Bukovina Region in the Collective Memory of Ukraine and Romania

CEU eTD Collection Second Reader: Balás Trencsényi Reader:Balás Second Hrytsak Yaroslav Supervisor: Bukovina Region in theCollective Memory ofUkraine andRomania: In Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Representation in HistoryRepresentation Textbooks Central European University Central European Valentyna Vasylova Valentyna History Department History Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted 2008 by CEU eTD Collection instructions may not be made without the written permission of Author”. the of bepermission thewritten made without may not instructions such in with copiesmadeaccordance Further made. suchcopies form a part of any must page This librarian. the from obtained be may Details Library. European Central in the or part may be made only in accordance with instructionsthe by given Authorandthe lodged “Copyrightin the text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies by any process, either in full Statement of Copyright CEU eTD Collection “remoteness” between the neighboring states. the neighboring between “remoteness” mental of effect an creates which other, each on discourses ignoring mutually exhibit sources analyzed the Moreover, region. history the of of the versions preserve divergent they imaginaries; therefore, national andfor Romanian Ukrainian overlapping ethnoscape” “an Bukovina is that established Theresearch this territory. national of appropriation in whatresults and territory, between aparticular a nation association ininalienable residing “ethnoscape”, of theory Smith’s by region the towards identities national the of relation context, I regard schoolbooks as “sites of memory” andidentity-building tools. I explain the Romanian andUkrainian published history in textbooks Inthis post-communistthe period. regional and innational representations analysis of these discourse is thesis the comparative region and analyze the mythology connected with Bukovinian identity. The methodology of Iprovideother. an overview of in historicalthe context which Bukovina wasshapedas a of Bukovina, interrelation onthenarratives the theirhistory, perception regional each and of to nations two the of attitude the is threefold: enquiry My identities. national and regional respective the for implications the identify and memories, collective Romanian and Ukrainian This thesis aims to investigate how the historical region of Bukovina is reconstructed ininvestigate This how the historicalBukovinaisreconstructed thesis region aims to of Abstract CEU eTD Collection period moreperiod substantial and enjoyable. conductfor thepossibility Department thefield research in „ethnoscapes”. to Bukovinian the goes to Professor Constantin Iordachi for the helpful advice, as well as to the History Trencsényi for their of idea support the of thesisthe and responsive guidance. Myalso gratitude Special thanks tomyfriends andmade colleagues who thestudying andthesis-writing I would like to thankmy supervisors Professor Yaroslav Hrytsak and Professor Balás Acknowledgements i CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 74 Bibliography...... 68 Appendices...... Conclusions: Shared 63 Past -Conflicting Memories?...... Region in Chernivtsi Schools Romanian and Ukrainian Textbooks: in Regional Bukovina 3.3 3.2 Bukovina in National Textbooks: Ukrainian 45 and Romanian Interpretations...... 3.1 Teaching Bukovina in Ukraine and 43 Romania, and Its Implications...... 43 III.Representation in of Chapter Bukovina Through History Memories Collective Education 2.3 Bukovinism Revisited: 36 Nationalizing ...... and Europeanizing 31 Other Myths...... 2.2 Bukovina in the National Identities of Ukraine and Romania: Ethnogenesis, Territory, and 2.1 “Bukovinism”: Regional 23 Identity or a ...... “Golden Age” Myth? Chapter II. Bukovina Between History and Myth: Shifting Borders 23 – Shifting Identities...... 1.2 “Invented Traditions”: History Textbook as a 1.1 National 10 Appropriation ...... of Historical Regions Chapter I. Nation States and Overlapping Ethnoscapes: Towards 10 a Theoretical Model...... 2 ...... Introduction ...... 55 ...... Table of Contents 1 Lieu DeMemoire ...... 14 ...... CEU eTD Collection 1 tolerance of play Bukovinacomes intothe here. of the Other, if itis close or remote; friendly hostile,or andif theimage of multiculturality and stories: contradicting? perception two if I regardthe or Third,are converging, overlapping they the of interrelation the and histories, national in the region the of history the of incorporation the at look I Second, projects. nation-state two the fits region the how or identities, national identity. national the in occupies it place what and memory social the in reflected is it how but happened” really “what on not more concentrate I Thereby, traditions? national research is:problem howBukovina and itsidentity in regional are reconstructed two the the reasons are what andmemories, collective Romanian the and in Ukrainian is ashared implications Bukovina how is thesis for the national relationsgood-neighborhood in and co-operation 1997.Thequestion answerI want to in this and regional respectively identities. In other words, my Ukrainians andRomanians. – biggest groups ethnic between two set the on terrain the was dispute century-long legacy, a re-cutting the borders, developments, historical controversial ato itsubject was in aftermath the However, excellence. and contestation.is region interethnic remembered atolerant in “classical”it canons par relations,as the As a result of the ethnicUkrainian, Romanian,Jewish, German, Polish etc. population.composition Due the to peaceful character of and historical See Appendices IIIand V. My is threefold.enquiry I am First, interested in attitudethe toBukovina within the northern Bukovinaisby in parts RomaniaUkraineNowadays split and southern and Austrian with a multicultural province, framed Bukovina was as The historical of region 1 . The land border was officially acknowledged by the two states in the Treaty instates on Treaty the by thetwo acknowledged was officially . Thelandborder Introduction 2 CEU eTD Collection 2 of historiesthe virtual neighboringof “wars” wereheld. countries fields controversial whilein especially were widespread, negative stereotypes ethnic textbooks in the of realm the noticed that itwas shortly However, education. in history andsettled state-buildingAsnation-centric models been processes. aresult pasthave constructed of the nation- and the reflected whichnaturally histories, national of “decolonization” and revision communism inCentral mainhasthe andbeenEurope historiographies Eastern of trend the major fields that international interventionism in post conflict societies has focused on” focused has societies conflict inpost interventionism international that fields major has becomeone of the warfare,education intrastate of interethnic and importance growing the was established in Braunshweig (Germany). As one of the Institute’s experts pointed out, “with neighboringbetween set were in history states.issues controversial on commissions textbook Joint myths. For instance,the fighting in down laid been have resources Georg most that schoolbooks of field in the is It EckertEurope. Institute for Internationalborder adjustments cross- of campaign an ample context, this In Textbook relations. inter-state and interethnic ofin the bombs history Research education astime- negativewhich hadbeen encountered planted stereotypes It processes. integration content was launched under the aegis of Council andsocializing with media massive nation-building scope. of are powerful they Moreover, traditions. historical of aquintessence canon, mythological as a which specific interpret history narrative,historical aconcise textbooks, kindI of on namely places, memory such of one on focus I study in my considerations, feasibility “sites of memory”, such as historical andfiction literature, mass-media, oral history etc. Out of The official web-site of the Institute: These processes encountered difficulties as advancing to the East. After the fall of The role and importance of history textbooks was The role European ofhistory realized andimportance amplifying with the textbooks various the of analysis comparative the through be reached can objectives research These http://www.gei.de/index.php?id=9&L=1 3 2 . CEU eTD Collection simpozionului stiintific international. dialogues co-operation”). and sotrudnichestva” (“Academic contacts of Ukrainian, Moldovanand Romanian scholars: mutual understanding via 5 eyes: neighbor’s the (With Ukrainu Contemporary pro Russian history textbooks aboutistorii Ukraine).z pidruchnyky rosiis’ki Suchasni susida: Ochyma A.Portnov 2002), 336-383; Andriy Portnov past”). recent nedavnioho mynuloho” (“Poland and the Poles in the school history textbooks,4 or the echo of the ancincientprejudice. and guide tointernational history projects inschools inEurope history: challenges,problems andapproaches democraticcountries in transition. 3 2007. mutual representations in history textbooks, Though, apilotproject of kindcan bethis mentioned, seminar the on Ukrainian-Romanian involves scholar circles transcended publichas not and tothe including sphere, education. co-operation academic –Suceava inChernivtsi made are intensive efforts the fact is that the process started and the ice was broken. is found they what extend but a Itinpractice, slow place andreally fragmentary. to question is theprocess quite Nevertheless, historical controversies. intaking Romanian-Hungarian place is reconciliation particularly. Some in textbooks the history, the to approaches adjustthe to set were committees Ukrainian-Russian and Ukrainian-Polish bilateral cases in these Though, camefocus in the of a professional byNataliacritique Yakovenko andAndriy Portnov untouched. whileparadigms remain declarations, education the region of history accession aspirationstextbooks. juxtaposed. As a result of this clash some reconciliation began in the field “History without frontiers” projects started to be promoted in CEE Serhiy “KontaktyTroian. Ukrainy,uchenyh MoldovyRumynii: i vzaimoponimanie putem dialogov i See: Yakovenko. Natalia Ipoliaky “Pol’sha v shkil’nykh pidruchnukakhz istorii, abo vidlunnia davnioho I More on the concept of “History without frontiers”: without “History of concept the on More Similar adjustment exists between Ukrainian and Romanian historians, especially historians, Romanian and Ukrainian between exists adjustment Similar imageConstructing of neighboring towards Other the Poles and Russiansin Ukraine EU countries’ the and projects historical nationalist the region this in way, a such In 3 . Though, processthis is limited oftentimes problematic, rather going is it the to The Council of Europe’s work on history teaching on history textbooks, (Strasbourg: CDCC, 1996). Paralel’nyi svit. Doslidjennia z istorii uiavlen’ ta idei vUkraiini 16-18 century Romania, Moldova, Ucraina: buna vecinatate si colaborare regionala.Materialele Ⱥ (Strasburg: CDCC, 1995); Chisinau 15-16 octombrie,1998. (Chisinau,1998), 215-224. . Terra hostica.. Terra in: . (Strasburg:. 1996).; CDCC, which heldwas atChernivtsi in University June 4 The reformofhistory teachingin schoolsinEuropean Suchasnist’ Krytyka Mutual understanding andteaching of European . (Strasburg: CDCC, 1996); , YearV . (October2000),154 – 156. History Without Frontiers. Apractical ȱ , Issue 6 (56)June (2002), 11-13; 5 . However, itmainly Against and bias , (Kyiv, Krytyka, (Kyiv, , 4 . CEU eTD Collection National Renewal”, ed. Schöpflin, George Hosking, 6 inmyth. IplacedmysubjectAnderson’s of logic the Benedict Ukrainian and Romanian identities mythologies;and literatureand on Bukovina proper. inrepresentations. canbe Theliterature theoretical three big grouped on works; clusters: works textbook the contextualize to sufficient and is necessary which literature secondary the history ample historiography vast of the analysis Bukovinaregion.on the Iuse Inthethesis of (Wilson). “Homeland” (Schopflin) of ethnogenesis” “Myth of “Myth territory”, well as both Ukrainian and national Romanian mythswhich incorporate Bukovinathe region – regionalthe mythology of Bukovina which I classified as “the Age” Golden myth (Smith), as the taxonomies of taxonomies the “theintegration.(image European of other”), innorthern kin-minorities;Bukovina; Bukovina post-communist period, Interethnicrelations rule over WWII; Soviet WWI and the interwar period; the heritage; Austrian Bukovina the and region, among being: them in ethnogenesis if territory the of Bukovina; theconcept the of history in the periods and events crucial the on concentrated I purpose this For region. regional discourses. and national between borderline the trace to allows textbooks regional and national both (only Ukrainian: for schools with Ukrainian and languagesRomanian instruction).of Studying nationalregional textbooks: two (Ukrainian Romanian)comparedfour and of types Ukrainian history school publishedtextbooks, 1990s,which after are my primary sources. I George Schopflin. “The Functions of Myth and a Taxonomy of Myths”, Theoretical framework of the research is set by the concepts of identity, memory, and memory, identity, of concepts the by set is research the of framework Theoretical As it derives from the scope and focus of my research, Iwas primarily concerned with the Furthermore, as the analytical matrix of the research I used the concepts of suggested inas of matrix concepts suggested of analytical research Iusedthe Furthermore, the the I identify used maindiscursivestructures the inthe intextbooks Bukovina relation to and Romanian of analysis discourse is comparative thesis the of methodology The Ibid. George , 36-59; Wilson A. “Myths of National History Belarus in and Ukraine”, Schopflin, Anthony Smith, Andrew Wilson Andrew Smith, Anthony Schopflin, ( LondonHurst,C. : 1997),19-35; Anthony “The ‘GoldenSmith. Age’ and 5 Myths and nationhood Imagined communities 6 . It helped me to follow Ibid. , 182-197. / Geoffrey which CEU eTD Collection 12 11 Boia L. 1998). State University Press, Pennsylvania 10 vol. 9 News building in Ukraine past-dependencythe syndrome in Ukraine, of process the Post-Soviet nation-identity- and Romanian identities, theirmythologies and school policies. Thus, Catherine Wanner regards typologized in by above-mentionedthe works SchopflinSmith, etc. and isscrutinized regions the to identities national of attitude the interpret to category as “ history textbooks theoretical approaching to contributes and society, certain a by interpretations and facts historical of selectivity past of the version by acanonical 8 Verso, 1991). Ukraine school through policy Stepanenko’s study on socialthe construction of national identity in the post-Soviet transitional Education policy as a mean of socialization of youngthe is citizens in presented Viktor explanation. methodology in the presented article, Willson’s Andew in by represented by Romania Lucian historian Boia “ his ideaof and Hobsbawm some narrativeslogical extension of this conceptis the fact that the imaginary of these communities isbased on constructing their unity and continuity. In this respect I refer to Eric 7 presumes the idea of the constructed nature of nations, historical regions and theiridentities Eric Hobsbawm “History is a weapon against an invented Past - if we are brave enough to use it”. Benedict Anderson. ViktorStepanenko Catherine Wanner. Realms ofmemoryRealms , Winter,, (1994), 7- 11. A cluster of literature is devoted literature post-communist is to the transformationsA of Ukrainian anddevoted of cluster History and myth in Romanian consciousness /Under the direction of Pierre Nora , The construction of identity and school policy inUkraine Imagined Communities: reflections onorigin the and spread of nationalism 10 Burden ofdreams: historyand identity inPost-Soviet Ukraine . Forsketching mythologies the national work deconstructivist the I used invented traditions 12 . Ukrainian history aretextbooks analyzed by and Yakovenko 11 8 . Similarly, Pierre Nora’s notion of memory explains the explains memory of notion Nora’s Pierre Similarly, . , while the deconstruction of Ukrainian historical myths is myths historical Ukrainian of deconstruction the while , 6 ( sites of memory of sites , ( Budapest, CEU Press, 2001). ”, according to which nations are “cemented” are which nations to according ”, New YorkUniversity :Columbia Press, 1996-1998).3 ” 9 . Mythology which is an apt , ( Commack, N.Y., 1999). , (University Park: (University , Open Society . (London, 7 . A CEU eTD Collection Euroregion”), Prut” “Upper ofthe example The environment. inamultiethnic tolerance ofethnic issues (“The Prut”) 20 19 century), (Bukovina intheEuropean context of international relations. From ancient middle times till the the of 20th 18 (Chisinau, 15-16 octombrie, 1998). Romania, Ukraina: buna vecinatate si cooperarea regionala, (« BukovinaUkrainian-Romanianin relationsthe 20th incentury Hitorical-psychological: context»). 21 17 Redaktsiino-vydavnychyi viddiloblpoligrafvydavu, 1991);vol.2 (after 1774). (Chernivtsi, Chas, 1993). 16 Historical-political context Volodymyr Fisanov Popovych O. Popovych Bukovinei 28 noiembrie 1918. Studiu si documente 15 Curtea veche, 2004), 127-144 Bucovinei Holocaust, la 1918-1944”. 1918-1930, Chernivtsi of Ciachir 14 in Modern Romania, 13 and Nistor Omelyan Poppovych by some sources of traditional trendsetters the Romanian-Ukrainian Bukovina,on dispute Io tendentious character, beeninthough thefocus in of interest RomanianUkrainian historiography.and its This defined it was used as a source on the national traditions. I referred to Murgescuin articlethe on Romanian history to communisttextbooks period Portnov. Romanianhistory education policy since 19 was used in the thesis: collective monograph in collective was thethesis: used ArkadiyUkrainian authorfrom Zhukovs’kiy Diaspora the newly incorporated includingregions, newlythe incorporated Bukovina Romania towards in Greater cultural policies studies of Hausleitner’s Mariana Livezeanu’s and Ihor Burkut. Problemy etnotolerantnosti upolietnichnomu seredovyshi (Naprykladi evroregionu “Verhniy Chekhovskiy. Ihor Masan, Oleksandr Fisanov.v ukrainsko-rumynskih«Bukovina otnosheniiah veke:Istoriko-psikhologicheskiy v20 kontekst » Chiachir N. Arkadiy Zhukovs’kiy Ion Nistor Ion Irina Livezeanu. Irina Murgescu. Mirela “School textbooks the and heroes of Romanian history”. Bukovyna vkonteksti ievropeis’kyh mizhnarodnykh vidnosyn (Z davnihchasivseredyny do 20stolittia). For providing the historical context in providing periodFor Romanian Iused worksof Irina historical context the the 17 ed.Vasyl’ Botushans’kiy.(Chernivtsi, Ruta, 2005). . A number of . Anumber from published bytheauthors Chernivtsi University of recently works (Ithaca and London, Cornell University Press, 1995); Mariana Hausleitner. “De la romanizarea “De la Hausleitner. Mariana 1995); Press, University Cornell London, and (Ithaca Bucovina sub Dominatiunea Romaneasca: La 20 de ani de la Unire Vidrodzhennia Bukovyny (spomyny Evroregiony: potensial mizhetnichnoi harmonizatsii Din istoria Bucovinei (1775-1944). by Oleksandr Masan and Ihor Chekhovskiy Ihor and Masan Oleksandr by Cultural politicsinGreater Romania. Regionalism,Nation Building andEthnicStruggle, Conference Papers, (Bucuresti May 27-30 1998). Istoriia Bukovyny (History of Bukovina Bukovina inUkrainian-Romanian relations inthe20 21 . The international efforts of Bukovina studies are represented in are studies of represented efforts Bukovina . The international Romania siTransnistria: perspective istorice sicomparative Chernivtsi : 1408-1998 15 . Among the 1990s wave of . Among Icanmention the 1990swave of discussion ) ( (Bucuresti, Editura didactica sipedagogica, 1993). , (Bucuresti, Cartea romaneasca, 1928). romaneasca, Cartea (Bucuresti, , The Renaissance of Bukovina. Memories Bukovina ininternational relations 7 . (Chernivtsi, Misto, 1998). 