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Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.1, 83-94, Fall 2014

Social Affairs: A Journal for the Social Sciences ISSN 2362-0889 (online) www.socialaffairsjournal.com

Is Violence Justified in ?*

Mahinda Deegalle** School of Humanities and Cultural Industries, Bath Spa University, United Kingdom

Abstract Focusing on three kinds of textual sources of Theravada Buddhism (the canon, post- canonical Pali chronicles and medieval literature), this paper examines whether there is any justification of violence in Theravada Buddhism. Though Buddhism has recognized the relative merits of the use of mild forms of force in certain rare circumstances, by advocating a path of non-violence as one of its central doctrines Buddhism has rejected the use of violence even as a skill-in-means (Skt. upayakausalya). The paper thus examines justifications both for violence and non-violence within the Theravada Buddhist tradition. It evaluates controversial discussions of violence in the post-canonical Pali chronicle, the Mahavamsa, in which one finds a rare case of justifying violence in the attempt to explain potential war crimes of King Duttagamani. By comparing Mahavamsa’s views with Pali canonical literature, the paper argues that both in theory and practice Theravada Buddhism does not profess violence.Asserting that violence cannot be justified under any circumstance, violence and its manifestations in Buddhist societies can be viewed as a deviation from the teachings of the Buddha.

Key Words: Justifications of Violence, Theravada Buddhism, Morality of War,

Introduction violence in religious and cultural practices, Is there a place for violence in Theravada religious doctrines and social institutions Buddhism? This question is often raised and extremist movements is, however, by modern scholars in relation to recent not limited to the ethnic conflict in Sri violent events in the context of ethnic Lanka. With regard to other Theravada problem in Sri Lanka.1 This question of Buddhist societies such as , too, which astonished the world with an

