to late Sixties.’15

Miscellaneous Points

There is no longer a Slaughterer based at Wyverstone. There is a modern Horse Slaughterer business based at 1 Swamp Lane, Attleborough. This is probably the closest to the area now.

The Council of Justice for Animals was formed in 1911 by a group of people concerned about the

Slaughterers' & Salvage Association : LASSA. 2019 Available from: https://lassa.org.uk/history-of-the- knackerman/ 14 Perrin, Richard. The Meat Trade in Britain 1840-1914 15 History - Licensed Animal Slaughterers' & Salvage Association : LASSA [Internet]. Licensed Animal Slaughterers' & Salvage Association : LASSA. 2019 Available from: https://lassa.org.uk/history-of-the- knackerman/

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methods used to slaughter animals.

According to the Humane Slaughter Association16 there were still no English laws on the early 1930s to protect the welfare of animals at slaughter, although a number of local councils had adopted byelaws for their area of control. One of the first aims of the HSA was to replace the use of the poleaxe with a mechanically operated humane stunner.

The Slaughter of Animals Act 1933 was introduced to improve animal welfare. (Source: National Archives reference MAF35/386)

I e-mailed the Bacton and Cotton Local History Group requesting any information they may have on the Horse Slaughterer’s cart and the Sykes Family. Peter Wenban, chairman, passed my request on to Rose Graham, Bacton History Recorder, who in turn has passed it on to Bill Blackeby, Wyverstone History Recorder. To date I have received no further response. Due to the time that has elapsed since my request, I do not expect to receive a response.

Further Potential Threads That Could be pursued in the Future

There were numerous threads that petered out because the information could not be found during internet and Records Office research. My research has been considerable but has not been completely exhaustive. To continue further with my research would likely be very time consuming, with possibly little further reward and perhaps be nugatory. For the moment, I will finish here but there are, given time, numerous threads that could be pursued further that may provide a more complete picture of the cart and its use. Some suggested threads that may further enhance this report are as follows:

Summarise the fate of Boxer the loyal horse in George Orwell’s Animal Farm.

Review Rate records for Sudbourne in years that Kelly’s Directory refers to William Sykes (Jun) Sudbourne in an attempt to resolve whether he also owned or rented property there to explain the mysterious reference.

Review Rate records for Hartismere to identify whether William Sykes operated a slaughterhouse at any of his known locations prior to 1939.

Attempt to make further contact with Bacton Historical Society to determine whether they have

16 13. Hughes T. Making a difference. Wheathampstead: Humane Slaughter Association; 2011.

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any information on the activities of William Sykes as a horse slaughterer.

Obtain access to MEAL Library to confirm possible status of colour schemes for carts. Attempt to make further contact with the Secretary of LASSA to obtain information on licensing of slaughterers during the time of William Sykes.

Attempt to obtain specific license information of William Sykes from County Council archives.

Poetic Slaughtering

The slaughter of horses, or any other animal, is an emotive and distressing subject for many. Nevertheless, it happens on a regular basis, albeit in a much better controlled environment than that used in the era of the horse slaughterer’s cart. This set me wondering whether it would be appropriate or possible to relate the demise of a horse in poetic form. So, with pen and paper at the ready, I composed a piece to sum up the work of the horse slaughterer and his cart in a poem. I believe that it works. What do you reckon?

The Demise of a Horse – A Poem

When an old horse becomes sad and worn, No longer able to eat his daily corn, Tis time to call for the slaughterer’s cart For a chore that’ll see him sadly depart. The cart arrives, complete with its crew, Who work well together in all that they do. A poleaxe swings with a most heavy clout, The horse collapses, his lights go out. The cart beside, placed up on its end, Ropes tightly secured to help it ascend. The cart is loaded and placed upright, A tarp is draped to keep it from sight. The cart is towed to the slaughterer’s shop Where the carcass is worked, chop, chop, chop. Dog food, leather, fertiliser and glue, The products are many, not just a few. That is the end of this sad, sad tale.

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Alas, the horse is no longer for sale.

And Finally!

My research has uncovered a blog by the late Dr Bruce Rosen, an American, who wrote a revealing article on the role of Knackermen in Britain. Much of this would apply equally to the role of slaughtermen so I have no hesitation in presenting it here. I am unable to vouch for the accuracy of the facts and figures given but the blog puts into perspective many aspects of the life and demise of working horses in an earlier era and serves as a fitting conclusion to this study.17

Knackered

It must have been around 1967 when I made my first trip to Great Britain from the United States. It was there, I am reasonably certain, that I first heard the term, “knackered.” Someone used the expression “I am totally knackered,” and I gathered, from the context, that it meant that they were completely exhausted. I liked the word and soon discovered that in the context of the “knacker’s yard,” it was a place in which horses that were no longer useful, whose work lives were done, were taken to be slaughtered.

It is difficult in the second decade of the twenty-first century to realise that the greatest source of rural labour and virtually all transport was horse-power. In the last decade of the nineteenth century, W. J. Gordon puts the number of horses required to keep the wheels of London turning at over 300,000, and Sally Mitchell estimates that by 1901, “at least 400,000 working horses pulled passengers and loads on the streets of London.” Indeed, Gordon noted, if all the horses required in the great metropolis were placed in a single file, “they would reach along the bridle-ways from St. Paul's to John-o'-Groat's.”