14 Materialele simpozionului stiintific international . As a contested territory has territory Bukovina . As a contested , (Chernivtsi,, Bukrek, 2004), 191-208. ). in 2vol.Vol 1. (until 1774), (Chernivtsi, 16 th and Romanian historian Nicolae historian Romanian and century is described by Mirela by is described century 19 , articles by Ihor Burkut Ihor by articles , Culture andthe Politics of Identity , Cernauti; I.Nistor. 13 ), (Lviv, 1933),95. . 18 , the , th Unirea , (Bucuresti, century: Moldova, History 20 , CEU eTD Collection POLIROM, 1998). Education memories and transnational studies. transnational and memories the regionalethnoscape” for Ukrainian and imaginaries. Romanian According Smith’s to typology I regard “Bukovinism”isby “Ethnogenesis” myths. It “Territory”,Bukovinathe argued that is “overlapping an it explaining identities, national Romanian and Ukrainian both in occupies it place the identify myth as identity. Bukovinian In with section secondthe I region connected and analyze the mythology “Goldenidentities Age” and follow its reflection in national 22 Model civilization” “Czernowitz Austrian the of world the reconstructs who Corbea-Hoisie, Andrei by particular textbook, its main features and its role in identity-building. nations, and stored in collective memories. I focus on one of the “sites of memory”, history “ethnoscape”this This is territory. in relation imbedded “invented traditions”the two the of of in results appropriation national what territory, nation between anda aparticular association national identity a region by towards “ethnoscape”, theory Smith’s of residingininalienable a of relation the myths. Iexplain of set a certain on arebased which communities” “imagined based on the notions of identity, memory and myths. I regard both nations and regions are research, which is reflected in is structure. which reflected the research, mainand the historical particular background,of through the of to the analysis context target Andrei Corbea. Andrei The Chapter third In the second Chapter In thesecond In thefirstChapter fromisThe logic, ina“deductive” the thesis considerations, designed theoretical general I define a theoretical approach a theoretical I define presents an original analysis of the representation of Bukovina in Ukrainian and in Ukrainian Bukovina of representation the of analysis original an presents I provide anoverviewinhistorical of context which Bukovina was shaped as a 22 . Paul Celan si “meridianul” sau. Repere vechi sinoi pe un atlas central-european. RepresentationBukovina in of Collective Memories through History Nation StatesandOverlapping Towards Ethnoscapes: a Theoretical Bukovina Between History and Myth: Shifting borders Bukovina Betweenshifting HistoryandMyth:Shifting – , which lies in the domain of social constructivism: and is and constructivism: social of domain the in lies which 8 (Iasi, CEU eTD Collection Suceava University inSuceava University Romania. region, Chernivtsi National “Yuriy inFed’kovych” University and Ukraine “Stefan cel Mare” European University,in fieldcombination with in research intellectual the in centers Bukovina in nation-states. andthe theiridentities reconstruction regional more about trace generalizations Galicia, apossibility to would give Transylvania, Banat, traditions. Furthermore, a comparative study with other post-Austrian regions, for example Soviet Polish, Jewish, inAustrian, region of the representations by picture researching perceptionswould thehistory.introducing throughout be It instructive to other stories inthe subject area of research: from regional issues to overall Ukrainian-Romanian mutual which benotcould addressed thesis.Thus, within conceive I present broadening the scope the used in Chernivtsi region at Ukrainian and Romanian schools. text. Besides, I made the research on the two regional regional textbooks two the on made theresearch I Besides, text. information in section eithergrades, which in contain on Bukovina, or a separate integral the 5 the for schoolbooks, national Ukrainian and Romanian analyzed I above, described publishedRomanian in Accordingtextbooks post-communist period. the methodology to The inagenda suggested research the could befurther extended in a numberof directions; The thesis is written based on academic supervision and theoretical training at Central 9 Historythe nativeland of th -12 th , CEU eTD Collection create an illusion of its unity and continuity. Myths are crucial for a national identity, creating identity, for anational crucial are Myths anillusionits continuity. and unity of create 23 imagined” are these) even (and perhaps contact face-to-face of villages primordial larger than appliedinstance, social to other asfor unities, aregion. “all AsAnderson communities puts, be also can notion the nation-states, and nations with primarily he deals Though Anderson. by this regard itis helpful to refer to the famous concept of “ andregional identity. discourses national between way. In this part of the another in or one discourses national in their deadempires the of reminiscences these adjust thesis I intend to establish had to They peculiarities. andethnocultural historical experiences with different territories the theoretical framework for the correlation being dependent on way the how itis incorporated in national the framework. is inasensea statepolicy, amoreandweakercommunity into the latter unstable whereas it theideasdwells itsupport transforming on, and capacity to a more developedinfrastructure has nation a Besides, nation. a than entity natural more a is implicitly sense, in this and not, be may a community,region whereas is a constructed Anation culturally community”. “imagined minds,people’s inthan rather reality. objective construction is– for constructive understanding that ahistorical is defined region primarily in B.Anderson Chapter I. Nation States and Overlapping Ethnoscapes: Towards a Theoretical Model Communities are kept together through kepttogether Communities are I start with the premise that both national and regional identities are social creations. In creations. social are identities regional and national both that premise the with start I incorporated Europe Eastern and Central in nation-states the modernity of coming With Here one needs to make a distinction between a nation-state and as an aregion itwithin a nation-state between make needs to Here one adistinction 23 . The basic idea of this conception – that a community dwells on its social Imagined Communities 1.1 National Appropriation ofHistorical Regions , 6. 10 their narratives imagined communities , memories and myths ” introduced which CEU eTD Collection for a certain territory for acertain Smith, this typemyths of isvital for territorial isclaims, as“ethnoscape” used as a “title-deed” territory to the “mother-state”. the to territory extraordinary powerful feelings of quality,reference generating andbelonging” asacredand areendowedwith ethnoscapes meaning, andsome mythic andsymbolic significance memories” shared and origins of myth community’s in the element intrinsic an becomes and significance, “ not only a geographical butis region, ascribed certain inalienable spirituality; a meaning for different Bukovina. in noticed Smith rightly certain casehas that “overlappinga terrain ethnoscape generations” the through forefathers one’s from possession ‘arightful territory, and aparticular between people association irrevocable myths of “ socalled the creating aterritory, nation and a between inseparable association atight, constructs myth a national that observation Smith’s 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 and legitimization its for basis scrutinized by national scrutinized to whoapproach” suggested an“ethno-symbolic identity Smith territorialization of memory of territorialization Ibid., 69. Ibid., 150. A.Smith, “Myths and Memories of the Nation”, 152. A.Wilson“Myths of National History in Belarus and Ukraine”, 33. Ibid. Ibid., 150. A.Smith, “Myths and Memories of the Nation”. This idea is elucidative for explaining the case of contested border regions, as regions, border contested of case the explaining for elucidative is idea This For understanding the relation between nationalandidentities, Ifind between therelation For understanding regional precious 26 28 . Wilson also points to the fact that “nationalistfact . Wilson develop tothe that also points tendto historiographies . As he puts it, “in these cases, certain areas of land come to possess a special a possess to come land of areas certain cases, these “in it, puts . Ashe 30 . National memory requires restoration and reincorporation a “lost” a reincorporation and restoration requires memory National . ethnies”, ” takes place: “the landscape is invested with ethnic withinvested ethnic kin is “thelandscape ” takesplace: raison d'être. then forthen them this acquires territory a special symbolic ethnoscape The interconnection between myth and identity is identity and myth between interconnection The 11 ” 25 27 . In the national myth the territory is . 29 . According to 24 . CEU eTD Collection 34 33 32 31 and antiquity; h)myths andkinship of descent shared ethnogenesis of myth g) renewal; and rebirth of myths f) valour; military of myths e) mission; redemption andsuffering, c)myths of treatment;unjust myths d) of election and civilizing myths distinguishes 8mainwhich typenational of myths:myths a) of territory; b)myths of Hosking, Schopflin, Smith and Wilson the border dwellers” border the “angles” and leftno“for room ambiguous the identities and hard-to-pin-down allegiances of nation-spaces” cogently intopackaged contingency cultural of zones transformed which taxonomies national of means by lives, of Ukrainian-Polish borderis resultthe “theof dramatic reconception space,of and consequently indistinct identity the Brown argues that Kate itself? region tothe nations of side on the monopolizing attitude or even factual disappearance identity space onthewhole “ethnogenesis”. territory of a historicalnation-state to basicallymonopolize This attitude liesinregion. to trying the of the historical of a the attitude framing for consequences has which direct effect “ethnoscape” the create region andtogether interrelated mythsboth these are stress that is to itNow of important chapter. next Polissia on the entities. territorial its Territory of myth context, but preserve quite strong identity and even become important players in public life, as life, in public players important become even and identity strong quite preserve but context, Ibid., 230 Kate Brown. A Biography of Myths”. of No Place, (Harvard a Taxonomy ad University ofMyths functions Press, “The 2004), 299. Schopflin. G. Myths andNationhood The phenomenon of myths is elaborated in a collective work with contributions by These myths are regarded in more details when applied to the case of Bukovina in the caseof the appliedBukovina to when details inmoremyths areregarded These The question arises out of this discussion – what are the consequences of this However, some of the historical regions do not only survive in the national sociopolitical and 34 , ed. Geoffrey Hosking, George Schöpflin, . myth ofEthnogenesis 31 33 . In my study I use Schopflin’s taxonomy of national of taxonomy Schopflin’s use I study my In . . She considers that modernization sharpened the sharpened modernization that considers She . – as relevant to interrelation between national and national between interrelation to relevant –as 12 32 ( . Out of them I identified two types - London : C. Hurst, 1997). CEU eTD Collection Central European and Mediterranean Regions 37 36 York Press, 2001). between national, linguistic, religious or regional identities. Romanian scholar Viktor scholar Romanian identities. regional or religious linguistic, national, between distinguish not does and identity, collective or individual of nature multiple the sensitively of concept the not usually mutually exclusive; they can co-exist, overlap and correlate in a certain way. identities are typesThe two of forces. of their correlation and identities regional and national between is thecompatibility aspect crucial the But needscareful research. a which reasons, of complex ontheset of this depends finalscore The tension “center”. homogenizing the from identity it to threat a see might a region hand, other the on territory, national whole the in regional identity: ononehand,ideologynationalist by definition tends to disseminate its values 35 multiple more are identities the societies complex more in that suggests Smith numberreligious,etc. of national,them supra-national ethnic, regional, cultural, - gender, presupposes that each individual, as well as community, has not only one identity, but a Transylvania example for harmonious development of identity and of multiple belonging” multiple of and identity of development harmonious which blockit: most memoriesthe “Juxtaposed relevantappropriate factors a are to population and cultural identity, which in enters a conflict with some Italian tryingdiscourses is of this contextual. relation imply nature the doesnot a contradiction; identities national and very of the regional existence in factIn such a way, conflict. identity canbeapotential there Smith that admits though other, him,according identities to donotnecessarilynumerous and fit cannaturally contradict each R.M“Overlapping Malabotta. Cultures”. A.Smith. Myths and Memories, 229. Laszlo Kurti. An interesting caseinis bordercity thissense Italian Trieste, whichhasamixed In order to adjust the in-built conflict between nation-states and heterogeneous regions and heterogeneous nation-states between conflict in-builtthe toadjust In order Another “peacemaking” category in this senseis “peacemaking” category Another Theremote borderland: Transylvania intheHungarian Imagination multiple identities 35 . There is an inevitable tension between a nation state project anda state between anation inevitable tension is. There an was introduced into the scholar debate. Thisapproach scholarthe into debate. introduced was . Ed.Nadia Svob-Dokic, 2001,29. Redefining Cultural Identities: the multicultural contexts of the 13 “cultural identity” 37 . . (State University of New which reflects more 36 . Moreover, CEU eTD Collection 39 multiple identities, and historical continuity, or in other words, an identity unity spiritual of asense gives which itself, about myths memories, values, imaginary some share should A identity. community a national into aregion incorporating of some patterns identity-building nationalboth (similarprocessfor identities) and and regional then define overlappingcase for ethnoscapes. association of a nation with a territory, or ‘ethnoscape”.case border-regions. of multiethnic inthe Multiculturalespecially identities, national and regional between interrelations studying for framework border regions are the communities regional describing for moreidentities applicable multipleare that Heconcludes, from stemming cohabitation”. along them there are always zones of overlapping complex identities, with “mixed traditions 38 traditional is multiculturality where regions in border the pronounced is especially identities of social character Neumann touches upon a regional aspect of cultural identity. He states that the multiple Ibid., 135-140. ViktorNeumann. Going backGoing of nature “imagined” tothe us focus letmechanismsa community, onthe of To sum To interrelation up, the and is regions of the nations by defined strong the 1.2 “InventedTraditions”: History Textbook as a (Bucharest, EncyclopediaPublishing House,2004), 133. Conceptually Mystified: East-Central Europe torn between ethnicism and recognition of 38 . Neumann argues that borders are often artificially created, and created, artificially areoften borders that argues . Neumann 39 . Therefore, “multiple identities” are aconstructive are identities” “multiple . Therefore, 14 . Lieu de Memoire Lieu CEU eTD Collection 41 will or human theof bydint which nature, in non-material or workmaterial whether entity, significant “any be: of time has would definition the and history and memory between become interaction the of product a are they him, a symbolic element of the memorial heritage of any France 40 historical knowledge, considered to be socially significant of part isa memory that fact the in seen difference main the time; same in the opposed the monumental work on the “ the on work monumental the in Nora Pierre historian French by humanities and sciences social inthe introduced brilliantly identity. social a “feeds” consciousness (including memories mass- of level the and scientific levels: different two least at on functions knowledge historical society in a that mention, to important is It identity. an for source a is memory historical Identity a largeis to extentunderstanding anddefining oneself Consequently, through past. the in framework which I regardconstruction of a community inmy research: Ibid., vol. 1, p.3 Realms of memory Social Memory, Myth –>Tradition –> history textbook In our case itis important also to use Nora’s notion of “sites of memory”. According to Memory is another crucial category for analyzing an “imagined community”. It was It community”. “imagined an analyzing for category crucial another is Memory is categories The interrelation between these linear,butsubtle andnot elusive, though. To visualize the further discussion, here is a tentative scheme of the theoretical 40 . He establishes the correlation between history and memory, which are close and areclose memory, which history and between thecorrelation . Heestablishes . Lieux dememoire Community (nation or region) , myths, stereotypes etc 15 Identity History | | | ” (“ loci memoriae” orsitesofmemory) loci memoriae” 41 . .) . The latter is actually is actually what . Thelatter of CEU eTD Collection 1997), 177. knowledge which is considered to be true by the respective sociocultural by be true entity is respective tosociocultural knowledgethe which considered 45 L.Kritzman, ed., (New 1988),York, 107. contrasting with the Other. We have to make a reservation that history education is not the not is education history that reservation a make to have We Other. the with contrasting “us”by create form. has a to capacity It inunique most the and concentrated memories myths it national contains past; the through the present legitimizes history Didactic function. identity. education insocializes new a society and,itself generations such a itsway, reproduces and ‘hierarchization’ facts interpretations,of and their transferring values also and norms. Through relations 44 43 42 transferring identity is education. But it will not be an exaggeration to assume that etc. one literature academic and artistic in mass-media, society, ofthe of in mass-consciousness the the main channels of constructing and pastis The legitimized” invented. and itsAs history. herightly out,“ifpointed isthere past, no it appropriate can bealways community” what Hobsbawm aptly called “ fundamental for the thesis dealing with a particular type of “site of memory” – a textbook. is concept This symbols. and texts, basic emblems, manuals, monuments, commemorative mottos, and all generations, suchcommemorations, rituals; objects property,as inherited as such and practices concepts andmemorials; cemeteries, palaces, cathedrals, Michel Foucault. M.Foucault. E.Hobsbawm E. Debunking Ethnic Myths. 