*Earlier versions of this paper have appeared in ** Author -mail Current Dialogue (2002), 39, pp. 8-17; reprinted [email protected] Dialogue (2002), 29, pp. 43-57 and Ecumenical ©2014 Social Affairs Journal. This work is Review (2003), 55 (2), pp. 122-31 (http://www. licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/interreligious/cd39-03. NonCommercial 4.0 International License. html). 83 Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.1, 83-94, Fall 2014 alarming genocide of 2-3 millions Khmers purpose of this paper is to examine these (mostly Buddhists) between 1975 and questions in light of doctrinal discussions 1979 by Pol Pot and the and recent events in Buddhist history in (‘Red Khmer’)2 this very question of the Theravada Sri Lanka. will explore the problematic presence of violence has place and justifications of violence as well been raised (Ebihara 1994). Both Sri as non-violence in relation to Theravada Lanka in and Cambodia in . are primarily Theravada I will argue that Buddhism has discussed Buddhist societies. Nearly 70% of the Sri the relative value of the use of force4 as Lankan population claims to be Buddhist. in the case of a single parent, whose In the last three decades both countries only ambition is his or her child’s future have witnessed a great deal of physical welfare—moulding the character of the violence3 and faced accusations of abuse child in making him or her a civilized of human rights. While the violence in citizen—and who would, therefore, use both countries can be attributed to various a little force in disciplining a naughty political problems, civil unrest, growth of child in the hope of achieving a higher communist thinking and fanatical armed and a noble goal. What I try to convey groups, corrupted politicians and poor is that a certain degree of mental and economic infrastructure, at least in the physical pain is inevitable and allowed case of Sri Lanka ethnic prejudices stand in achieving a satisfactory goal for as the preeminent cause for the turmoil the welfare of everyone in society at and recent violent struggle. large. If one has the best interest of the As a Buddhist, can one justify any form of child’s growth in mind, one has to take violence whether it is verbal or physical measures to ensure that the child grows or whether violence is directed towards in a positive environment. It does not the destruction of Buddhists or non- mean necessarily that the parent should Buddhists? Is there a Theravada attitude resort to corporeal punishment from the towards violence? Either historically very beginning in order to discipline a or socially, have Theravada Buddhists child. But the child’s knowledge of the advocated violence? Is there any evidence possibility of physical force, indeed, may within Theravada scriptures or practice prevent him or her from many misdeeds. advocating violence? On the whole, why However, for a well-behaved child, even has Buddhism not given a prominent place verbal pressures would not be necessary. for violence and consequently professed Nevertheless, whenever a parent has the a path of non-violence? How should a best interest of the child’s welfare in mind Theravada Buddhist react in the face of and takes a measure to discipline the violence in the modern world? Should he child, the parent should keep in mind that or she resort to violence? Or should he one has to establish oneself first in what or she let others perpetuate violence on is proper5 before guiding the child to the himself or herself? All these are practical proper action. questions when Buddhists and Buddhist At the beginning, I should reiterate practices come face to face with real that there is no direct validation of situations in the modern world. The violence6 either verbal or physical 84 Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.1, 83-94, Fall 2014 within Theravada canonical scriptures. noble disciples. (2) The Pali Chronicles However, at least one post-canonical written in Sri Lanka starting from the work—the Mahavamsa of Mahanama, fourth century CE onwards are taken by a Pali chronicle of the fifth century CE— scholars in reconstructing the history of contains a controversial reference to Buddhism and the historical events of Sri physical violence at times of civil war7 Lanka. They are quasi-historical since and conflict in Sri Lanka which will be they are monastic chronicles with the discussed in detail later. Here, however, strong ambition of highlighting sectarian notwithstanding that controversial issue, conflicts among monastic fraternities and it is important to emphasize that resorting monastic achievements over other civil to violence in Theravada communities is matters; as books of an influential literary against the Theravada norm prescribed corpus within Sri Lanka among Buddhists by the Buddha. Violence cannot be used and outside Sri Lanka within the Western either as a path or goal because of the scholarship on Buddhism, they focus Buddhist conviction well expressed in the on the role of Buddhism, Buddhist (v. 5) that ‘hatred is never institutions, and monastic fraternities and ceased by hatred.’ As demonstrated in their relationships with the king and the this paper, thus, it is hard to find even State of Sri Lanka. It is rather ironic that a little importance in violence even as a they were composed in Pali rather than in skill-in-means. Sinhala, the vernacular language of most inhabitants in modern Sri Lanka. As I will My argument is that both in theory and illustrate below, certain violent narratives practice Theravada Buddhism does not in the Pali chronicles raise crucial moral and should not profess violence since the dilemmas in the reader whether s/he basic tenets of Buddhism are completely is a Buddhist or a non-Buddhist. The against imposing pain on oneself or issues they have raised and focused others. There is no room for violence in on are practical and the solutions they the doctrine. Whatever violence found have suggested are also utilitarian in the so-called Buddhist societies is and contextual. And finally, (3) Sinhala merely a deviation from the doctrine Medieval Literature which began to be of the Buddha and a misinterpretation composed from the thirteenth century of Buddha’s valuable message or not CE onward for the benefit of Sinhala leading one’s life in accordance with the speakers, as a vast literary corpus Buddha’s teachings. remains religious and Buddhist in nature In this paper, I use three types of rather than being nationalistic. examples to illustrate Buddhist attitudes toward violence: (1) The Pali Canon: this How do we Understand corpus is more authentic for Theravada Violence? Buddhists than the two resources The first question is what do we mean mentioned below since they believe that by violence? How should we define it? it contains the word(s) of the Buddha What are its boundaries? In particular, (Buddhavacana) and his message of what does it mean in English? Is it human liberation from suffering as can be something very vague? Its modern usage seen through the lives and practices of his 85 Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.1, 83-94, Fall 2014