While it is difficult to know the exact numbers of horses in all of England at any point in the nineteenth century, estimates for the latter years of the Queen’s reign suggest that there may have been as many as 3.3 million. Citing a Parliamentary Report, Henry Mayhew, that indefatigable chronicler of the street life of the great city at mid-century, tells us that “strangers coming from the country frequently describe the streets of London as smelling of dung like a stable-yard.” This is hardly surprising when one considers even the most conservative estimates of the amount of horse

17 14. Rosen D, Rosen D, profile V. Knackered [Internet]. Vichist.blogspot.com. 2019. Available from: https://vichist.blogspot.com/2016/11/knackered.html

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manure dropped weekly in the streets of the metropolis at more than 2,000 tons.

Clearly, Victoria’s England was a horse-drawn society, and while a number of attempts were made to better the lot of animals, the treatment of horses appears to have been honoured more in the breach than in the observance. Although horses were not, as some have suggested, the automobiles and trucks of their day, they were the motive power for the transport of people and goods. All too often abused, their working lives were short and brutish. The working life of an omnibus horse could be as little as two years; it would have been unusual for one to last for as long as five. Frequently the animals were mistreated in order to squeeze the last bit of working value from them before their bodies, living or dead, went to the knacker’s yard. Anna Sewell, in Black Beauty, has one of the characters, the aptly named Skinner, describe his attitude toward his working horses; “my business, my plan is to work 'em as long as they'll go, and then sell 'em for what they'll fetch, at the knacker's or elsewhere.”

There were, of course, attempts to reduce the cruelty to horses, but it was an on-going and often up-hill battle. The most frequent forms of cruelty seem to have been as a result of badly treated horses being forced to pull heavily overloaded wagons. A typical report from 1854 describes just such a case, noting that there were several such cases. Several flagrant cases of Cruelty to Horses, by driving with heavy loads, when quite unfit for any kind of work, have been brought before the police magistrates lately. One of the worst cases was that of Mr. Robert Cheal. He is carrier to her Majesty, and it was while drawing a wagon heavily laden with wine for the royal cellar, that one of his horses was perceived in a most deplorable condition. An officer deposed to seeing the carman, Thomas Perren, standing at the horse’s head, and lashing the poor beast most unmercifully. The wagon was on a dead level, but the horse was quite unable to stir. Mr. Beadon the magistrate before whom the charge was made, satisfied himself as to the state of horse, and said it was only fit for the knacker. The wagon was stated to have contained 54 dozen of wine, a heavy load even for a horse in good condition. Nonetheless, both the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and the Animals’ Friend Society worked to reduce equine cruelty. In one month in 1865, the RSPCA claimed in The Times to have achieved 84 convictions as it continued to bring cases for the ill-treatment of horses. But clearly this was a mere drop in the ocean of cruelty. Once a horse arrived at the knacker’s yard, it was killed, broken down and everything that could possibly be used was squeezed from the animal’s corpse. Estimates of the number of animals sent to the knackers’ yards varied. At mid- century, according to one of Henry Mayhew’s informants, the number was around 720 per week. A quarter of a century later, Sir Arthur A. Helps put the figure at four or five hundred per week in London alone.

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Not all those horses whose work life was finished wound up in the knackers’ yards. Some few were able to enjoy their retirement years in comfort. Between the stables at Buckingham Palace and those at Windsor, there was room for about 200 horses. The Queen, in addition to being an accomplished horse-woman herself, was by 1840, patron to the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. As Helen Rappaport notes, “when they became too old for work, the queen’s horses were never sent to the knacker’s yard but were put out to grass in Windsor’s numerous lush paddocks.” Sadly, it would appear that such treatment was reserved for only a minuscule number of working horses.

In the middle years of the century, there were more than twenty knackers’ yards in London. According to one of Mayhew's informants, the proprietors of these yards purchase live and dead horses. They contract for them with large firms, such as brewers, coal- merchants, and large cab and 'bus yards, giving so much per head for their old live and dead horses through the year. The price varies from 21. to 50s. the carcass. The knackers also have contractors in the country (harness- makers and others), who bring or send up to town for them the live and dead stock of those parts. The dead horses are brought to the yard—two or three upon one cart, and sometimes five. The live ones are tied to the tail of these carts, and behind the tail of each other. Occasionally a string of fourteen or fifteen are brought up, head to tail, at one time. The live horses are purchased merely for slaughtering. The treatment of the horses brought to the knackers’ yards, was described by The Times as “most disgraceful,” and it went on to thunder that they “should not be tolerated in any civilized country.” Referring to the yards as “dens of infamy,” the article went on to quote the evidence of a number of police who visited the yards. They found starving horses and piles of dead and dying animals in filthy, rat-ridden yards. One police-sergeant testified, “it was the first time I had seen such horrors, and it made me quite ill for some time after.”

But in the end, the knacker’s yards provided a significant service. In a period not generally recognized for its recycling, the yards were able to produce something of value from virtually all of the remains of the horses. Amidst the foul stench and dreadful smells of these slaughter yards, horse-hair from the mane and the tail was salvaged for stuffing mattresses, glue was made from the hooves, shoes and nails were re-used, skins were tanned for leather, bones were ground for manure, fat was boiled off and used as grease. What remained of muscle was cut up for meat and sold to the 1000 cat’s and dog’s meat vendors in London who, in turn, sold it to the owners of pets. Like any massive enterprise, there were always stories of misuse. Judith Flanders points out that “in

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theory, horsemeat was not sold for human consumption, but most people were sure that it was.” Even if the meat and the organs were not sold for “local” consumption, there was always the possibility that the sausages and meat pies that were eaten by many of the workers, might contain the remains of one of those horses that met their end in the knacker’s yard.’

ANNEXES

The annexes listed are documents referred to in the above study and are offered to support the report content.

Find My Past Transcription Records for William Sykes and Family. LASSA Report Lodge Farm, Wyverstone, Archaeological Survey Report. Byelaws for Rural District Council of Gipping (1956)