9. Ibid., vol.1, p.xvii. In this context it is proper to refer to Foucault and his concept of “ Both national and regional identities are based on memories and myths, forming together forming myths, and memories on based are identities regional and national Both As special role in identity-building is played by history education, given its axiological its given education, history by is played in identity-building role special As and “ 42 On power, Politics, from Philosophy, Culture . In such a way, “sites of . In include:“sitessuch away,memory” of museums, placessuchasarchives, truth The politics of truth ” a form of power’ invented tradition invented ; ed. Sylvere Lotringer & Lysa Hochroth & Lysa Lotringer Sylvere ; ed. 43 . This tradition,is orcanon, invented,stored and reproduced 44 . Education is one of the systems which translate the 16 ”. It reflects how a community perceives itself perceives reflects howacommunity ”. It : Interviews andother writings 1977-1984 , ( New York : Semiotext(e), power-knowledge 45 . It creates . It , ” CEU eTD Collection oblivion only a certain row of “historical facts”" “historical of row acertain only oblivion the from extract to able is epoch cultural-historical “Each observed: rightly M.Barg historian of knowledge, accompanying byselection of some facts and ignoring As the other. Russian of is a itresult Therefore, society. a member of for each be necessary to considered identity-building. of mean a powerful it make which features memory. mainitsin Iwillanalyzethe further, hasaspecialplace social regarded only as a didactic tool, butasagenre of historiography itswhich due to specific nature historiography”).in 47 Progress, 1973). exclusively on education exclusivelyknowledge oneducation almost based cultures traditional tothe incontrast mass-media, influence of increasing stored, which makes important itstored, an are with myths together andstereotypes, are knowledge, placestextbooks historical the where identity-building important education History tool. as Iarguedabove,isan policy which, countries. inits most moreinfluential to obligatory of character indubitably contemporary the due is former the which among tertiary, and secondary levels: two least at distinguish can we young people.Here of amassive audience and covers form in systematic the most knowledge 46 “ only of source historical knowledge. Moreover, asAbraham Mole arguedinhis Sociodynamics of Culture of Sociodynamics Mikhail Barg. “Istoricheskoe soznanie kak problema istoriografii” (“Historical conciousness as a problem of aproblem as conciousness (“Historical istoriografii” problema kak soznanie “Istoricheskoe Barg. Mikhail Abraham Mole. Abraham History textbook is a projection of that minimum of scientific knowledge which is In this subchapter I will focus on the school history textbook as the reflection of history of reflection the as textbook history school the on focus will I subchapter this In Voprosy istorii Voprosy Sotsiodinamika kul’tury (Sociodynamics ofculture ”, the consciousness of contemporary of is consciousness undersociety ”, the contemporary formed , (1982),, 12, no. 49-66, 54. “ 46 site of memory of site . But education still has a powerful effect, as it gives 17 47 . This idea was elaborated in the semiotic the in elaborated was idea This . ”. Inmy notstudy textbook I regardthe ). Translated from French,(Moskow, reduction CEU eTD Collection 51 50 49 Chelovek –tekst – semiosfera – istoriia facts, their interpretation and creation of a reconstruction of the past. Interpretation and Interpretation past. the of areconstruction of creation and interpretation their facts, nature historical of cognition and writing. History iswriting aproduct of selection of some 48 cognition”. the textbook, it will be either debunked or at least significantly undermined by the progress of consumer” textbook is to translate the information into a simple language, so that it becomes available for the AsAbraham adaptation. Moleof didactical aresultbeing wrote, “Profession of an author of a literature, of type this of as apeculiarity but textbook, certain of a a defect as be regarded not exams”. just forselected whichhaveby certain toberemembered facts, but candidates those the a „history is in wrote his ahistoryworld,that not Kollingwood whole the of contexttextbook genres of historiography. The famous expert of the theory of historical epistemology Robin beknowledge included Obviously, to inatextbook. belong the most textbooks reductive to epochs” different for non-facts of list “We aninteresting cancomplete who aptly added: Lotman Yuriy conception of transformed in a informationhistorical system didactic the In history. of version scholar dynamic the to contrast in obtains is a Sotextbook issues. certain structure, on problematic debate circles scientific topics and subtopics, periods in the history education. It is R.Kollingwood. Ideiaistorii, 467. Mole. Abraham RobinJ. Kolingwood. Yuriy Lotman. “Problema istoricheskogo fakta”. (The problem of a historical fact). of ahistorical problem (The fakta”. istoricheskogo “Problema Lotman. Yuriy This leads to inevitable,the conscious and unconscious, selection of historical the At educationalthat, model history of presents the“settled down” knowledge, while Another feature of textbooks is its Contemporary mainstream historical epistemology generally agrees on the subjective the on agrees generally epistemology historical mainstream Contemporary 49 50 51 . Hyperbolizing a bit, Kollingwood noted that “by the time a certain message reaches message acertain time “by the that noted Kollingwood abit, Hyperbolizing . Sotsiodinamika kul’tury 48 standardized canon . Ideia istoii, (Kyiv,Osnovy, 1996), 553. . (Moskva,Iazyki russkoi kul’tury,1996), 301, 302, 303,304. , 221. . lagging behind the vanguard academic 18 Vnutri mysliashih mirov. static model ofthe past, which should CEU eTD Collection 15, 2004]. Access: [http: // www.pdkintl.org/kappan/kwin9903.htm ] 52 the between distinguish not does It knowledge. of top the from say, to so transcedentality, of omniscient third person, that is tosay that the author isnotvisible, but writes from the position is inwhat the written Third, according textbook. Weinberg, narrate to on textbooks behalf an of illustrate to just – sources if are there was created, text the how and to sources, primary to the when they compose texts for the schoolchildren. Second, they mostly do notcontain references isitbut absent each other, for write who historians for is practice a common Meta-discourse avoidS.Weinberg.hesitations. and textbooks assumptions meta-discourses, First, authors’ a simplified to high isdegree, atextbook usually main misconceptions and concerning stereotypes history among the schoolchildren. Being tries tomake senseof previousthe life path. istextbook society and the of memory collective demonstrate embodies Textbook a society. in changes social major the after place what kind of historymainstream tradition of national history.is why“rewriting” That of alwaystextbooks takes it wants to see. In a way, the genre of historyWesociopolitical understand conjuncture. pastthrough the prism the present.the of can is subjective.evaluation by itsdepend nature It value on author’s the and preferences happened” illusions arenothing“ as else the textbooks expression by R.Bart, apt the According to exist. and will exists has alwaysexisted, afeeling thatit itcreates of textbook, feature the Cited from: Weinbourg S. However, school history is unreflective on this phenomenon, which is the root of the of root the is which phenomenon, this on unreflective is history school However, the of aquintessence a way in being conservatively, more trend this reflect Textbooks Whatever the didactic reasons may be, it is important to stress that due to the specificdue tothe stress that is important to it be, may reasons didactic the Whatever ”, which leave an impression that what is narrated in them is ”what actually ”what is in them narrated is what that impression an leave which ”, 52 “a nation’s autobiography “a . This isstylistic by described illusion bydifferent reached techniques, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts ”; it is also written from the “top” of present day and 19 dogmatic . . Published April 20, 1999 [cited May referential CEU eTD Collection events “happen” in the text like in its own time. As Ukrainian historian Andriy Portnov Andriy historian As Ukrainian time. own its in like text in the “happen” events 55 54 53 another” to from of students generation one transferred which a canon itare intoisof textual objects East; the “canonizes transformed activity when it belonged to itself, it becomes now didactically instructive. Said says that orientalist’s become interchangeable” orientalist) an by East the of (representation reconstruction subjective and structure Objective itself. by asthe East,describedin East orientalist reader the perceives the and restructured for a wide audience, the and East adapts “prepares”, interprets he process Inthis for aEuropean. incomprehensible and remote so is which East, the and“approximate” is to orientalist an of objective “soonerthe that argues He in atextbook. created or history of model the and later“orientalism” between theand a textbook, of author the and reader orientalist his between parallel draw and “Orientalism” forgets about the effortsand spread pupils’ illusions thathistory is described in textbooks “asthe ithappened”. put by a newtruth”, the wave of startedin which find receptive1990s audienceamong schoolchildren in text parts the interpretative and factological textbook istextbook in away simplified and schematized, butit gives animpression of understanding the past. is It itin reachable. becomes “served” ina textbook for But aEuropean. canon the East integral A picture. ispupil able not tograsphistory him/herself:itis tohim, as remote the as intoa school discipline.A “canonization” of the past happens; the past becomes a concrete and Ibid. Edward Said. Orientalism, (Kyiv, Osnovy, 2001),172. Ibid. In this context, itis Said’shelpfulIn Edward theoretical context, turn this inhis to contribution to Furthermore, paradoxically, as a result of the afore-mentioned features, ahistory features, theafore-mentioned of as aresult paradoxically, Furthermore, knowledge historical ofacademic in place transformation the take processes Similar ahistorical 54 . In such a way the remote East becomes accessible, being dynamic being becomes accessible, East away In such remote the . It operates with the categories of with thinking; categories the present the of the operates . It 20 53 . That is. That why euphemisms like“historical the 55 . CEU eTD Collection historiography, whose stylistics reflects certain tradition where deep socio-political factors and 56 Rada [Ukrainian parliament –V.V.]” Verkhovna of deputies the like textbook in the behave princes “Slavic out, pointed neatly literature which is addressing a limited number of specialists. of number limited a addressing is which literature historical professional of than identity-building, of view of point the from responsible and edition of academicmonographs. Thereby, the social role of a history textbook is much higher the than higher times in 50-100 is of textbooks circulation The society. a of future the youth, This ofhistoricaltype narrative by is destinedto definition mostthe mass – social group consideration social powerful the impact of history textbooks and school history in general. interpretations. of variety and dogma between balance and proportion in the lies still question the However, judgments. independent make to order in enough motivated and informed inis theaudienceas version – aredestinedhistory thetextbooks not to school – andits which this, R. Kollingwood argued it isthat but notadefect, rather anecessary by feature definition, historicity.Related a deeperunderstanding be of to to astep hasalready version to university confuse them. relatesespecially the school level This history to itseducation,of whereas need togive the schoolchildren some positive answers and primary knowledge in order not to it schoolbooks. Iregard nature modelsas of very history,the of aresult of education which at history falsify to intend who authors particular the of responsibility the is situation historyof atinterpretations more present school, to taken been have efforts some recently Though identity. but this trend is still havingetc., far-reaching historical effecton of consciousness youth,the andimplicitly, on their rather an exception than a rule. In my opinion, this A. Portnov A. “Terra hostica”, 13. Under these conditions history textbooks naturally become places for myths, become for naturally stereotypes places history textbooks conditions Under these All this makes history textbook an important “ important an textbook history makes this All These characteristics, outlined above, acquire a special importance, taking into taking importance, special a acquire above, outlined These characteristics, 56 . 21 site memoryof ” . It is. It agenre of CEU eTD Collection imaginaries,in our case, the memories of Ukraine and Romania about Bukovina region. social studying of method telling a analysis textbook makes this All identity-building. in which a society envisages itsconsciousness widesenseform in containingthe of word, the intheconcentrated tradition the history. On the other hand, ofhistorical is amirror hand,a textbook one Onthe intersect. andfactors it actors social is also a significant element many of and aspirations where interests act is It acultural-political findplace. confrontations of 22 CEU eTD Collection Polish Kingdom occupied the northern part of the region. control of the Ottoman Turks, but the Moldavian from the came under Suceava asitsPrincipality 1541, capital 1388.In the it remained autonomous. For nucleusmid-14th itbecamecentury, the Moldavian of city the Principality,of with the the short periods of time, the of KyivanFrom Rus’and Halych-Volyn’was the principality.states: Slavicthe feudal a part and ideologies, which influenced Bukovinian mentality and shaped its regional identity. demonstrates how the change of state affiliation, redrawing borders, replacing political systems Chernivtsi called aptly V.Fisanov historian Bukovinian contemporary fact, this to Referring history. 1996), (Kyiv, Fenix, 1997), 82-89. na postsovetskom prostranstve: netraditsionnyeaspekty bezopasnosti. Materialyseminara (“Security issue in the conditions of wandering geopolitical points: The case of Bukovina”). 58 Romanian(Cernauti), Polish (Czerniowce), Russian (Chernovtsy). 57 Bucovina (German: Bukovina states, nation nascent the and empires Russian communist Ukrainian and identities, Romanian regardedin followingthe subchapters. in further the post- Bukovina region forof important understanding the reframing of the interpreting thisphenomenon the I classifiedit“Goldenconcept of is Age” using myth. It identity mythology Bukovinian regional outlinetheconnectedit. For was shaped,and with Chapter II. Between Bukovina History andMyth:Shifting Borders –Shifting Identities Fisanov V. “Problema bezopasnosti v usloviahpodvizhnyh geopoliticheskih tochek: sluchay s Bukovinoi”. Cernivtsi is the current Ukrainian name of the city,which has historical version inGerman (Czernowitz), In 9-13thcenturies theterritory, became whichlater known Bukovina,as consecutively In this part I intend to show the peculiarities of the historical context in which Exposed to the international influence in the crossroads of Ottoman, Habsburg, and Habsburg, Ottoman, of crossroads the in influence international the to Exposed ) changed its state belonging) changedleast its state four times at during turbulentits 20 57 , the center of the region, 2.1 “Bukovinism”: or RegionalIdentity a “GoldenAge” Myth? “ a wanderinga geopolitical point” 23 58 Bukowina . History of the region (Chernovtsy, October (Chernovtsy, Pogranichnye raiony ; Romanian: th century CEU eTD Collection 60 59 Austria’s Constitution of 1849 land to crown according of a separate status the land. acquired crown Bukovina anda separate andthenasaduchy of Galicia (1786-1849) asapart firstGalicia. region was administered The a strategicHungarian between and Empire, as whichregardedBukovina link Transylvania name identity and under theAustrian Austro- the Ottomans In rule. ceded theterritory 1775 to Ukrainian Sovietincluding Republic, this region. former of the territories the “inherited” Ukraine independent USSR the of collapse After the within Ukrainian the SovietRepublic. Southern part of Bukovina remained inRomanian state. came under the authority incorporated theregion. predominantly Bukovina,of by In populated 1940 Northern Ukrainians, the Soviet Union and became Romania Greater created newly the empire, Habsburg of “corpse” the WWI,on After the administered as ChernivtsiAustrian of status empire, enjoyinga Duchyand the since wideautonomy 1861until 1918. region Bukovina werestill Ukrainians and Moldovans/Romanians; among the minorities being Jews, on basisthe majorin Austrian the of census in population twoethnic groups 1910, the overpopulated lands.According tothe ethnic map composed by Romanian historian Nistor Ion from and BukovinaAustrians) to move empirestarted the from to demographically mostly (but population German Austrian multiethnic when the under rule, diversified further Moldovans, Polish, Bulgarians, Germans territory in of Moldovan Bukovina by waspopulated principality Ruthenians (Ukrainians), of factor identity.GeorgBukovinian history,regional its Krekwitz,According affecting to the Cited from: A.Zhukovskiy. from: Cited Bukovina v kontekstimizhnarodnykh ievropeiskyh mizhnarodnykh vidnosyn Now, we turn to the formation of local identity in Bukovina. The region acquired its own The history in started Bukovina asa of when Bukovinabecame 1774 region a partof The population of this territory was traditionally multicultural, which is another important Istoriia Bukovyny 59 . . vol. 1, 92. 60 . The multiethnic population of . The population was Bukovina multiethnic of 24 , 265. CEU eTD Collection 63 (Moscow, 1997), 75-76, 82. even in the 20 the in even tensions. interethnic of avoidedregion extremes the that fact the to contributed and movements national of development fast of conditions this “Bukovinism” viewpoint, played the role ofa “buffer” from interethnic conflicts in the interethnic conflicts in the conditions of fast development of national movements. According to coming” were they impulses from wherever of nationalist infrontthe legitimize itself to attempted civilization supra-national multi- “Czernowitz and which through “fashionable concept”, and multicultural population. As Romanian Germanist AndreiCorbea mentions, Bukovinismmultiethnic was a its of cohabitation peaceful of tradition strong a with region tolerant an imageof exceptionally the acquiredand preserved borderlands, Bukovina multiethnic tolerance interethnic the the beginning of 20 the contrast, in the collective memory there are illustrative cases of salvation of Jews by of salvation of cases illustrative are there memory in collective the contrast, such tolerance iswhich invoked is relative unpopularity localof anti-Semitism in Bukovina. In escalate One inbloodshed of examples the interethnicconflicts. Bukovina of relations not did nachala 20 vekov” (“Bukovinism as a type of conciousnessregional Austro-Hungaryin the endat of 19 the 62 nach derVolkszahlung 1910 by IonNistor. 