demonstrates that ‘violence’ as a term is ‘violence’ into Sinhala as ‘balahatkaraya’ used very broadly to include a wide range (force9)’ ‘sahasikakama,’ ‘adantettama’ of negative human actions harmful to (assault), ‘sarakama’ (severity), and other living beings, living organisms, eco- ‘ugratvaya’ (severeness). These Sinhala systems and environments. While the expressions are attempts to convey aspect of physical assault can be taken various nuances of the English term as its primary meaning, it also includes ‘violence’; they show difficulties involved minor violations such as verbal abuse. in communicating varied meanings of In texts, violence can be understood violence. At least in the context of Sinhala primarily as physical assault and killing. language, the very notion of ‘violence’ in Sri Lankan society is ambiguous First, let us examine the terms for and convoluted. What does a Sinhala violence in Indian religious contexts. The speaker mean by ‘violence’? Will violence most common Indian term for violence include verbal abuses and psychological was himsa; the absence of violence pressures as equally important as in one’s life was rendered in Indian physical assaults? This ambiguity of religious contexts as ahimsa. Ahimsa as the meanings denoted by violence in a technical term in religious vocabulary the seems to have emerged with strong relationships left space for certain interpretations of with the notions of that Hindus, the word that make allowances for the Buddhists and Jains hold as dear.8 In all execution of violence in specific contexts, three traditions, ahimsa plays a crucial as is discussed below. role as a religious way of life. These two terms can be taken as the closet words for violence and non-violence, not only in Cases for Violence— Interpretation of Buddhism but also in all Indian religions— Dutthagamani and the , Buddhism, and Jainism. These Reception of a Pervasive Myth pre-Buddhist concepts were widely used in the in Buddhist literature, in particular in the Though Pali canonical texts do not contain Jatakas. Some figurative narratives in explicit textual evidence to support this collection highlight and profess a violence or remarks to justify violence, life of extreme non-violence (ahimsa). certain genres of post-canonical literature, Buddha’s previous life as the ascetic for example one of the Pali chronicles Santivadin, in particular, is extremely namely the Mahavamsa of Mahanama important in understanding the values composed in Sri Lanka in the fifth CE, attached to non-violence. The ideal that unfortunately contain a narrative which emerges from these narratives is an ideal disturbs the pacifist image of Theravada of extreme patience and compassion. Buddhism. Though the intention of this They can be used as an antidote for particular monastic author, Mahanama, violence. is open for debate, this isolated reference In modern Asian languages, there does is problematic when placed within the not seem to be one term for violence. early Buddhist Pali canonical textual For example, the English-Sinhalese corpus. This pervasive narrative gives the Dictionary G.P. Malalasekere translates impression that in certain circumstances 86 Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.1, 83-94, Fall 2014