61 Bukovina, widely inknown historiography as „ the outbreak of ethnonational or religiousArmenians, Czechs, Slovaks,conflicts. Russians, Roma. On the etc. Lipovans Hungarians, contrary,Polish, Germans, the regional identity of A.Corbea. Dobrzhanskiy A. “Bukovinism” kak raznovidnosti regional’nogo samosoznaniia v Avstro-Vengrii kontsa 19- kontsa v Avstro-Vengrii samosoznaniia regional’nogo raznovidnosti kak “Bukovinism” A. Dobrzhanskiy See Appendices:of I.Distribution RacesAustro-Hungary in II.Etnographischeand Landkarte derBukowina It is an open question, to which extend „Bukovinism” was a reality or a myth. Indeed, to region the of resistance the extend a big to ascribed is identity this moreover, And Though Bukovinian becamepopulation evenethnically moreit diverse,did not resultin 63 . Paul Celan si “meridianul sau th century, there in when was much violence, Europe so in multiethnicthe 62 th century”).In: . In spite of the high risk of interethnic conflicts which is peculiar for Avstro-Vengriia: integratsionnyeprotsessy Inatsionalnaia spetsyfika ”, 31. 25 61 . There were also small communities of communities small also were There . Bukovinism ”, is”, by characterized unique th -at , CEU eTD Collection the competition between two comparable in number and activity communities created premises created communities and in comparable between activity number competition two the Romanianslike and Hungarians, and Ukrainians in Romanians conditions of Bukovina. These Austrian-Hungarian RomaniaEmpire anddominant and Greater having ethnic two groups: was also a multiethnicEmpire modernized which was muchlater than provinces, forother example Transylvania.It region, beingmulticulturality. harmonious in a way in a explanatory,similar position as there on arethe othercrossroads multiethnic of regions which did not create phenomenon of a 64 this of identity regional the in interwoven naturally is tolerance And conflict. interethnic of source built-in no was there Consequently contacts. interethnic intensive through historically, established was co-habitation peaceful of tradition The colonization. Austrian the to prior even centuries, the be observed first should It region. the of history the by be explained can tolerance of phenomenon The myth. a Hausleitner by in in Mariana demonstrated study the were etc. which andBukovina, Holocaust 1930s, activity Romanian pro-fascistof organization “Iron Guard”, spread of anti-Semitism in the discourses national the of radicalization and tensions interethnic of facts the omitting Jews from fascist persecutions during WWII. among them Paul famous the mayorpoet Celan; Chernivtsi Traian Popovici saving hundreds 300 Jewsfrom Bukovinianentrepreneur rescuingmanyJews, V.Alexandrescu repressions; Bukovinian authorities: aPolishChile of citizen Chernivtsi, saving consultoG.Shimonovich M.Hausleitner.“De la romanizarea Bucovinei laHolocaust”,1918-1944. 127-144. It is also important in this context that Bukovina was a region of Austro-Hungarian Now let us focus on „Bukovinism” as a phenomenon, and later on discuss how it became At the same time, memory is selective; it does not save the other side of the story, 64 . that multiethnic that composition regionthe of formedwas naturally, throughout “ meeting place of of cultures place meeting 26 ”. However, this However, reason is not sufficiently not is reason CEU eTD Collection Zolotilytavry, 1999),259-292. 65 communities ethnic the between equidistance policy ethnic liberal relatively and administration majority. This fact relieved the tensions and helped to avoid strong confrontation. of other minorities, especiallyGalicia.An here factor mightadditional in be Bukovina that there wasavery high percentage the Jews, and none or Transylvania than and hostility, competition interethnic lowerby degreeof a characterized of the ethnic groups wasmodernization, relative economicbackwardness, strongcommunitarianism, close to absolute the dueto regions. Nevertheless, two inthe relations interethnic exacerbation to of Romanian, PolishYiddish. andunderstood several languages was mostestablished; of Bukovinians speaking German, Ukrainian, in of communicating regional the tradition In this time religion. and education sphere of languagesin could inin beso the province, official used theorganizations; could they beused official acknowledged were Romanian and Ukrainian German, officially. used freely also be Parliament Ukrainian, Romanian,Armenian, German deputies representing Bukovina in Vienna the committee“the calleddeputies in Union” Free whichwascreated 1903 with thinking international the was authorities in local collaboration interethnic of examples successful for the tradition of constructive co-operation basis the laid This in Vienna. parliament Austrian in and Seim regional in the represented were groups Ethnic rights. cultural and linguistic political, civic, minorities ethnic giving empire, authorities developed their aperiod and of for policies ethnic time managedthe multiethnic makingchanges significant in system political through constitutionthe of 1867, Austrian Dobrzhanskiy O. A crucial role in the ethnopolitical stability in Bukovina was played by the decentralized by the played was Bukovina in stability ethnopolitical in the role A crucial German languageGerman wasspreading as butminority mainstate language,the languages could 65 . Natsionalnyi ruhukraintsiv Bukovyny drugoi polovyny19-pochatku 200 stolittia, . 27 After of1848-1849and handlingrevolutions the between the ethnic communities. One of the of the Habsburgs, who were trying to keep to were trying who of Habsburgs, the Bukovina was Bukovina (Chernivtsi, late CEU eTD Collection Bukovinian history Bukovinian history O.Masan and I.Chekhovskiy: origin, which laid the basis for peaceful co-existence in this region. Bukovinians wereinclined moreco-operation to with theirfellow-townsmen ethnicdifferent of As aresult, busyness. life and every-day survival, of concentration aspragmatism, feature such politics,something as to temporary inand its transitory. This, turn, this determined attitude 193. 66 a movie. This naturally caused some sort of sort some caused naturally movie. This a two generations of Bukovinians.All those political storms were passing by,for the survived, as Thus, place “changesflags” Town hall the before overthe Chernivtsiof took the eyesofone- historical consciousness which to contributed famousthe interethnic Bukovinian tolerance. periods in previous the warsinBukovina ceasingofendless after 19th century, the decadesof last as a kind of defense mechanism against the brutal cataclysms. brutal the political as akindmechanism against of defense 20 in the games geopolitical great in coin small a Being identity. regional and relations interethnic hadimpactbutpopulation,interestson powers, only both adeep of great geopolitical and of “re-cutting” the borders region,the respectof proper without ethnic composition the of Bukovinian identity. thismultiethnic For it region had dramatic scopeand “cutting” results: Indubitably,frequent shifting ofborders and citizenship had a deep and far-reaching impacton between Russian and Austrian empires, whichlasted until WWI. I.BurkutI.“Problemy etnotolerantnosti upolietnichnomu seredovyshi (Naprykladi “Verhniy regionu Prut”), th century Bukovina its ownvaluesand multiethnic cohabitation, created a model century Europe, of This type of explanation was neatly formulated by contemporary specialists in specialists by contemporary formulated neatly was explanation of type This Another important factor is the socioeconomic progress of the region which started in the This effect of Some socio-psychological explanations“Bukovinism” of be can alsoadduced. 66 . The long-awaited peace was established in the region after the region was divided “ transient citizenship” resulted in some characteristics of Bukovinian “ 28 philosophical ” attitude towards authorities and authorities towards attitude CEU eTD Collection 69 68 67 articulated at the end of endof 19 at the articulated and transformed laterby many ofhistoriansgenerations and publicists. This concept was historical unity; and by independentthen nation-building Ukrainian project whichformednation-state, inits turn was substituted by idea of the solidarity Soviet and a newly of ideology Romania with Greater waschanged interests” “unity of Austrian the nation-building generations within several times one-two andregional entered memories. Thus, becomelanguage oreven canovernight prohibited. unwanted official an when versa; vice and other” “the become partner yesterdays’ a when conditions of history, whose rules are revealed at the end of the game. on ideology stake ina “personal bordera language, situation”: havingto agame state, religion, It is very difficult to do this in the formed, “which formed, noparty, culture nation canfullyor expropriate” involuntarily values some ownsteady are region border conditions, ideologies. In such unclear values and its ita have “transitive” own not created steady identity, borders, this region so of could national kind of local values and patriotism, which was put above some ephemeral Fisanov. Bukovina v ukrainsko-rumynskih otnosheniiah v 20 veke: Istoriko-psikhologicheskiy kontekst, 116 kontekst, O.Masan, I.Chekhovskiy.Istoriko-psikhologicheskiy veke: v 20 otnosheniiah v ukrainsko-rumynskih Bukovina Fisanov. O.Masan, I.Chekhovskiy. Chernivtsi, 90. Speaking about “Bukovinism” as a myth, it is important to understand how itwas created how understand to is important itmyth, asa “Bukovinism” about Speaking As a populationresult, the has gone a change belonging,through of state citizenship and in him/herself finds region border a such of citizen each that out point rightly authors The buildings, the cut of the uniforms and marches of regimental brass bands” brass regimental of marches and uniforms the of cut the buildings, governmental the on arms of coats the changing hastily themselves, person the to come opinion, anybody’s asking not They place. same the at stating step, any making without covered by snowdrifts history.As can liveinof a result in several one turns,countries borders, traveling spacewith transitional amazing and are areas generations… Border than often more changed symbols and flags where capital, its and region the of history turbulent in the lies multiculturalism of phenomenon this understanding to key “The Chernivtsi th century. In the second half of the 20 the of half second the In century. , 91. 29 69 . th century, mostly due to the 68 . In the conditions 67 . CEU eTD Collection especially worldin thetwowars. especially ethnic which groups, were clashed lateronin sharpenedthe interethnic competition and of idyllic co-habitation depicting draws a paradise-type picture It tolerance. unique interethnic than cafés” bookshops more were there city in the and flowers’ of bunches the with swept were pavements ‘the and Krauss’ Karl about discussing were coachmen Czernowitz in when “…times imbued with myth, is Aof Habsburgheritage. of demonstration this through type which typical culture” nostalgia,third as such sub-type, virtues belonging stressing (even “high the though diachronically) to is the famous creativity artistic and literary expressionimperialexpansion, holinesspower; 2. and intellectpurity; 3. andbeauty, philosophical, of alreadySmith distinguishes 3main cited writer Georg Gientzen: 72 71 70 past, which gives grounds to typologize it Jewish passengersontheboard underthe sail ofas tolerance” a regional variant with a Czernowitz Austrian of the theold comparing metaphor in Geintzen famous the Georg writer German contemporary “Bukovinism”. Theidea in harmony of idyllic the Austrian wasexpressed by Bukovina hadCzernowitz” good character. idealized nostalgic in 1940,as well as by Jewsthe leaving from Naturally,Holocaust. memories their “oldabout leftwho city the in 1919, and laterby Bukovinian intellectuals from running Bolshevik terror mostly repatriates by German the ideaswereformulated these fact by can bethat the explained German historians,and this Austrian topic a acquired mythologicalpronounced It character. Cited from: O.Masan, I.Chekhovskiy. A.Smith. The “Golden Age” and National Renewal. In. Hosking, 42. Cited from: Ibid., 92. inidealization the retrospectiveperiod initshasa certain “Bukovinism”mythof core In itis respect,this surprising, not is there that astrong aura of “lost paradise” about 72 . At samethe time, Age”its suggests Bukovinian“Golden the own virtue: specific types of ‘Golden age’ myths: those based on 1. political or military 71 “ship of pleasure of withand team,German“ship officers Ukrainian . In this classification the Bukovina canon falls rather under the under rather falls canon Bukovina the classification this In . Chernivtsi 91. 30 70 . “Golden Age “Golden ” myth. CEU eTD Collection 74 73 national state…” national weldedfrom distinct by parts, together ideology the forceand centralizing of unitary the assembled was It imaginary. the in than unitary less is other, any like nation, Romanian “the as “Bukovinism” a regional mythologized retrospectively. identity there is no smoke without a fire, there is no myth without premises. This gives premises to treat features pronounced of portrayedthe phenomenon person them or more.and amplify then As most the select caricatures, to similarly Myths, Sovietization. and Romanian policies Greater instance following for homogenizing aswell with as with Russian empire, the of periods phenomena, in light which contrasted witha good then in realities neighboringthe territories, Bukovinian identity was HereIwantremembered. to stress thisthat myth onthe rests usit For thesis. primary understandhowandwhy is present the of subject crucial to significantly reduced, still there are strong historical historical inthecountry regions significantly arestrong still reduced, there integrity. territorial of loss and federalization of as “threat” the interpreted was often regionalism any kindof this context In identities. political and national their reshaping and transformations economic and political socio- countries. Theywereundergoing deep regimes aftermath inboth immediate communist in the delicate especially were issues Regionalization state-building. their of complexities Ukraine and and Romania typologizing themain myths it, itison important to understand the L.Boia. ofRomania. regions ofhistorical Maps IV– and III Appendices reference Seefor The of“Bukovinism”isphenomenon asubject is of nota deeperanalysiswhich the Before analyzingis way in re-framed the Bukovina identities post-communistthe of Though in GreaterRomaniathe period the heterogeneity itsof provinces was 2.2 Bukovina inthe National Identities of Ukraine andRomania: Ethnogenesis, History and Myth 74 . However, this fact is not accepted in the national identity and moreover is moreover identity and national in the is not accepted fact this . However, , 12. Territory, and other Myths 31 73 . As Boia states, . AsBoia CEU eTD Collection 76 75 borders contemporary inthe experience statehood lack of the to due echo, and especially the East-West linguistic party.and Romania” such as the“Greater cultural cleavagewas highly was in politicized nationalist 1990s,when the a revival forces, there of political or Crimea, had also a isTransylvania, tohave suspected separatism. where issue of This atinge regionalism often political regional issueThe most agitated was of states. these integrity character defendingand unitarian of discourse the apart became Regionalism may disintegrate. Romania fear that exaggerated isin an Romania Boia that there argues national the unity.a dangerfor perceived as nation-space” streamliningthe ofhybrid identities intocreated unambiguously groups… national Ukrainian Boia’s observations, Kate Brown points out that post-communist Ukraine is “a creation in with Northern Bukovina was created. One of the exemplary variants of traditional of Romanian variants One exemplary of the wascreated. Bukovina Northern the for nostalgia circles political nationalist radical some and mass-media discourse, public the border. acknowledge existent the reluctance to with connected implicitly or explicitly were 1990s early inthe relations bilateral inthe tensions traditionappropriate of legitimizing disputes, trying to in Bukovina, atleast memory.the Some strong a within other, each to relation their in central becomes it identities, national both for “peripheral” is relatively Bukovina though that that fact in the lies territorial paradox the But claims. official or movements irredentist of subject a not was it and regionalism of aspects state-building,it causesmorbid fears in transitional the post-communist identities. in ignored the than be rather addressed to needs but a state, of existence for the rationale the K.Brown K. ofUkraine. regions of historical V.-Map Appendix reference for See For Romanian national identity Bukovina is remembered as a “lost” territory, therefore in more werepending there both states for fears, as incentral these not itself was Bukovina In its turn, in Ukraine the existence of the regions with different historical experiences, historical different with regions the of existence the in Ukraine turn, its In A biography of no place 76 . Though the very fact of heterogeneity of the nation by no means diminishes means no by nation the of heterogeneity of fact very the . Though , 230. 32 75 . Similarly to Similarly . CEU eTD Collection 80 79 78 harmony harmony on blessedthe landof Bukovina” concludes the statement: “Duringhavelivedwith Romanians centuries Ukrainians with in of episode “Again in is interpretation This ittogether” 1941-1944. full of nostalgia, though with in Romania “re-integrated” by taken 1918; away USSRin the and asentimental 1940; historical Romanian land, annexed byAustrian empire from Moldovan principality in 1775 and 77 nations respective the of identities national in the significance symbolical aspecial acquire homelands” ancestral of it, theterritories According “clashing in presented with chapter. to previous interpretations the formulae like“Ukrainian“Ukrainian [p.18], tribes” state” referringKyivan to Rus’ [p.33]etc. ahistorical usingthat history Heplaces at Ukraine, Bukovina” Bukovinainthe of [p.35]. in element Ukrainian of “indigenity section in the is explained land Ukrainian is exclusively TheRomanian mainidea authors. runningthrough legitimizing text, whole the that Bukovina Zhukovs’kiy in early 1990s Arkadiy Diaspora from historian Ukrainian written was discourse this of examples classical and independence in1991.Themost after condensed proclamation right the Ukrainian of by Nicolae Bukovina ispresented historical on Chiachir narratives Romania.As Bukovina a result, is embedded in identitiestheirdeeply national and collective national identitiesnumerically of two the autochthon ethnic –Ukrainedominant groups and Ukrainians, butit Austrians, Romanians, a special in Jewsandothers, place occupies the historical developments and multiethnic composition, it left a deep trace in the memories of A.Smith, A.Zhukovs’kiy. Ibid., 150. N.Chiachir This situation can be explained through Smith’s concept of This situation canbe conceptof “Overlapping through Smith’s explained ethnoscape”, At the same time, Ukrainian identity answered the challenge with a legitimizing discourse Myths and Memories. Din isoria Bucovinei (1775-1944 Istoriia Bukovyny 80 . Indeed, Bukovina is the case for this phenomenon. Due to the 79 . It has a pronounced defensive style, with frequent references to references frequent with style, defensive a pronounced has It . . In 2 vol. 2 In . ). 78 . 33 77 . He regards Bukovina as a CEU eTD Collection borders do not always coincide with the imaginary limits of the nation itself. In Ukrainian case, whose states European Eastern post-communist for the peculiar is especially phenomenon in Ukrainian imaginary a similar myth which hecalls“Homeland myth”. millennia-long) unity of millennia-long) unity of Romanianthe identified space”, byBoia was even (or century-long imaginary, “an of tells which consciousness, in Romanian myth of type hasmyth unlimited retrospectivepolitical currentthe force,projectingThis past. realities tothe This predetermined. was unification the that arguments teleological anduses always existed, indigenity. Bukovina tracing through deepest the rootsitsof settlement on territory,this andthus their Ukrainian and historiographical Romanian canonslegitimize try to “exclusive” on rights Followingcertain group. ethnic logic the of both of andUkraine describe Romania to Bukovinaunilaterally, prism the only through a of Romanian historiographies on Bukovina. Itis characteristic for the mainnationalistideologists ethnicity with a territory, or are or with a territory, ethnicity inseparably of and Both them connect fusedsometimes. Both interconnected of them are two myths from this typology: “ myths which reflect relation the nation of a itsto territory, thereby theto regions, Iidentified 82 81 I purpose tothetaxonomiesturned ofmyths by suggested Schopflin undivided memory space, having a symbolic meaning,rather than a rational underpinning. memories, and is an irreplaceable part of their history. In a way, the region is a shared and Boia L. 28-35. ofMyths”, a Taxonomy ad ofMyths Functions “The G.Schopflin. Now let us have a closer look at how the Bukovina ethnoscape is created. With this With iscreated. ethnoscape the Bukovina athow look letus haveacloser Now A closely related “ and for Ukrainian isvery characteristic debate indigenity As the we sawabove, Myth and history , 13. Myth of territory of Myth “territorializing memory Myth of ethnogenesis antiquity” of and Myth ” implies 34 “ Ethnogenesis and Antiquity” that a territory of a contemporary state has ”, accordingSmith’s to expression. 82 and 81 . . Among the national the Among . Wilson deconstructed “Myth of territory”. “Mythof He explains this that myth, both CEU eTD Collection 86 85 84 83 includedand Bukovina TransDniesterTranscarpattia, territories myth morethis Schytians goes asfarKyivan and or often,Rus’ asto Sarmathians, which by nations other nation, and particular sub-types: have two by historiography.Wilson’sAccordingRomanian to typology, The“Homeland” myth can Dacia to Kyivan andMoldovan principalities or Rus’byUkrainian tradition, of to territory this northern northern Bukovina) in Ukrainian and Transylvania in (Romanian majority present the of wishes the override to previously Hungary belonged to and BukovinatoMoldavia andlater Romania) cannotbe used case of Transylvanian “Indispute: both cases invocationthe of a historical (Transylvania right directions: for Ukrainian national historiography it has of the need to renegotiate national mythology. He says in fact that this should besays infact for this that clarified should mythology. He renegotiate national of needto the of Moldavia, as Romanians were a minority in the northern part ethnic right in regards to the southern half, and historical right for the whole Bukovina as a part approach: atwofold Boia distinguishes caseof Bukovina, the Considering certain territory. myths,following the same logic, but differently. turned remarkable that they has are peculiar for bothBukovina’s indigenous belonging Ukrainian to territory; Romanianwhile myth Bukovina of national identities. In fact, we deal with the same Ibid., 182 L.Boia Ibid. A.Wilson. “Myths of National History in Belarus and Ukraine”, 33. offensive Interestingly, how the famous deconstructor himself a pragmaticrationalization himself into the famoushow goes Interestingly, deconstructor Applied to Bukovina, this myth uses as a legitimizing argument the fact of factof the belonging myth the asalegitimizing argument Bukovina, this Applied uses to The above described myths often are transformed in the so called “historical for a “historical rights” myths socalled inthe often are transformed The above described Historyand Myth character, implying spiritual belonging to Romania of a “outside” region. It is implying character, Romania belonginga “outside” region. to spiritual of It 84 . In is such this in asubjectregards, Bukovina a myth works both to which 86 . offensive defensive , 181. , in case that contested territory lies beyond the borders of of borders a liesbeyond the contested territory , in that case , justifying its internal territories in respond to the contestation 35 defensive 83 85 . . He draws a parallel with the character trying to justify trying to character CEU eTD Collection 87 areas,the where Romaniansmajority gained at the expense of others,the like in Dobrogea Bukovina, the factual state of affairs is to be accepted and treated as a kind of compensation for politician. Thus, hesays even that though Romanian majority was changedbyAustrians in more as buta historian, a deconstructivist asfor rationale amore unfit he even later gives And integration. European of and neighbors” the with relations the “normalizing of sake the pragmatism, as rationality does notwork in the collective memory like for individuals. working,instead instereotypesmyths the to appeals the of in and stop order the society “ethnoscapes” of character of imaginary the recognition be adeeper should There mythologies. national of re-thinking real the for insufficient be to proved and relations, neighborhood integration” rationale,it has been frequentlytoo used as euphemismforthe normalizing the which areimaginary rights “European Astothe hehadjustdeconstructed and anti-scientific. because from because Romanians neighbors,“historical” andnot other neighbors profited also heaffect tomakeanegotiation the suggests with Infact underpinning. not the which but does Austrian period isAustrian “classic” rememberedas period of the period Bukovinian regionalism. The internalization. to negation from traditions: Ukrainian and in Romanian interpreted differently was it Naturally, contexts. national in evolution further its had “Bukovinism” of myth transnational in away and local The time. post-communist in the and aftermath in its transformations immediate retrace the in section, andto first the described Bukovina,in sectiontothe this toreturn “Bukovinism” I suggest phenomenon myth and of Ibid., 183. I argue that this is exactly the approach which allows cosmeticthediscourse, changeof allows approach which isexactly this the I arguethat After identifying the common attachment of Ukrainian and Romanian nationidentifying to After common Romanian projects Ukrainian of attachmentand the After the incorporation of the region in the Greater Romanian nation-state in 1918, 2.3 Bukovinism Revisited: Nationalizing andEuropeanizing 36 87 . CEU eTD Collection 90 89 (Chernivtsi, Zolotilytavry, 1999), 439. National Movement ofUkrainians inBukovina in the secondthe halfof19 88 Ukrainians for –Galicia population Ukrainian with regions historical other of political laid Romanian with Ukrainian and for demands down politicians closerrelations common compatiblemutually newor national exclusive discourses and The generation ones. between regional separation definite time of Thisisthe ethnic communities. identities bythe to limited national, political and cultural liberties within Austrian the province. related local discourses mutually compatible and wererelatively peaceful these times, Austrian in of even became ethnic competition asubject Though intheBukovina region. ethnic groups nation-building projects. withfit radicalized anymorethe ethnicities multiple andgradually competingsubstituted was beginning20 the of main in ethnic groups Bukovina, synchronicallywith general the in at trend the Europe syncretic dissolving identity regional instarted theincreasingly nationalized of discourses the state Ukrainian Republic andRomanian National Council proclaimed unification Romanian with inBukovina autumn Assembly 1918: Ukrainian Western its unite with declared will to Romanians for provinces Ukrainian in authorities Northern the Bukovina,Romanian in ones part, andinSouthern –setting majority ethnic principle to according Bukovina of envisaged thedivision project by supported moderate the Romanian National-Democrat party headed by Aurel Onciul. This Romanian condominium”, O.Popovych O. I.Nistor. O.Dobrzhanskiy. “ 90 It is worth to mention yet the project of peaceful “divorce”: so called The real confrontation started with the acquiring and strengthening of the national the of strengthening and acquiring the with started confrontation real The This laidfor Ukrainian-Romanian the the basis disputeon Bukovina asthe biggest two . Unirea Bukovinei 28 noiembrie 1918. Studiu si documente Vidrodzhennia Bukovyny (spomyny Natsionalnyi ruhukraintsiv Bukovyny drugoi polovyny 19-pochatku 20stolittia” (“The th century century inand theWWI. amplifying “Bukovinism” after ideology not did 89 suggested by UkrainianAssembly leader andits O.Popovych,the . The competition culminated in the parallel proclamations rule over rule proclamations in parallel the culminated competition . The ), 95. ), 37 , 33 . th – thebeginning ofthe 20 88 , and Romanian “ Ukrainian- th century”) CEU eTD Collection cosmopolitanism in Bukovina he saw during his in trip Bukovina in 1890s historiography and GreaterRomanian politician,was impressed who unpleasantly by Romanian an idol of Iorga, of inNicolae Bukovina project “daco-romanist” the about 93 92 91 beneficiaries main its be to Jews the considering “Bukovinism” of idea Bukovina. Besides, as Andrei Corbea points out, nationalist Romanian forces opposed to the nationalist appropriations. way, the last in In by such and wasoccupiedappeared wholeBukovina the Romanian picture troops. the a attempt of Greater Romania Flondor. headed by Party by refuted Iancu National Romanian radical the regional cooperation communities. local the by decided be to was locations to find a Czernowitzbe theinmixed a condominium was governments set, Ukrainian-Romanian to compromise was defeated by the 1918: Bukovina Thus, historian from Suceava Mihai Iacobescu considers that Central Europe inherited Central apost- from that Thus, historian considers MihaiIacobescu Europe Suceava Cited from: I.Livezeanu. from: Cited Ibid., 100. A.Corbea Paul Celan si “meridianul” sau, 34. Greater Romania homogenizing context exhibited harsh opposition to the regionalism in This compromise project, set in the tradition of constructive regional cooperation, was “Today, when the national principle is celebrating its great triumph, when the old states from historian Romanian on region, the project Romanian of Greater setters One the of Romanian in tradition continues“Bukovinism”. contesting period the post-communist civis Romaniae” civis Romania, boundaries within whose for isnothere homobut bucovinensis, room for only disappear…has with Bukovinahasunited each nation ‘Bukovinism’ are arising, to are tumbling down,in and within rejuvenatedtheir ruins states the ethnic boundaries of Ion expressedIon Nistor its main ideaof wiping theAustrian legacy in a form concise in 93 Cultural politics in Greater Romania, . 38 49. 91 92 . He also mentions also He . . CEU eTD Collection 96 95 (2005), 289. 94 form the Habsburg myth” which concepts and exaggerated and“denatured “asyncretism” of strange Habsburgic space model” Romania longer “can wasaGolden noGreater itbethat age forRomania and suggests a useful inwhether question instance, calls ForBoia accounts. contradictory receives interwar period economic development idyllicdescribing of an general prosperity, picture satisfaction, everybody’s unprecedented about the positive effects on the development of the region under Romania administration, one, of Greater Romania. This shift wasset also by Ion Nistor, the author of a laudation speech “forgotten land“forgotten WesternRussia between Europe, and stressingTurkey”, its peripheral position the literature asUnion. Soviet the of anstate multinational amorphous Soviet ‘Bukovinism’ historiography presented an as “friendshipexample of and unity” in the space withoutwhichadjust multiethnic tothe tried auramyth of Bukovina in internationalism. ofsocialist the identity. For instance, it. the myth andinternalized even re-framed it is addressedtheoretical part of the thesis. as a discussion kindthis of ofhistoriography its in-builtas feature, asitwas in demonstrated the intowhich isnot surprisingtaking account the sluggishnessbehind and lagging theacademic inis research for thisdemocracy. textbooks, our viewisstill the It important that reflected L.Boia, I.Nistor. Mihai Iacobescu. “Bucovina intre mitul habsburgic si realitate istorica”. in: istorica”. sirealitate habsburgic mitul intre “Bucovina Iacobescu. Mihai Instead, another “Golden age” was created for Bukovina, transferred from national the Bukovina, for transferred age”wascreated “Golden Instead, another Ukrainian perception of Ukrainian andperception Bukovina wasperverted of hybridized by propaganda Soviet Turning interpretationthe to of“Bukovinism” inUkrainian in itstradition, mainstream it Bukovina’s identity Bukovina’s identity imageand wassignificantly Very eroded. itoften was in referred to 96 History and Myth in Romanian consciousness . However, in the nationalist discourses it is still a period of glory, national unity and unity national glory, of period a still is it discourses nationalist the in However, . Bucovina sub Dominatiunea Romaneasca 95 94 . Though, in contemporary . Though, incontemporary historiography critical Romanian the . : La 20 de ani de la Unire 39 , 6. Analele Bucovinei , 35-39. . Anul XII, no.2 CEU eTD Collection 99 was (and therefore is) in European was (andin is) cultural therefore space. European and historical that region this is “Bukovinism” anargument theof new reincarnation discourse, European Within the of Europeanness. nuance anew-minted with themyth was rediscovered, context, mythologized. Inthe therefore and again in becamefashionable topic region.processes the The outspoken by a Chernivtsi a dweller to tourist. communist Ukraine. The myth of “ “romantic times”. Thisexplains partly popularity the of “Bukovinismthe myth” in post- for the nostalgia of ataste with aremembered, retrospectively which times the to backwards, look to catching it makes crisis socioeconomic Post-communist times. in Austrian be rooted to tend myths most people, most for confusing events of vortex contemporary the In age. Golden andit denationalizing most tobethe turned Soviet period, suitableidealization period for as a ininfor tohomogenizing Romania Bukovina, Ukrainians, contrast project Greater particular in policy ethnic liberal relatively Austrian the Since ideology. national of renaissance in anew context in inthe currency andacquires Ukraine of more, centre once attention the somehow left asinsignificant on the border of different empires and civilizations fragment”“meaninglessit and landpiece forgotten as an describing of whichwas accidentally 98 Russia and Turkey). Evropoi, Rossiei I Turtsiei. (Bukovina, Bessarabia,Moldavia: The Forgotten Land between Western Europe, Bukovina” make leavings and is that uppresent-day obscure remotest the Ukraine, the most the an irrational territory, a result of some misunderstanding or error: “Of all the rag-tag foreign 97 – geographical and geopolitical Ibid. Anna Reid. Viorel Roman, Hannes Hoffbauer. A new impetustothe “Bukovinism”is discourses by integrationgiven European the Since fall of communism, thethe identity question finds itself,of inregional Bukovina 98 Borderland: A journey through thehistory ofUkraine . Even assessmentis stronger made by A.J.Taylor calling a Bukovina (Chernovtsy, Prut, 1996). Bukovina, Bessarabiia, Moldaviia: Zabytaia zemlia mezhdu Zapadnoi 97 . Moreover, some authors go further and contest Bukovina as Bukovina contest and further go authors some Moreover, . little Vienna” 40 is now and cherishedwould beproudly till . (Westview Press, 1997.) 93. 99 . CEU eTD Collection 101 220. sotrudnichestva”, 100 In: 103 Lindenberger. (New York, Berghahn Books, 2007),15. 102 itsknown for identity, interethnicunique Itwasaregional tolerance. mythologized,highly but Bukovinaits syncretic shaped so regional consciousness, called “Bukovinism”, whichis constructs. artificial new in transformed than rather phenomenon, and Bukovina carefullybeas an and complex studied treated respect, alsoshould original to change the paradigm openness,to provincialization and regionalization of Europe a danger national the bemyths that he with will a European Instead, one. substituted suggests memory culture establish acommon to and histories integrate idea model isfind diversefor continentto the the to or cultural space, an appropriate idea”common can languages differenta great andreligiouscommon groups peacefully that culture; reach Chernivtsi. In multinationalthis itcity was proved that peoples can reachmuch through in view,say,to a higher, European and so national was a consciousness of synthesis Austrian monarchs Otto von Habsburg in his article “Chernivtsi, orWhat is Tolerance”: “There multiethnicity for whole the Europe inwhere“Europe miniature”, asa wasappealed Bukovina unique to tolerance of example and One inof Europe. – exemplary “Bukovina inPoland theConference the cases 1994 called was of regions multiethnic in tolerance interethnic of example apositive gives “Bukovinism” but in Europe itself, which is looking for an apt model of multicultuality and tolerance. Cited from: Masan O., Chekhovskiy I. S.Troian. “Kontakty uchenyhUkrainy, Moldovy Rumynii: vzaimoponimaniei putem dialogov i S. Berger.“Writing National Histories in Europe: Reflections onthe Pats, Presents, and Futures of a Tradition. Conflicted memories Conflicted memories: Europeanizing contemporary histories As it was demonstrated, multiethnicity turbulentthe history,As it wandering,of was demonstrated, geopolitical In this context, itis opportune to mention that one of the challenges of Europeanization of Interestingly,it onlyhappened not in access to the aspiring European the Union Ukraine, 101 . , 66. Chernivtsi 100 . This idea wasalso underlined by descendentthe of the , 90. 