when the ultimate end is noble, the use of as the . Having a company of a certain degree of violence is not going () with him while marching to harm the Buddha’s doctrine of non- for war is perceived as an act of securing violence and pacifist path. protection for Dutthagamani himself at the time of war. However, the monks To examine justifications of political who marched with troops perceived their violence in Sri Lanka and the growth of own action “as a penance” (Mahavamsa, nationalism, a careful study of the myth 25.4). Placing a relic in the spear is an of the battle between King Dutthagamani apostrophic action intended to ward off and King Elara is essential. Steven evil forces at times of troubles as believed Kemper has rightly put that: “The Past in many pre-modern societies. inhabits the present in a variety of ways— in practices, things and memory” (Kemper Nevertheless, the task at hand for 1991, p.1).Such inhibition demonstrates Dutthagamani was a rather difficult one the implications of this myth on both since the text represents Elara as a Sinhala and Tamil communities in modern righteous king. In a dual, Dutthagamani Sri Lanka. killed Elara (Mahavamsa 25, p.67- 70). After Elara’s death, Dutthagamani The Mahavamsa narrative discusses the honoured him by cremating him and war between King Dutthagamani and marking the place with a monument and King Elara. While Dutthagamani was a instituting a place of worship there. Sinhala in origin, a native of Sri Lanka, Elara was a Dravidian and an invader. As The remorse that Dutthagamani had after the text records, in this complex ethnic the battle was quite severe and similar battle Dutthagamani defends his war as to the one that Emperor Asoka had after a measure to protect Buddhism from the his battle in Kalinga. Like in the case of foreign rule of Elara: Emperor Asoka, a transformation occurs, When the king Dutthagamani had… though not so dramatic, in the life of had a relic put into his spear he Dutthagamani through the intervention of marched…to Tissamaharama, and… the Buddhist monastic community. Their had shown favour to the brotherhood intervention in removing Dutthagamani’s he said: ‘I will go on to the land on remorse can be seen as a ‘rehabilitation the further side of the river to bring glory to the doctrine. Give us, that we strategy’ for an evil king who had inflicted may treat them with honour, bhikkhus a lot of suffering in pursuing a battle. In who shall go on with us, since the this case, the rehabilitation strategy is sight of the bhikkhus is a blessing used to direct the king to Buddhist works. and protection for us’ (Mahavamsa 25, p.1-4). Though the ‘rehabilitation’ of the king is a noble one, the justifications that the In this Mahavamsa passage, the monks provided in consoling the king reference to “bring glory to the doctrine” are controversial and problematic. They can be taken as providing safety and bear serious implications for the issue protection to the Buddhist teachings, as to whether there are justifications for practices and institutions in Sri Lanka. violence within Theravada Buddhism. “Brotherhood” refers to the Buddhist monastic community collectively known 87 Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.1, 83-94, Fall 2014

The Mahavamsa (25, p.104) states that standpoint as found in the Pali canon of the arahants in Piyangudipa knowing the Theravada Buddhists. Dutthagamani’s remorse sent a group of However, a different and an alternative eight holy monks to comfort him; when explanation of this ‘rehabilitation strategy’ Dutthagamani confessed that he had is also possible. This unusual statement slaughtered millions, what they said to can be interpreted differently as an Dutthagamani to eliminate his remorse is instance of skill-in-means. In the long run, highly problematic: it would not help the Buddhist monastic From this deed arises no hindrance community to keep the victorious king in thy way to . Only one and in remorse or in a depressed condition. a half human beings have been slain here by thee, lord of men. The one Rather than aggravating the conditions, had come unto the (three) refuges, as spiritual advisers, the monastic the other had taken on himself the community would have made every effort . Unbelievers and men to console the king. Up to that moment, of evil life were the rest, not more to be esteemed than beasts. But as whatever sin the king had committed for thee, thou wilt bring glory to the became his own karma. The monastic doctrine of the Buddha in manifold community as a group could not change ways; therefore cast away care his past karma but as a community from thy heart, O ruler of men! Thus who believed in free-will and individual exhorted by them the great king took comfort (Mahavamsa 25, p.109-112). effort, it was possible for them to direct and channel the king in a positive As this Mahavamsa passage direction: their rehabilitation strategy demonstrates, Dutthagamani’s remorse was to identify that positive dimension, a is eliminated by telling him that killing sphere of potential growth and creativity. ‘evil unbelievers’ carries no more weight However, the unforeseen consequence than killing animals. As practitioners of that strategy was a ‘gross calculation’ of ‘loving kindness’ (metta), Buddhists of the victims of war as “only one and a have an obligation to protect all forms of half human beings” and “unbelievers and life. It is important to note that not only men of evil.” human beings but killing even animals is not encouraged in Buddhism.10 When Nevertheless, this reductionist explanation contrasted with canonical doctrines and is problematic for Theravada Buddhist early Buddhist practices, this fifth century teachings and traditions. Justifying the chronicle position is rather controversial. killing of during the war as not This passage in the Mahavamsa seems being a papa (sin) is a grave mistake to suggest that certain forms of violence even if it was used in the Mahavamsa such as killings during war can be allowed as a skill-in-means. Such violations of in certain circumstances as illustrated the tolerant sensibilities found within in the case of threats to the survival of post-canonical Pali chronicles cannot be Buddhism in Sri Lanka during the time justified or harmonized since Buddhist of Dutthagamani. However, it is hard to scriptures do not maintain that depending justify this Mahavamsa position either on one’s caste, race, or ethnic group the through Buddhist practice or doctrinal severity of one’s negative acts vary.