41 102 . Though, as S.Berger proposes, there is , ed. Konrad H. Jarausch and Thomas 103 . In this In . CEU eTD Collection are basically the same, and contain traditional structures and clichés. structures traditional thesame,andcontain are basically declamations in on and both Romanian unity,European discoursesthe Ukrainian textbooks, the all despite but tolerance, on fragments some implanted and introductions the changed have discourses these shows, analysis textbook further As the other. each and Bukovina of region the to approaches traditional their re-thought significantly changed not have traditions national with smack. a European twonations:the in contested historiography Romanian in and reincarnated Ukrainian tradition, by framed differently was “Bukovinism” Consequently, memories. nostalgic with accompanied is which territories of loss the with in terms is coming it Romania for while legitimization, in of national and international. In anutshell, Bukovina issuefor Ukrainian liesdiscourse mostly beingin myth, currently transformed asan European the example of harmonious combination though, as a “Golden Age” of Austrian times, as an example of socialistinternationalism, and However, despite the Europeanizing trends in the political context of integration,of both political in the Europeanizingdespite context the However, trends 42 CEU eTD Collection regional maps of Romania, Southern Bukovina isincluded in Moldova region in different reflected courses, and school discourse in public the Furthermore, curricula. studied in southern Bukovinaisnot history but is incorporated separately, national the creates infor premises identity the sustaining history regional InRomania Bukovina. of and is in discourse youngimaginaries reproduced supported of generation, the and therefore, veryeducation system languageRomanian Insuchaway,creates regionalist schools. the forgeneral national schools the languagetextbooks ofinstruction with Ukrainian and forthe parallel narratives. with universal context, or inEuropean be integrated to has thetendency history national the Moreover, schools. at subject separate asa institutionalized isnot regions of historical Romania the study available. In textbooks separate with schools, the 11 gradesinthe regional component of the so called “History of the Native Land” as a separate course, studied inin the 7- the two countries. In historythe Bukovinaof isUkraine, region taughtin andRomaniaUkraine besidesin which framework explain education research, the Iam to going textbook doing proper the the nationalidentities andmyths on Bukovina UkrainianandRomanian school history Butcreates. before historynational course, identity there is anand optional canons, memory. Their analysis aims too demonstrate what kind of 104 To compare the mapping see Appendices III and IV. Chapter III.of Representation Bukovina inCollective Memories through History In the context of Bukovina in types thereUkraine aretwo of regional history textbooks: isThe structure history andin the of history education regionsdifferentof the particular isAs itfirst for history studying in was outlined excellentsource textbook the chapter, an 3.1 TeachingBukovinainUkraineand itsImplications andRomania, Education 43 104 . CEU eTD Collection 107 Nationalities paper 106 Ukraine. in: 108 30, 2 no. (2002), 253. 105 Ukrainians isfor Ukrainianin nowregardedasgenerally territories, thewhich contemporary positive have changed in a number of aspects, one of them being the evaluation of the Austrian regime Ukraine describes process the of social construction new of national identity in Ukraine transitional in post-Soviet the years.policy school on the astudy in Thus, recent the research schoolchildren. emphasized recent history with a bit imageobliterated of history ancientthe for Ukrainian more systematized and picture of for continuous the the pastRomanian andpupils, an in every grade. If there canhistory in a more consciousbe age, while theirmade Romanian peers repeat the whole historical anprocess assumption out As study contemporary periodsschoolchildren aretaught. aresult, Ukrainian year different of this observation, each system in Ukrainian whereas history, school in Romanian grade inevery thathistory whole would be a in order to overcome the stereotypes of the past and build the future in the present and toshow morediscourse, European balanced approach, a more suggesting Romanians of Europeanness “Europeanness" framework the of European community and demonstrated the in modernization and prosperity aspirations the to about with declarations the co-exist building history national of anewconception andcreated of past the conceptions Soviet revised the elite has showedresearch history on Ukrainianthe thatpost-communist textbooks intellectual Ukrainian Taras Kuzio, “History, memory and nationbuilding in the post-soviet colonial space”, in: Nancy Popson.The Ukrainian history textbook:introducing children “Ukrainian to the nation”. in: Kataryna Wolczuk History, Europe and “the national idea”: the “official” narrative of national identity in Viktor Stepanenko Ukrainian school Ukrainian school andhistory inpolicies particulareducation has been a subjecttoample The situation is similar in Romania. From lateThe situation1990s From stress issimilarinRomania. and trendthe demonstrate to Another structural difference between the two traditions is constant repeating of the of repeating isconstant traditions two between the difference structural Another 106 . Taras Kuzio main traditionsnoticedin the theUkrainian textbook interpretations that Nationalities papers 107 . At the same time, as Kataryna Wolczuk noticed, the post-communist nation- s.vol.30. 2. no. (2002), 326. , The construction of identity and school policy in Ukraine . vol.28. no. 4, (2000),689. 44 . Nationalities papers 108 . 105 . The CEU eTD Collection history textbooks) 112 111 110 educational, 1999). 109 mythologized national history,have textbooks the changed slightly,but still diversified, highly remained historian Boia the provoked in after discussion acknowledged, the society on the revising Romanian thesis in the cited already As way. same in the depicted are plots classical the fragments,introduced they show almost nodifference, presentthesame logic ofinterpretation; andEurope between relation Romanians the mythologization in their or idols, the of selection in the either then, since much changed not has and constructed inmodern “Pantheon”the national of heroes, Romania was formed 19 negative implication negative significant vacuum of is in his Ukrainian therethat a University textbooks research of Sych demonstrated Oleksandr information on Romania,abound and the existingin the oneinformation is either neutral or has on each other, to put it mildly. Thus, Professor at Chernivtsi proper. analysis textbook the of results the present I where section next the in analyzed is traditions general national Romanianhistory; on general textbooks Ukrainian history, which are taught on textbooks Romanian national textbooks: of categories four of basis the on research my Oleksandr Sych. Oleksandr M.Murgescu.“School textbooks and the heroes of Romanian history”,1-11. L.Boia, O.Bozgan, O.Lazar M.Stamatescu, B.Teodorescu M.Stamatescu, O.Lazar O.Bozgan, As to the mutual representations in Ukrainian and Romanian textbooks, not they in andRomanian do mutual textbooks, As tothe Ukrainian representations The representation of Bukovina region and its history within the national historical In terms of the above-sketched structures of history education in the two countries, Idid countries, inthetwo history education of structures above-sketched the of In terms 3.2 Bukovinain National Textbooks:Romanian UkrainianandInterpretations History and Myth 110 . Report at the seminar at Chernivtsi University, June 2007. To be published. . A research of Romanian history textbooks to communist period showed that 111 Istoriia Rumuniiukraiins’kyh v pidruchnykah zistorii(The history of Romania in Ukrainian . 112 . , 19. 109 45 Istorie. . But in except introductions fact, the andsome (Textbookfor 12 the th grade), (Bucuresti: All th century CEU eTD Collection formulations. For instance, in Romanian textbooks the word “national” is used for Romanian, texts. in Romanian found be can examples aspiration Ukrainian reunification of with population to DnieperSuperior Ukraine” ancient the toeradicate in were measures taken order “All is possible this: sample characteristic vaguelyvery putwhen Ukrainian talking we start nations. about and Romanian Avery they cases Inall regarded states. of contemporary the continuity of teleological effect the create they Thus, hypostasis. in another just existed, always have they like states, the of description atranscendentalist create texts Their in thesis. the before analyzed ethnogenesis, and territory of mythology national general the reflects which period, neolith from histories national 113 another. to of pupils generation one from transferred andare established been have canons mainstream crucial points history. of Sometimes, they repeat the same plots, formulations and clichés. The the of interpretation the in themselves between much differ not do they them, of number big a Romania, and Ukraine post-communist inboom writing history textbook despitethat the in section. theoretical the asitwas demonstrated literature, of type this to peculiar features, common some reflect which subject, our for implications instruction), of language Romanian with schools in the region, in Chernivtsi taught are which history, history which are taught only in Chernivtsiregion Ukrainian schools; Bukovinaon textbooks in all (includingUkrainian regions Chernivtsi region); Ukrainiantextbooks on Bukovina V.Sarbei. Second, both traditions have the have traditions both Second, Third, the textbooks under analysis have manipulative manner of presenting facts Third,haveunder manipulativeand analysispresenting textbooks mannerof the The performed discourse analysis of usedthe Romanianandshows Ukrainian textbooks having or to inrelation textbooks national the in observed trends general some are Here Istoriia Ukraiiny . 19 – pochatok 20stlittia ethnoscape (Textbook 9 forthe 46 syndrome . They start their narratives on the on narratives their start They th grade),(Kyiv, Geneza, 1996), 127. 113 . Similar . CEU eTD Collection 115 Editura didactica sipedagogica, 1995), 48. matrix of matrix nodal the of of points Bukovinian history, according following tothe questions: princess Yevdokia, Ukrainian language wasthelanguage of Moldovan principality” Stefan whowasmarriedaKyivan population sympathetic [TheGreat–V.V.] to to was inlanguage” spoken the15 Moldova “Ukrainian mentions which is apassage here example, For contexts. historical for notions often reflect the complexity periods andsides pickmorefacts advantageous andsilent other. the of historical itis thatboth buta certain wayof knowledge,thinking. Besides, and characteristic perspective notonly create techniques These “(re-)integration”. mother-state”, to “return “unification”, processes,“annexation”; butwhen the fact referring to gainingby of territories they Romanians, use and use contemporary term usethe authors Romanian empire) Habsburg Others the URSS, (Hungary, speaking about center of social and life political in Besides, Bukovina. substitution of notionsmade: is categories only the were Romanians really that it was that schoolchildren for the animpression creates and 114 language”; “ as speaking aboutCatholization of schools having “bad forconsequences education in national V.Fedorak, N.Cherkach M.Manea, B.Teodorescu. M.Manea, ------Comparative analysis Comparative Fourth, simplistic and ahistorical rhetoric is peculiar to the textbooks. The texts do not European integration.European Interethnic relations (Image of the Other). Bukovina in kin-minorities;post-communist period, ruleSoviet over northern Bukovina; theWWIperiod; andWWII; interwar concept of Austrian Bukovinaheritage; and The inethnogenesis if territory the Bukovina; national ” used for “Romanian” Istoriia ridnoho kraiu ( Istora romanilor of of Bukovina representation the of wasperformed through the . De la 1821 pana in 1989 th century: “Itshould century: bementioned Ukrainian that Textbook the for 7-11 114 . Similarly, Bukovinians stand for Romanians - it 47 . (Textbook for the 12 the for (Textbook . grades), (Chernivtsi, Prut, 2001), 22. th grade). (Bucuresti, 115 . CEU eTD Collection Bukovina is referred to as both isBukovina asboth “old land” to referred Romanian state. contemporary of ideal the to leading process logical a was everything like way, fatalistic a in events the reconstruct Retrospectively they nation-states. of creation further of imperative continual 119 118 70. 116 Romanian textbooks versions, it defines also ethnic the north-south division Bukovina, whichisinof present not civilization…” in number their and whoweresuperior by autochthones the Motherland, wereassimilated and population fromSlaves were penetrating … Slavs East. the remainedattheterritory of our more-developed autochthon “Romanianism”: “At middlethe of Romanian autochthon massiveof in thelower continuous culture, a with migrants, asaforeignbody of are depicted Romaniansas proper in Romanian the textbooks) and the Slavs. In narrativesRomanian Slavs onrefer permits as sketchy, borderlands homogeneous. later they tothe which were ethnically is very ofethnogenesis territory The belong together. ethnos unity,and the like aterritory 117 1821. villages; andvice versa insouthern part where inthe Ukrainiansnorthern part lived ancient since times, butthere were many Romanian intranscendingterritory back history. nation-state the M.Manea, B.Teodorescu. M.Manea, V.Sarbei. Campeanu. I. P.Teodor, H.Diacoviciu, S.Kulchytskiy Lebedeva.M.Koval, Yu. Here is the main point of nationalmainbetween of traditions:Here is two pointthe divergence the textbook “Myth of Territory” of“Myth The starts withplot interrelationthe between proto-Romanian the population (referred to Ukrainian textbooks presentBukovina as Ukrainian with mixedtextbooks a “historical province population”, (Textbook for the 7 the for (Textbook Ethnogenesis Istoriia Ukraiiny 116 . The use of “our Motherland” is a demonstrative example of unlimited of example demonstrative a is Motherland” “our of use The . topic is central in the analyzed textbooks, creating is central in analyzedtextbooks, an topicethnospacial together the 118 th grade), (Bucuresti, Editura didactica si pedagogica, 1997), 66. . Istora romanilor. De la 1821 pana in 1989 . 19 – pochatok 20stlittia is achieved through teleological of understanding inevitablethe and Istoria romanilor. Dincelemai vechitimpuri pana revolutiala din Istoriia Ukraiiny 117 . Thus, Bukovina tomostin Romanian contrast the , 12. 48 (Textbookfor the 10 119 and is presented among three “ancient” three among presented is and , 47. th grade), (Kyiv,1998), Osvita, CEU eTD Collection 124 123 1821 122 121 life” cultural Romanian towards hostility development, through prohibiting their in participation political life “administrative and denationalization, national- Austro-Hungarian,were exposedto Russian–who of prevention Romanian textbook informs the reader about 3millions Romaniansof living under foreign rule “Ukrainianinterwar period like ofRomania” lands in composition the about chapters the include textbooks Ukrainian Likewise, lands”. “Romanian of integrity in theorbit of Romanian givingspirit, feeling thevirtual temporal of and spatial continuity, including Bukovina, presenceof constant“virtual” them, Romania” create “Romanians beyond massive Romanian has becomepopulation known under the name of Bukovina” 1775 the north of Moldova with its old capital in Suceava. From that time on this territory with Habsburgstore off in Kuchuk-Kainardgi the “As a Peace treaty, Romanian of result unity: blow of ahard on the which asMoldova was negatively, a part of a tearing-off Bukovina construction Austrian as somethingof rule or natural. Romanian manuals creation present the make itmore whatshould legitimate. restoration, inevitable of unification thatithadbeen whichimplies Romania”, before andunified unification was the “ceded” the territory (though they were not sovereign themselves) and, secondly, it shows it secondly, and, themselves) sovereign not were they (though territory the “ceded” can see that Moldova region would be preferred to Bukovina as a region. 120 Ukrainian lands H.Diacoviciu, P.Teodor, I. Campeanu. B.Teodorescu. M.Manea, O.Bozgan, O.Lazar M.Stamatescu, B.Teodorescu M.Stamatescu, O.Lazar O.Bozgan, S.Kulchytskiy M.Koval, Yu. Lebedeva. V.Sarbei . V.Sarbei , 170. The “ A crucial point is the representation of the very concept of Bukovina, as a region -asa as aregion Bukovina, of concept of very the is representation the A point crucial Another similar estimation, but also showing that these were the principalities who principalities the were these that showing also but estimation, similar Another 123 Istoriia Ukraiiny Territory myth Territory . This formulation suggests the logic that it was not creation of a state, but its creation ita state, of was not that the logic suggests . This formulation 120 . Later on, chapters like “Romanian provinces under the foreign rule”, Istora romanilor. De la 1821 pana in 1989. . 19 – pochatok 20 stlittia ” can be followed also in national “Warforthe ” can befollowedthe chapter also Istoria romanilor. Din celemai vechi timpuri pana la revolutia din Istoriia Ukraiiny 122 . Istorie 49 , 12. , 59. (Textbook forthe 10 , 196. th grade), 70. grade), 121 . Similarly, another Similarly, . 124 . Here we . Here re- CEU eTD Collection 130 129 128 127 126 2001), 96. policy is perceived as a natural function as state. of a “unitarian” a natural policy is perceived greater Romania this about talking when later though isGermanization, as period presented accentuatingelite, without Habsburgs for that this.actually the framework provided narrates the development of culture in the region only as the center of formation of Romanian multicultualitymore asbut as positive; an artificially phenomenon by created Austrians. It in majority” of favour of Ruthenians/Ukrainiansstatus the of “loss the and denationalization was Romanians for rule Austrian harmful phenomenon for Romanianism in Bukovina.They suggest that the main of outcome between the two national historicalBukovina as“stolen” by EmpireHabsburg in 1775 traditions.century” 19 of half second in the states Romanian in Russia of influence Inincreasing the for Austrians Romanian textbooks was formedMoldova“as the of compensation part of by in1775 tearing-off a northern to it is presented as a Austrian province at the end of endof the Russian-Turkish war Austrian at province blackmailing andmilitary whichpressure, territory the of was Moldovaa part became an unjustthe appropriation of by Austrians: Romanian the Through territory corruption, 125 Bessarabia and becauseto this concession) heopposed order sultan’s Austria, the reasonwell as heroic its side: “the the principalities ceded to winners Bucovina Oltenia, (annexedby why the ruler Grigore and territory, as to the hispowers attachment great of decision the Moldovan the resistance to III Ghica was thrown off and killed according to S.Oane, M.Ochescu. Ibid., 47. M.Manea, B.Teodorescu. M.Manea, O.Bozgan, O.Lazar M.Stamatescu, B.Teodorescu M.Stamatescu, O.Lazar O.Bozgan, Ibid., 114. S.Oane, M.Ochescu. S.Oane, Attitude to the Austrian rule and heritage is another important point of divergence of point important another is heritage and rule Austrian the to Attitude In general, referring to the Austrian heritage, Romanian textbooks do not estimate the estimate not do textbooks Romanian heritage, Austrian the to referring general, In 127 . Even stronger claim is made by the authors of another schoolbook referring to referring schoolbook another of authors the by made is claim stronger Even . Istoria Romanilor Istoria Romanilor. Istora romanilor. De la 1821 pana in 1989 129 . , 114. (Textbook for the 8 the for (Textbook Istorie 50 , 61 128 126 th grade). . Onemore interpretation: Bukovina , 47 ( Bucuresti,Humanitas Educational, 125 . This passage reflects This passage . 130 . This . th CEU eTD Collection 135 155. 134 133 to this period. Thus, one Romanian textbook goes as far as to argue that “Forced argue that to as faras goes textbook Romanian Thus, one to this period. complain favoring onAustrian for Ruthenians the and relate ofRomanian reduction population 132 minorities reduction of the 19 to the referring textbooks concentration impact inserious of especially Romanians churches sphere, cultural of Ukrainians in the territory of Ukraine and appearance of 131 Bukovina they mentionBukovina language they discrimination in 19 of Ukrainian 80-90s of because of the Jews and other the titular nationalities in the respective empires IN relation to historical individuality” incorporationthe in the of territory the in province 1786,Bukovinawas“loosingof Galicia its after that mentions text Bozgan’s when twist is interesting an there land.as aHowever, stolen parliament in Vienna presentation situation, good a relatively mentioned them of Most reservedly. them remaining agrarians population”…change urbanization not did structure of social mostRomanian population, of Bukoviniana modestBukovinastructure development. rural of Duetothe underwent though Bukovina hassignificantly in progressed this “From regard: economicview, point of in the economic sphere, but also evaluate it as a period of retarded economic development, Ibid., 154. V.Sarbei. S.Kulchytskiy M.Koval, Yu. Lebedeva. Ibid., 61; M.Manea, B.Teodorescu. O.Bozgan, O.Lazar M.Stamatescu, B.Teodorescu M.Stamatescu, O.Lazar O.Bozgan, This interpretation diametrically contrasts with the Romanian canons which exactly which canons Romanian the with contrasts diametrically interpretation This Therefore, Bukovina is presented as a region with no particular regional just specificity, no particular regional with asaregion ispresented Bukovina Therefore, Paradoxically,not onlydonot interpretationsRomanian even notice positive impact any As to the Ukrainian textbooks, positive, but time generally Austrian Ukrainianthey textbooks, As tothe describe 135 133 Istoriia Ukraiiny . . But some . But reduction of them demonstrate mostlyUkrainian population,of 131 . 