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The complexity in the way in which this Cases against Violence single, controversial myth is interpreted, The overwhelming consensus among the perpetuated and received both as an scholars of Buddhism is that Buddhism inspiration and a justification is well is against violence. This scholarly illustrated by a comment made in Ananda consensus is not either a confessional Wickremeratne’s recent work Buddhism or an exaggeration of the real and Ethnicity in Sri Lanka. Wickremeratne situations. The pacifist image of Buddhist comments on the way a monastic teachings and historical practices of non- member sees this pervasive myth and violent actions in Buddhist communities explains it as a historical document of are very much supported by and grounded self-righteousness: on Pali canonical scriptures. According to another , it was King Dutthagamani who best Presenting an emic view of the pacifist exemplified the idea of self-imposed image of Buddhism, Venerable Dr. limits in the exercise of violence. The Walpola Rahula (1907-1997) the king gathered his forces to wage war renowned Buddhist scholar monk of Sri against an enemy who had invaded the land, and threatened the secular Lanka, has articulated well the Buddhist order of things on which the very non-violent perspective in one of his early existence of Buddhism depended… popular writings: ‘He prevails over the Tamil invaders and kills their leader, Elara, in single This spirit of tolerance and combat. He honours the fallen foe understanding has been from the and immediately stops his campaign, beginning one of the most cherished as he had achieved his purpose, ideals of Buddhist culture and waging a purely defensive war. civilization. That is why there is not He does not cross over to India to a single example of persecution or chastise the Tamils and refrains from the shedding of a drop of blood in wrecking vengeance on Tamils who converting people to Buddhism, or in were living in Sri Lanka, side by side its propagation during its long history with Sinhalese as its inhabitants’ of 2500 years. It spread peacefully (Wickremeratne 1995, p. 294). all over the continent of Asia, having more than 500 million adherents It seems that the myth of Dutthagamani today. Violence in any form, under and Elara is reinterpreted not only by any pretext whatsoever, is absolutely against the teachings of the Buddha Sinhala communities in Sri Lanka but (Rahula 1959, p.5). also by Tamil communities with different emphases. Tamil communities seem Thus Rahula has clearly reiterated to have appropriated this myth in their that violence has no place either own way by highlighting the role of within Buddhist teachings or cultural the Dravidian King Elara for their own practices in Buddhist communities. He nationalistic ends.11 These nationalist has highlighted that in the expansion readings demonstrate the pervasive of Buddhism from India to Sri Lanka, to power of myth-history in Sri Lankan southeast Asia (Burma and ), society whether it is Sinhala or Tamil. to East Asia(China), Korea and Japan and to the north(Tibet and Central Asia), Buddhist monks and have embraced the principle of ‘tolerance’ 89 Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.1, 83-94, Fall 2014

towards pre-Buddhist religious practices a remote province called Sunaparanta, and beliefs while injecting intellectual and which was notorious for cruelty and spiritual resources to enrich and nourish violence. When the Buddha questioned whatever culture, civilization or ethnic Punna how he would respond if the group that Buddhism came to encounter. residents there revile, abuse and assault him, he replied that he would not show Buddhist teachings maintain that under anger and ill-will towards them: any circumstance, whether it is political, religious, cultural or ethnic, violence Punna, the people of Sunaparanta are cannot be accepted or advocated in fierce…If the people of Sunaparanta are vile…, how will it be for you there, solving disputes between nations. All Punna? If the people of Sunaparanta Buddhist traditions unanimously agree are vile and abuse me…I will say, that war cannot be the solution to disputes ‘Goodly indeed are these people of and conflicts either. Even for achieving a Sunaparanta…in that they do not strike me a blow with their hands… religious goal, violence cannot be used If the people of Sunaparanta deprive and justified. A Buddhist cannot imagine me of life with a sharp knife…I will a principle of ‘Just War.’ How can a say, ‘There are disciples…disgusted ‘war’ become a ‘just’ one? How can the by the body…looking about for a knife…I have come upon this very slaughter of human beings be justified knife without having looked about as ‘morally right’? As P.D. Premasiri has for it’ (The Middle Length Sayings, convincingly asserted by examining early p.320-321). Buddhist standpoint even in the case This single narrative clearly demonstrates of solving social conflicts such as war, the tolerant attitude towards violence of Buddhism “does not advocate violence an early disciple of the Buddha. In this under any circumstance”(Premasiri narrative what attracts most is Punna’s 1985). When ‘insider’ perspectives are deep commitment to non-violence and examined across Buddhist cultures and his practice of patience even in the case combined with doctrinal understandings, of losing his own life. one can create a context in comprehending Buddhist abhorrence for Buddhist attitude towards violence stands violence and encouragement in seeking out as an extreme non-violent position: creative strategies for a non-violent path a path leading to total abstention from in overcoming violence. engaging in violent activities. Even in the cases of extreme aggression and Buddhist Commitment to the violence, Buddhism seems to advocate Teaching of Loving-kindness moral restraint and kindness towards and Compassion in a Violent those who commit the crimes. This is World because of the belief that only an action Several narratives in the Pali canon based on loving-kindness (metta) will illustrate that Buddha’s disciples in the long run generate a stable and a adhered to the Buddha’s teaching of peaceful environment. loving-kindness. The story of Venerable Several canonical and non-canonical Punna,12 for example, demonstrates sources elaborate the appreciation of that Venerable Punna desired to live in the non-violent path. One of the Jataka 90 Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.1, 83-94, Fall 2014 narratives, for instance, illustrates the cousin , had even physically Buddhist standpoint towards violence abused the Buddha attempting to kill and non-violence. It discusses the him. This is not the whole story of the policies of two kings and their strategies Buddha’s encounter with violence during in overcoming violence and other social his teaching career. In the Buddha’s problems. One king has a reactionary own life, there were a few rare cases in approach in which he meets force with which he himself had to intervene when force, mildness with mildness, he wins some of his relatives waged war against over the good with good and conquers each other over a dispute regarding the evil with evil. The other king has a the sharing of water. After considerable completely different strategy of pacifist deliberation, the Buddha intervened in nature. In responding to social conflicts the war between the and and other problems, rather than repeating to prevent bloodshed over the inability to violent actions, he conquers wrath with reach a settlement regarding the sharing kindness, evil with good, greed with of water taken from River Rohini. In that charity and falsehood with truth. His context, the Buddha had pointed out state policy seems to be based on the that human life is worthier than what principles proposed in the following they were fighting for. It was because Dhamampada verse 223: “Hatred of the Buddha’s fundamental conviction should be conquered by non-hatred. that human life is intrinsically valuable Unrighteousness should be conquered than any other material or ideological by righteousness. Miserliness should be thing. From the textual sources