132 . 19 – pochatok 20stlittia . th century, when there was no Ukrainian state, still mention still state, Ukrainian no was there when century, Istora romanilor. De la 1821 pana in 1989 Istoriia Ukraiiny Istorie 51 (Textbook for the 9 the for (Textbook , 42. (Textbookfor the 10 th grade), (Kyiv, Geneza,1996), 127, th , 47.. grade), 70. 134 . Though,Ukrainian th century and century CEU eTD Collection 140 139 138 137 could usefor ideals”their introduction University,at Chernowitz suffrage from of Romaniansuniversal 1907, “which andof national Romanian societies openedchair parties; language of Romanian and literature 136 was prohibited inschools and churches denationalization place of Romanians” intook Bukovina, Austrian language whenRomanian nationalist policy inTransylvania policy nationalist Hungarian tothe incontrast nationalities, the between mediate conflicts to Habsburgs tried phenomena, negative all despite explained that It in from Transylvania”. that differed Bukovinian Romanians, that saying “thesituation in of Romanians Bukovina significantly Bukovinian situation. Thus, Bozgan’s devotes antextbook entire pageinhis subchapter on presented as defensive act, because the “Austrians planned unification of with Bukovina because unification of planned the“Austrians act, as presented defensive isin 1918 troops Romanian of Occupation “mother-state”. tothe return described asthe Age”, itisin depictedas“Golden Romanian textbooks more Naturally, controversially. Bukovina and“threatened” by annexation of land” “Romanian for claimed they when 1918, about plots in the “danger” a as appeared Armenians, Jews, majority etc Ruthenians, until 1775 –Germans, Secui were Romanians who the of adding to population, the structure changing ethnic Habsburgs” of by only middle 19 mentioningtimes, exceptpure oftheir appearanceartificial in is region.the Diversity dated the Other: it includes a small amount of information on other nationalities until the Austrian M.Manea, B.Teodorescu. M.Manea, Ibid., 42. O.Bozgan, O.Lazar M.Stamatescu, B.Teodorescu M.Stamatescu, O.Lazar O.Bozgan, Ibid., 173. M.Manea, B.Teodorescu. M.Manea, However, when it comes to a comparison, they mention some positive sides of Image of the Other of the Image The next crucial stage of The next of crucial history stage Bukovinian – –isthe interwar even period narrated th century and is explained as a result of the “colonization policy of the Istora romanilor. De la 1821 pana in 1989 Istora romanilor. De la 1821 pana in 1989 137 is created implicitly. In Romanian version it is more about ignoring about more is it version Romanian In implicitly. is created . 138 . 136 . At the same time, he still describes the huge number huge the describes still he time, same At the . 140 Istorie . 52 , 61. , 226. , 172. 139 . Ukrainians CEU eTD Collection 144 (Kyiv:I, Geneza, 1994), 270. 143 142 141 “democratic political diversity”, substitute not “unity did that determined Romania”, which Greater of the of creation character democratic mentions “Deeply It light. positive completely with hardly them”“couldcope from which asdetached 1933, and government as well the crisis, economic by explained the press forcesand are churches. Romanian 1929- presented only chauvinist political referring to usually were in power in coalition, other rights equal to those of Romanians, their own schools, of libertiesthe minorities, of by “guaranteed Constitution”:the had ethnic political whoparties, long depiction the on concentrate they that After unification”. educational and “administrative the with “dissatisfaction” their and (28,1%) minorities of number asignificant of theexistence Theyacknowledge “integration”. like using formulae the homogenizing project, the justify to try textbooks the Here tradition. Romanian in the legitimized is minorities ethnic movement nationalist Ukrainian on information And it connectingitin same revolt1928-1938, atthe provides Tatarbunar 1924.time, with the textbook reports about relative of loosening regimethe andlegalization political of in parties Bukovina in its turn” for claimed Russia from independence their proclaimed who Ukrainians while Galicia; population and the Khotin Romanian population the Khotin against the uprising rule and Romanian for life,preferences of cultural decay crisis, mentions economic same textbook The in Europe”. most backwardcountries the as“oneof isqualified in spheres.Romania all against Austrian and Ukrainian plans. S.Oane, M.Ochescu. F.Turchenko. S.Kulchytskiy M.Koval, Yu. Lebedeva. S.Oane, M.Ochescu. It is interesting to follow how the delicate issue of the Greater Romania’s policy towards policy Romania’s Greater the of issue delicate the how follow to interesting is It In Ukrainian interpretations interwar period was a time of assimilation Romanization and wasatime of period assimilation interwar interpretations In Ukrainian An even more justifying version was found in another schoolbook, presenting in a presenting schoolbook, another in found was version justifying more even An Novitnia istoriia Ukraiiny Istoria Romanilor Istoria Romanilor 141 . So, Romanian military intervention in 1918 was just a counteraction just was in1918 intervention military Romanian So, . 144 . , 141-145. , 120 (Textbookfor the 10 Istoriia Ukraiiny 53 143 (Textbookfor the 10 . th grade) (Contemporary History of Ukraine), part 142 . Another Ukrainian national Ukrainian Another . th grade), 198-200. CEU eTD Collection 147 70. 146 145 bylocal was Bessarabia Northern which Bukovina” enthusiastically accepted and settlements Ukrainian some were there but by Romanians, mostly was versapopulated part vice thesouthern many villages; and were butthere Romanian times, in introduces northern livedUkrainiansethnic nuances,informingpart sinceancient that the it same mixed Atthe time, aspopulation. Bukovina describes with a historical province Unification had positive influenceonthe following evolution Romania”Greater of Great of the act the of character and tolerant representative Democratic, provinces. Romanian all of unification of inthedeclarations was written which atolerance, of spirit special the of manifestation through wasrealized state unitarian national of the “Creation religion”. languagematter of or affirmation values,all no nationality, of regime, whichpermitted because of the end of firstly event, itGreaterwas a tragic version Romanian In occupation. this wasan agree that Both Romania of A.Onciul, and the regional “condominium” endeavors. mention project compromiseRomanian notbut does the alternative masses” provinces”, in the were of“large “politic-diplomaticby how measures accompanied struggle the Romanian narrates instance, of events Manea’stextbook politicalthe 1918 issues.For when describing notabout lives, and abouttheir andworking cared were peasants of andmatter the elites, was a nationalism when even itrelates, whatever period to on one, national the concentrates regime”. authoritarian monarchic introduced KingII that Carol context, external follows a short notice that: “It happens only in 1938, in extremely difficult internal and S.Oane, M.Ochescu. S.Kulchytskiy Lebedeva.M.Koval, Yu. O.Bozgan, O.Lazar M.Stamatescu, B.Teodorescu M.Stamatescu, O.Lazar O.Bozgan, Soviet in occupation is1940 in partly Romanianconvergent and Ukrainian canons. text 10 the for schoolbook Kulchytskiy’s by given is account balanced A relatively Romanian isdiscourse basically denying any Istoria Romanilor , 324. Istoriia Ukraiiny 147 . Participation in the WWII was for “liberation of Istorie 54 , 89. (Textbookfor the 10 local identity 146 . th grade), (Kyiv,1998), Osvita, in Bukovina, only th 145 grade. It . Then CEU eTD Collection 152 151 150 149 to sign the treaty on the border by its EuroAtlantic integration agenda decision ultimate in ItexplainsBucharest’s northern of Bukovina. Romania, particular towards Ukraine and European security.Later on it tells the story about the territorial claims on the side of interests national for the act” as states “very important a two between the Basictreaty the with itRomania,is though informative not in aboutthisneighbor rest of the text.the Itregards relations to the few aredevoted independentUkraine a paragraphs international of relations on in is Blacksea on mentionedregional region information cooperation integration. An excerpt contextfrom for the sake of regional thestability, protectiontreaty Romanian minority and European with Ukraine is given in one textbook, as well as the 148 for theschools of languageof regional two perspective the Ukrainian with textbooks: of regional history is constructed educationthe in Chernivtsi region,in Ukraine, a comparative Romania in post-communist changes of inexternal context the neutrally mentioned basicis treaty here main The the plot correct. sketchy, if not absent at all. Romanians” with Ukrainian majority Ukrainian with of it“Soviet Bukovina union part by Bessarabia stresses that but that demanded USSR, the S.Kul’chytskiy, M.Koval’, Yu.Lebedeva. O.Bozgan, O.Lazar M.Stamatescu, B.Teodorescu M.Stamatescu, O.Lazar O.Bozgan, S.Oane, M.Ochescu. F.Turchenko. M.Manea, B.Teodorescu. M.Manea, 3.3 BukovinainRegional Textbooks:and Romanianschools Ukrainian inChernivtsi In theUkrainian textbook contemporary on forhistory the11 Since there is no regional textbooks in Romania, in this section I will analyze what kind what analyze Iwill section this in in Romania, textbooks regional no is there Since politically and restrained more become stories the communism of aftermath the In 148 Novitnia istoriia Ukraiiny . InUkrainian it interpretation also an“annexation”was of Bukovina and Istoria Romanilor Istora romanilor. De la 1821 pana in 1989 149 . Inboth traditions the communist in period Bukovina isvery , 166. , 277. Istoriia Ukrainy. 150 . The rationale for peacefulrelations is ingiven the Istorie region 55 , 165-166. (Textbook forthe 11 , 342. th grade there in gradethere chapter the 151 th 152 grade),323. . . CEU eTD Collection Editura Alexandru Cel Bun, 2002). 154 interpretations, but at least in the selection of interpretative.information; Though, there is notmuch of a dialogue. more and ignoring less theselective, less are proportionthey Consequently, ones. national the than of the plots on the the interpretations. in differences and nuance the on mostly here concentrate will I narratives, national respective which is thewholetaught throughout Romania. same the Romanians, of history national the with themselves limit they And County. Suceava notthus constructing regional Bukovinian andidentity discourse for in theschool children Bukovina,it not provide does special component in of education history regional of Bukovina, overlaps with inthe supplement form the of onBukovinahistory. class the national Ukrainian Importantly, regional a have citizens region Chernivtsi textbooks, national the from knowledge one,their get Ukraine as children peers of identity Whiletheirof sameagefrom up-comingthe the generation. regions of other study both narratives. hasschoolchildren Bukovina,and form from potential consequently,regional to Northern As to Romanian part textbook. Fedorak’s of regional Ukrainian the to in addition ignored”, say to not attention, proper paid been not have Center in Chernivtsi with the rationale by was any The “Mihai national the language Romanian supported Eminescu” of textbooks, to show also thosefrom partstranslated just not and oftextbook original Bukovinian an as region, inChernivtsi minority Romanian history “which 153 instruction D.Dragnev, S.Purici., C.Ungureanu, I.Gumenai. V.Fedorak, N.Cherkach Second, these texts are often a bit more sensitive to the other story, if not in if not the story, other to the sensitive more areoften a bit texts these Second, naturally,First, contain detailed regional the textbooks more information on Bukovina the repeat basically textbooks two these that research, the during out turned it As It is important to bear in mind, that these textbooks address a specific audience of the 153 and those with language and with those Romanian Istoriia ridnoho kraiu ( Textbook the for 7-11 Din istoria tinutului natal, 56 154 . The latter was written specifically for the for specifically written was latter The . grades), (Chernivtsi, Prut, 2001); . (Grade not specified), (Cernauti, CEU eTD Collection 157 156 Bukovina as a Slavic land, being a part of of Kyiv earlyfeudal RusandHalich Bukovina principalities land,being apart a Slavic as 155 it!” Join history. of achievement andagreat millennia of change at the is civilization basic of European value the idea:“Tolerance European the with regionalism multicultural Bukovinian connects it then And diversity”. its in world phenomenonthe in Bukovinian of tolerance which,as adrop of dew, reflects unity the the of Mutual influence of peoples different and theircultures duringalong historical created period Russians,ina unique Germans Theybroughthistory Poles, etc. colour of the region.the who live here of isfor representatives the themother “Bukovina all peoples stresses “multiethnicity”: on the and are the with preserveexplaining theto purpose identity national incitizens Bukovina,and at the same time of reader the addresses it and regional, national the create a balance between Trying to textbook. our state: Ukrainian the of introduction the in shown explicitly is It etc. tolerance and Ukrainians,multicultuality Romanian, Moldovans, textbook itis peculiar togeneralize theword“Bukovinians” aseuphemism for Romanians regional Romanian for conception, Romanian national to similarly However, etc. Jews,[p.38] land Shypin information it Halichprincipality Thus,[p. 31], somegives on are completely absent. intheories whilein historiography”, with their arguments, Romanian national they textbooks “some as text main the to in addition given are viewpoints Ukrainian some minority Romanian forininstance, textbook For existence. itthe recognizes other’s thefactof the biased, ethnicothers groups is more equal, though farfrom ideal. Even though informationthe is coincide with the actual borders of contemporary borders nation-states of actual contemporary the coincide with about “historical space of Romanians” and the fact that historical borders do not always D.Dragnev, S.Purici., C.Ungureanu, I.Gumenai. V.Fedorak, N.Cherkach See: D.Dragnev, S.Purici., C.Ungureanu, I.Gumenai. “ Third, both of them reflect more on the regional identity issues, the phenomenon of phenomenon the issues, identity regional the on more reflect them of both Third, Ukrainian narrative reflects the reflects narrative Ukrainian The myth of territory” The mythof Istoriia ridnoho kraiu is in represented through Romanian the passagetextbook the , 4. Ethnogenesis myth Din istoria tinutului natal 57 Din istoria tinutului natal 156 . 157 by emphasizing that northern that emphasizing by , 5. . , 73, 108 etc. 155 158 . . CEU eTD Collection Austria by Bukovina of “Theft” even annexation, as canon: national Romanian the to identically periods of Romanization, Sovietization, and Russification. optimism” justice andhumanism, valuesof by: good, the democracy,characterized universal regional textbook: opinions. textbook. They do not form an integral perspective and rather resemble a compilation of 163 both both ethnic within groups a longer period for asimultaneous generally is depicted it textbook, minority Romanian inthe delicately rather 162 161 160 159 Jews(16 districts; Hliboka Storozhynets, partof inHertsa, indigenous Slavs appear later, approximately in the6 approximately later, Slavs appear population, whichsupposedly was populatingexact territories, these butwithout mapping. The 158 (Ukrainians)Romanians in Bukovina lands, it lists the main nationalities of Bukovina: Ruthenians – from theprincipalities 6 Then itmentions of land,asa Shipin part Halych Polandprincipality, andin then Moldovan from 1499. In the part about the history of settlement of Ukrainians and Germany and Galicia and Germany D.Dragnev, S.Purici., C.Ungureanu, I.Gumenai. V.Fedorak, N.Cherkach Ibid., 43 D.Dragnev, S.Purici., C.Ungureanu, I.Gumenai. Ibid., 107. V.Fedorak, N.Cherkach In contrast, Romanian regional version perceives creation of asa region Bukovina of creation perceives version Romanian regional In contrast, Regionalism and regional identity regional and Regionalism The Similarly, starts Romanian textbook historythe of regionthe from geto-dacian 163 . 162 “ Golden Age Golden . Austrian period is described as the most positive, in contrast with most. Austrian in positive, asthe following isdescribed contrast period the “In general for the advanced culture of all peoples of Bukovina were 159 Istoriia ridnoho kraiu Istoriia ridnoho kraiu . ” of Austrianin Bukovinaof form ispresent in purest the Ukrainian th century, indigenous; century, Vlahs (Romanians) –from 14 has a complex and controversial account by Romanian , 53. , 11. 161 Din istoria tinutului natal Din istoria tinutului natal th . century 58 160 . But ethnogenesis is described . Butproper , 61. , 26. th century), coming century), th century, CEU eTD Collection 169 168 167 166 165 164 relations terms” confessional and province inethnic years inaheterogeneous domination Bukovina transformed of 114 ethnicother asan groups, artificial by encouraged phenomenon, “HabsburgHabsburgs: is givenas to previousopposed Galician asitaffiliation, gavemore privilegesRomanians to regionalism to evaluation A positive autonomy. regional to preferable seemed it principalities Galicia explainingbydifferentidentity, butspeakingaboutthe plans tounite with Romanian with unification the “oppose” Bukovina of authors the standards appear: Here some double Romanian say to meant was it “Bukovinian” under that specification without Galicia…”, says“Bukovinian It that structure…”. social and religious ethnic, different past, historical different Galicians: with common in incorporation Bukovina intoof one province Galicia: with “Bukovinians did nothave anything “despite ethnic the mosaic asahomogeneous thepopulation was regarded entity” called1848, so “Petition Land”the whichdemandedof autonomy region,the whereof and in solidarity Bukovinian of example the mentions it Then Union”. liberal “Bukovinian and while infact Bukovina gotits identity under Austrian rule. identity” national canon specifying “loss byBukovina, identity, without of of the whatof kind consciousness among Romanians, no with mentioning local of identity Ibid., 143 Ibid., 117 Ibid., 102. Ibid., 73. Ibid. 99 Ibid., P.88 Multiethnicity in Romanian textbook is presented as “colonization” of the region by region the of “colonization” as is presented textbook inRomanian Multiethnicity to the logic, asopposed a negativist in appears identity of regional One more aspect On one hand, it narrates 19 itthe narrates On onehand, Later on it Later stillon informs dryly aboutrepresentationof inethnic groups Vienna parliament 169 . 