of the conquered by generosity. A person who Pali canon, it is clear that an appropriate speaks untruth should be conquered by method of conflict resolution is possible truth”. only through reconciliation of the parties involved. This latter king’s approach represents a Buddhist approach and a Buddhist According to Buddhist teachings, a viable solution to overcoming unhealthy social solution to conflicts is less likely through problems; its strength is love, kindness, the use of violent means. This is because charity, truth and forebearance. It is of the belief rooted in Buddhist doctrinal a virtuous approach in overcoming foundations that violence breeds hatred. violence through a path of non-violence. Thus victory achieved through violence is Because of the wholesome aspects in not a permanent solution to any conflict. the approach, the state policy of the latter As the Samyutta Nikaya puts it, “Victory king is considered to be superior to that arouses enmity and the defeated live of the former. This appreciation is based in sorrow”(Samyutta Nikaya 1.83). By on the fundamental conviction that only causing pain to others, one cannot a non-violent path will generate a long achieve happiness: one always has to lasting solution in any violent situation. think how one’s actions affect others around oneself. The Dhammapada During his lifetime, the Buddha himself verse 131 asserts that one’s happiness faced both verbal and physical violence. is derived from the happiness of others: As the Pali canon records, some had “Whoever, seeking one’s own happiness, verbally abused him; some others, like his 91 Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.1, 83-94, Fall 2014 harms with a rod other pleasure-loving begins with a cliché: “As a bush fire beings, experiences no happiness burning out of control stops only when thereafter”. it reaches a vast body of water, so the rage of one who vows vengeance cannot The most outstanding and famous be quelled except by the waters of Buddhist pacifist attitude is found in the compassion” (Dharmasena 1991, p.98). Dhammapada verse 5: “hatred is never ceased by hatred in this world.” From Thus from a Buddhist point of view, anger a Buddhist point of view, reconciliatory and violence have to be met with their methods of conflict resolution are opposite, compassion. By meeting anger more useful than coercive methods. with anger, one adds fuel to fire. This As Buddhists, we are encouraged to crucial message is clearly expressed seek peaceful solutions for any conflict to a Buddhist audience in a very simple by abandoning force, intimidation and language. Its moral position is: “vengeance threat. In the short run, those who are is an extremely vile sin. Therefore, give involved in violent activities in the hope it up” (p.105). Following the canonical of liberating the masses might think that standpoint, it also reiterates that through violent means are very effective.However violence one cannot overcome violence: in the long run only a peaceful solutions When your body is filthy with spit . . will bring harmony to society at large. . you cannot clean it with that same spit . . . So when you abuse those This pacifist standpoint of the who abuse and revile you, or kill or Dhammapada has been elaborated and beat up those murderers who beat extended in the thirteenth century Sinhala you . . . it is like adding fuel to fire; prose text Saddharmaratnavaliya (‘The enmity on both sides never ceases. . . . hatred that burns on the fuel of Jewel Garland of the Good Doctrine’) justifications must be quenched with written by Dharmasena Thera. Since the water of compassion, not fed with this late medieval textual attitude is the firewood of reasons and causes. useful in understanding the Sinhala- Compassion is fundamentally right, free of malice, and is the source for Buddhist worldview, let us now look at all good actions. Good, founded on the Saddharmaratnavaliya’s positions compassion, destroys evil and puts towards hatred and its reaffirmation out the fire of enmity (p.103). of the power of loving-kindness and This single narrative in the compassion. The narrative of the Saddharmaratnavaliya clearly states Demon Kali illustrates several things: it the Buddhist position towards violence. demonstrates (1) the Theravada attitude Violence, no matter in what form it towards violence and (2) the way, as a manifests, has to be met with non-violent thirteenth century vernacular text, it still measures. Solutions to conflicts should maintains the early Buddhist pacifist be found only through non-violent means. doctrine without recommending violence Violence cannot solve problems. Only and completely ignoring the controversial non-violence brings peace. position of the Pali chronicles. The Saddharmaratnavaliya maintains that hatred can be overcome only with compassion. This important narrative 92 Social Affairs. Vol.1 No.1, 83-94, Fall 2014

Conclusions 5. The Dhammapada (v. 158) reminds us that a wise person who advises others first establishing This paper has explored whether oneself in the proper practice will not loose his or violence is justified within Theravada her dignity. Buddhism. Through a close examination 6. For Buddhist attitudes towards violence see of three kinds of textual resources, it Deegalle, M. (2003). Buddhist Attitude to Violence. Journal of , 10. Retrieved from has come to the conclusion that as a http://www.jbe.gold.ac.uk. Buddhist one cannot justify violence 7. Tessa J. Bartholemeusz (2002) has used under any circumstance. Examining a these post-canonical Pali chronicles to argue pervasive myth used for violence, it has for an ideology of Just War in Buddhism in her work In Defense of : Just-war Ideology in demonstrated that the position of the Buddhist Sri Lanka. London: Routledge Curzon. Pali chronicle, the Mahavamsa, is rather 8. For historical developments of these notions, contradictory to the fundamental Buddhist see Chapple, C. K. (1993). Nonviolence to teachings of the Pali canon. Buddhist Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions. canonical texts highlight that Buddhists Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. cannot justify violence. The challenge for 9. These corresponding English equivalents are my translations of the Sinhala originals in G.P. a modern Buddhist today is to meditate Malalasekere’s English-Sinhalese Dictionary on the Saddharmaratnavaliya’s message published in 1978. that “the rage of one who vows vengeance 10. Schmithausen, L. (1999). Aspects of the cannot be quelled except by the waters Buddhist Attitude towards War. In Jan E.M. of compassion.” Houben and Karel R. van Kooij (Eds.) Violence Defined: Violence, Non-violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural Notes History (pp.57-58). Leiden: E.J. Brill has pointed out that it is possible that this adjustment of ______precepts for violence could have been influenced by certain Mahåyåna thoughts developing two 1. For a sustained discussion on Buddhism’s role centuries earlier where the transgression of the in the Sri Lankan ethnic conflict see Deegalle, precepts including the killing of living beings is M. (2006). Buddhism, Conflict and Violence in allowed in certain exceptional circumstances. Modern Sri Lanka. London: Routledge. 11. When I delivered an early version of this paper 2. For a detailed understanding of Khmer Rouge at Thinking Together II in Florida at St. Petersburg, atrocities in Cambodia see Harris, I. (2005). Wesley Ariyarajah pointed out that Tamil narration Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. of this myth highlights that it was King Elåra, Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. who proposed a dual battle, as opposed to King 3. An interesting account of a personal encounter Duttagamini who is credited with that suggestion of an anthropologist with a Sinhala youth who is as recorded in the Mahavamsa. These diverse caught up between violence and nonviolence is nationalistic readings of this pervasive myth given by Spencer, J. (2000). On Not Becoming by Sinhalese and Tamils need detailed further a ‘Terrorist’: Problems of Memory, Agency, and investigation. Community in the Sri Lankan Conflict. In Veena 12. See The Middle Length Sayings (trans.) I.B. Das, Arthur Kleinman, et al. (Eds.) Violence and Horner (1959). (pp. 319-322). London: PTS. Subjectivity. (pp. 120-40). Berkeley: University of California Press. 4. In this case, I will qualify ‘force’ as ‘harmless.’ I References do not mean the use of abusive mental, verbal or physical pressures but instead creating a context Carter, J. R. and M. Palihawadana. in which the child becomes aware of the gravity (1987). The Dhammapada. New of one’s own actions. The purpose of the use of York and Oxford: Oxford University force is to make an ‘awakening’ state of mind. Press.

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Dharmasena Thera. (1991). Jewels of the Doctrine: Stories of the Saddharma Ratnavaliya, (trans.) Ranjini Obeyesekere. New York: State University of New York Press. Ebihara, M. M. et al (Eds.) (1994). Cambodian Culture since 1975: Homeland and Exile. New York: Cornell University Press. Kemper, S. (1991).The Presence of the Past: Chronicles, Politics, and Culture in Sinhala Life. New York: Cornell University Press. Mahavamsa or The Great Chronicle of Ceylon, (trans.) Wilhelm Geiger. (1950). : Ceylon Government Information Department. Premasiri, P. D. Treatment of Minorities in the Buddhist Doctrine. Ethnic Studies Report 3 (2), pp. 57-71. Rahula, W. (1959). What the Buddha Taught. London: Gordon Fraser. Wickremeratne, A. (1995). Buddhism and Ethnicity in Sri Lanka: A Historical Analysis. Delhi: Vikas.

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