168 . Though, itmentiondoes tolerance,interconfessional describing th century it concentrates on it raisenational-ethnic concentrates the of century elites did not accept the forced unification with 59 164 . It repeats the 165 . 167 166 . . CEU eTD Collection 174 173 172 171 170 each other” each of Austrian empire (9 nations),ismultiethnic Here Ukrainianthe text. “Bukovinathemost of one province samples: the was but all of them were called Bukovinians and were tolerant to co-existence. There was no conflict on basisrecorded” on ethnic the conflict There wasno co-existence. Ukrainian have peaceful vastexperienceRomanian, of and accumulated good-neighborhood biggest peoples, autochthonous inliving region the of “During two the the territory thisperiod University euphemism Romanian - another which for Greater the recognizedexperts policies, in Kingdom was “appealinghistorical rights to and“integration” ethno-economic criteria” for Bukovina of itininterpretations,mentions In subchapter. asdescribed the Bucharestaddition, previous that occupied urbanspaces. the Romanian population and Ukrainian both mentioning that situation, ethno-demographic the to common treat waswith Germansmostly and Jews. Perceptionrural,version there is also referenceof the whilethat other “Poles – first nations made in asopposed agriculture, populating Jews,to the Germans cities. InRomanian the local alliancesthe withappears Moldovan Others boyars, as thena - convergent thethat majority ethnicautochthonous of –Ukrainians andRomanians groups -wereengaged – Jews,point, as a Germans RussiansMoldavians, Poles, Turks, and Polishis Hungarians, there onBukovina”,listing Tatars, a the “chronology with table of attacks – textbook the Ukrainian of endthe at discourse, tolerance pronounced generally the despite Ibid., 161. D.Dragnev, S.Purici., C.Ungureanu, I.Gumenai. Ibid., 106. Ibid., 16 V.Fedorak, N.Cherkach Passages on the phenomenon of peaceful interethnic co-habitation are very frequent in frequent very are co-habitation interethnic peaceful of phenomenon the on Passages In local discourses the image image of the In local discourses Interwar period isalmostidentically reconstructed with Romanianthe mainstream 170 173 . Moreover, it underlines the peacefulness of Romanian-Ukrainian co-existence: it of Romanian-Ukrainian underlines thepeacefulness . Moreover, . Except “integration”, there is a formulation “Nationalization” is aformulation there “integration”, . Except Istoriia ridnoho kraiu 172 . It is converging with the Romanian’s when mentioningis the Romanian’swhen with . It converging the Other , 34. Din istoria tinutului natal 60 is also present, but relatively mild. Though, mild. relatively but present, also is , 145. 171 . 174 of Cernivtsi CEU eTD Collection 178 177 176 Holocaust, 1918-1944. 175 whichperiod, is “classic”the Bukovinism time in historiography. In such away,it thisappears that is time peacefulthe of co-existence, Austrian and notthe “Chas” innewspaper and wasestablished undertime Romanian rule, Soviet the prohibited “ asaclassical reconstructed of homogenizing policy is given– as amatter of survival and counteracting territorial claims. “Romanization” and Hausleitnercalled Romania Livezeanu inpolitics Greater by URSS, as harmful for all ethnic communities. ethnic all for harmful as URSS, by gives Soviet the Union. anegativeof Romanian textbook annexation the account Bukovina of mentions the unification of inUkrainian lands, butnot way, an accentuated asitwas done by before “peaceful co-habitation non-Romanians”, notof Romanians in and whichwas stressed the in the Bukovina, paradise” “interethnic the of and description inepithets especially generous Ibid., 159. Ibid., 160. D.Dragnev, S.Purici., C.Ungureanu, I.Gumenai. I.Livezeanu. See: ungrounded opposition” state which wants to extend its authority in a given space – provoked, for amoment, their which before dominated foreign legislations and languages, -natural measures for any measures of concerningRomanian governments Romanization institutionsthe of in establishedin framework, some democratic However, regime 1923 Constitution. and a from benefited etc.) Polish German, Jewish, Russian, (Ukrainian, minorities “Ethnic The following passage is instructive in the whole discourse: is period interwar when manual Romanian in the ismade turn interesting An Discussing impactin the post-war history the Bukovina,of Ukrainian the coursebook 176 . It lists. It number a of of publications thatUkrainian ethnic communities, stresses Culturalpolitics inGreater Romania Golden age”. 178 . Paradoxically, it is this period when the textbook isitis textbook whenthe Paradoxically, period this Din istoria tinutului natal 61 , M.Hausleitner. “De la romanizarea Bucovinei la Bucovinei la romanizarea “De , M.Hausleitner. , 160. 175 . Justification . 177 . CEU eTD Collection 180 canons. textbook arethe most Romaniatwoperiods diverging These in interwar two the period. Greater forregional Austrian it Ukrainiantradition istextbooks: –the for while Romanian time, the general of course historythe of Romanians. of integral part is it inRomania an Chernivtsi whereas at schools, region subject separate a history constitutes Bukovinian patterns. andinterpretation structure history education the in ismuch Bukovinian is regional Ukrainethe more in what discourse pronounced, reflected regional interpretations,sensitivetopics and morewas not much though more.observed It that region appropriate exclusively.the try narratives to the national part, innational Asdefined theoretical –two spectacles perspectives. different otherthe clashing side, or invokingother, with each background, different areviewed through notice not do they like narrating and ignoring mutually either are they general, In a dialogue. “parallel”basically presenttwo stories on Bukovina which independent almost neverengage in is notexplicit.is This period in absent Romanian version, asitcovers periodthe until 1940. 179 independence in1991(84%),80% of votingthem positively Novoselytsia (NouaSulita) and84%actively Storozhynets in participated referendum the on in Hliboka, Romanians that fact the to is given attention A particular life. political and stresses inall-Ukrainian transformations active the on text Bukovinians of participation “gave possibility fornational revival” Ibid, 96. V.Fedorak, N.Cherkach Both stories are written from national perspectives, even local. But local have a bit more bit a have local But local. even perspectives, national from written are stories Both from As andit textbooks Ukrainian turns Romanian performedthe discourse-analysis, The two narratives have different “Golden Age” periods, which especially differ in the in differ especially which periods, Age” “Golden different have narratives two The Then sketchesUkrainian book repressionsandthe butliberalization in which 1980s, Istoriia ridnoho kraiu 179 , 95. . Referring to the post-communist period Ukrainian period post-communist the to Referring . 62 180 . At this stage, regionalism issue regionalism stage, this At . CEU eTD Collection channel channel memory of the mindto generations. of future The presentresearch focuseswhich on is to assumebutundoubtedlyoverstatement education are decisiveinthis a thatthey process, memory,but reproducesit, also as a powerful identity-building Itwould instrument. bean collective of canon the store only not does which education, history is them of One memory. region for these tothe meaningfulness identities. national symbolical gives nations two by place same in the memory” of “Territorialization is spirituality. itsit ethnic territory ascribe acertain to states for thenation inherent Smith, to According memory. national one than more by territory a of appropriation conflicting viewpoints. as inalienable an partof theirhistory identity, and an issue which atremains crux the theirof of Both them Bukovina memories aboutthis sharedpast. spaceof the consider have conflicting neighboringnations two the Asresult dispute the of Bukovina,Ukrainians andRomanians. a - coordinatedecided system. in national-state the in nationalization 20 of gradual the consciousness ethnic However, the Bukovinian started “melting“boil” pot” to with national duringsentiments the identity. was of byadiffusion and local andsyncretic cultures characterized ethnic groups identity Austrian within empire in19 belonging,history,turbulent changingstate multiethnic composition shaped its and regional framed Its space. and mentally geographically Bukovina asa wasformed historically, specific Being situated on the cross-roads of the Ottoman, Habsburg and Russian of andRussian empires, Ottoman,the Habsburg Being onthecross-roads situated This relationship isimbedded in national the traditions, storedin differentsites of This phenomenon can beexplained by of conceptthe “overlapping ethnoscape” – populating biggest ethnic groups, fortwo the terrain became acontested The region Conclusions: SharedPast -Conflicting memories? th century. In this time this “meeting place” of cultures 63 th century - its further destiny was CEU eTD Collection 181 at and once” contested remote made by Laszloin Kurti Hungarianrelation to imagination Transylvania,about “which become was conclusion Similar geographically. are than they from other, each more remote virtually neighboring states This two makesthe in space. “parallel borderland the create worlds” mutually rather ignoring clashing, In never andalmost than openly convergent. a way, they memory”. of “territorialization the through indigenousness legitimate more a stress them of All continuity. homeland, ethnogenesis, in thesame:territory, are, fact, this effect create myths which Themain perspectives. national from their story same sides of the astwoopposite narrated are they Interestingly, Romanian national canons are contradicting in interpretationstheir history.of Bukovinian memories of the two states, and the impact they have on the national and regional identities. identifies reconstructionthe in Bukovina region Romanian of school history and Ukrainian textbooks what kind of memories and myths on the region is preserved in the collective lights. In lights. it isUkrainian “celebrated”textbooks asa“Golden Age”, intheform of Romanians. and Ukrainians between cooperation onconstructive few plots are There of text. the in therest other” “the on structures discursive general the change not do but one, regional the especially characteristic textbooks, Ukrainian for more which are tolerance, traditional Bukovinian history Ukrainian-Romanian arementionedrelations positively in theonly passagesaboutthe the throughout general, In non-friendly. least at or hostile is either explicitly or implicitly Laszlo Kurti. At the same time, the textbooks analyzed do not engage into a “war of histories”, but are As the discourse analysis of the school textbook analysis demonstrates, Ukrainian and Therefore, image of the Other in these textbooks is not extremely aggressive, but extremely is aggressive, not textbooks in image Other the these of Therefore, The very concept of Bukovina and its creation appears in the textbooks in different in textbooks the appears creation its and Bukovina of conceptvery The The Remote Borderland: Transylvania inthe Hungarian Imagination 181 . 64 , 195. CEU eTD Collection Romanians. In such a way, Wilson’s according to intypology, Bukovinarelation to the horizon” ofin is Bukovina the “kept The whole territory northern part. to the refers“Bukovina” term the national history narrative inthan Suceava. andhigher studies interest toBukovinian in the deeper Ukraine, academic in traditions Chernivtsi thereby incorporatedsyndrome of forgetting an “unpleasant memory” of loss of territory. A practical reason for the then as perceived legacy.Bukovina, Austrian the itPsychologically might be bya explained in the mentalisin goingMoldovan the deeper history, to principality is asmorewhich associated Romanian, map of administratively and mentally included in region.Moldova The underpinning rationale for this itshifts andmeanings: theaccents Bukovina. Furthermore, is southern partof region the creating narrative national local the aspecial for without education of population southern interethnic relations. impact on of pattern negativehave the a might in within region Thethe stories “parallel” local identities existencethe of such content. negotiating more slightly and discourse regional accentuated more a with canons, national their basically Bukovina. They versionsrepeat divergingof of history the minority – alsopresent regional historywhich has aseparateversion for ofBukovinian schoolchildren. Chernivtsi region textbooks Two - a Ukrainian Romania ininterwar Greater period interpretations. Romanian one, the Age” to period “Golden the naturally shifts Bukovina,a factwhich is to identity ascribed and a textbook Moldovan (and vicariously landRomanian) no with particular identity. Romanian national writtentolerance. specifically “Bukovinism” myth, with a strong stress on natural multicultuality and traditional interethnic Romanian fortradition Romanian regards creation of Bukovina as “theft” – a torn a part of While Bukovinian identity While identity Bukovinian inisdissolving Suceava county inRomanianimaginary, the In is Romanian Bukovinaimagefuzzier. the It canon, is only constructed on level the of in history education, Ukrainian and discourse shape has clear a more itself The region 65 CEU eTD Collection 182 fashionable appeal Onthe contrary,not the in structures. resultdo of but change discursive the passages in changes cosmetic respective introduction the through in and sometimes text, the superficial arereflected inintegration on European discourse only textbooks, somedeclarations necessarily mean demythologization. As it was demonstrated in the analysis of Romanian integration. co-operation real and cross-border facilitate would this Undoubtedly, memories. compatible reconstruct or mental space common cross-border/multiethnic European other countries,properbe would handling beneficial.Without of pastthe which this in asitwas done textbooks, of the content the would revise who committees cross-border joint region overcomeshares the stereotypes and myths, first of all from the history textbooks. In this light, setting between nation states,nations. neighboring two between the mental detachment it is in blockageresults informational which for This premises creates other”. “the perception of not possible stereotypes and haveof includingidentity, construction on apowerful textbooks effect to create a the region and between the two states. As it was demonstrated region.the partof in northern ethnoscape an the overlapping itcreates because in theoretical chapter,“Bukovina” in both Ukrainian and Romanianimaginaries. Inits it turn, sharpens discourse,the history regional identity Bukovinaand by southern northern as a preservation of part proper Ukraine myth, “offensive” inRomanian relate is asboth Bukovina,to northern a partof the which and mythology Ukrainian of case in the character “defensive” has myth “ethnoterritorial” A.WilsonA. “Myths of National History in Belarus and Ukraine”, 33. At the same time, a reservation should be made that debunking national myths does not does myths national debunking that made be should reservation a time, same the At is iteliminate by crucial past’ to “allergy”In order mutual ‘unsettled causedthe the to in relations for interethnic the far-reaching consequences All have above-mentioned the of loss a identified: be can phenomena above-mentioned the of implications main Two 182 . 66 CEU eTD Collection 183 imaginary not space. only territory,butthe the sharing andcoming in past the with terms be without identities, realizedthough, whichcannot memories and Romanian and between Ukrainian become of convergence to apoint potential constructive andsuitable forregions. border context In the Bukovinian this mythregional has a ethnicity” (like any territory,other all anywhere)belongs equally to its regardless inhabitants, of Romanian historian deconstructBoia suggests to this myth and “getused Transylvania to that interethnic stability,developing intomemories nostalgic and“offensive” myths. Thus, The ethnicity/territory myths have especially detrimental effect on regional identities and the narratives of the neighbors. by“visiting” regions, side”“the especiallyintheborder say other sensitivity to picture, of the and reflectivity more exhibit can textbooks the Nevertheless, in textbooks. innovations expect tradition gobeyondand cannot it, sobefore the professional historiography hardchanges to which are notprivy only a particularto series of textbooks. Furthermore, they reflect the whole laggingsimplification, behind the academic achievements, dogmatism, ahistoricity faultsetc., information, of reduction high as such features, in-built its has medium This textbook. bias-free morebeOneit ideal, remark shouldbe made, expect there beutopian that that an to can would modifying general the without approach. of plots diversity isolated introduction of the with endsup discourse, within a Europeanized Thus,in Ukrainian “Bukovinism”, textbooks retrospectively played asamulticultuality model one. European new, a by myths national the of substitution to leads oftentimes Europeanness to L.Boia. History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness 183 . Instead, the concepts of multiple identities and overlapping cultures are more are cultures overlapping and identities multiple of concepts the . Instead, 67 , 23. CEU eTD Collection 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Map of Map of historical regions in Ukraine Map of historical regions of Romania – 2 Map of historical regions of Romania – 1 Etnographische derBukowinaLandkarte nach der Volkszahlung by Nistor. Ion Distribution of Races in Austro-Hungary Appendices 68 CEU eTD Collection Appendix I.Distribution of Races in Austro-Hungary 69 CEU eTD Collection Appendix Etnographische der II. BukowinaLandkarte nach der Volkszahlung. by Nistor. Ion 70 CEU eTD Collection Appendix III. Map of historical regions of Romania – 1 71 CEU eTD Collection Appendix IV. Map of historical regions of Romania – 2 72 CEU eTD Collection Appendix V. Map historicalof in regions Ukraine 73 CEU eTD Collection the 12 the si pedagogica, 1997. timpuri panalarevolutia din1821. grade), Bucuresti:grade), All 1999. educational, Kyiv,Abrys, 1999. Kyiv, 1996. Geneza, (Contemporary History of partI,Kyiv:Ukraine), Geneza, 1994. grade). Kyiv,grade). 2000. Osvita, grade), Kyiv,grade), 1998. Osvita, Romanian textbooks Ukrainian th grade). Bucuresti, grade). didactica Editura si pedagogica, 1995. M.Manea, B.Teodorescu. M.Manea, H.Diacoviciu, P.Teodor, I. Campeanu. I. H.Diacoviciu, P.Teodor, O.Bozgan, O.Lazar M.Stamatescu, B.Teodorescu M.Stamatescu, O.Lazar O.Bozgan, V.Vlasov, O.Danylevska V.Sarbei. F.Turchenko. S.Kulchytskiy M.Koval, Yu. Lebedeva. S.Kul’chytskiy, M.Koval’, Yu.Lebedeva. Textbooks Istoriia UkraiinyIstoriia Novitnia istoriia Ukraiiny. Istora romanilor. Dela1821panain1989 (Textbook for(Textbook the 7 Vstup doistorii Ukraiiny . Primary Sources Primary 19 –pochatok20stlittia Bibliography 74 Istoriia Ukraiiny Istoria romanilor. Dincele mai vechi Istoriia Ukrainy. (Textbook for the 10 the for (Textbook th grade), Bucuresti, Editura didacticaBucuresti, Editura grade), Istorie. . (Textbook for the 5 the for (Textbook . (Textbook for the 9 the for (Textbook (Textbook for the10 (Textbook (Textbook for the11 (Textbook (Textbook for the 12 the for (Textbook . 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