ROLF INGE LARSEN A research history of Laestadianism in Norway From the 1960s to the present day

DOI: https://doi.org/10.30664/ar.87497 Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)

his article provides an overview and dis- compare how Laestadianism is approached cusses the history of research on Laesta- in academic disciplines, from perspectives dianism in Norway over the last 60 years. T of the insiders, and to see if there are geo­ Research history earlier than 1960 and doctoral theses are discussed in this issue of Approach­ graphical nuances in the research areas of ing Religion by Roald E. Kristiansen and Bengt- Laestadianism in Norway. Ove Andreassen. It gives an impression of the Dagmar Sivertsen’s 1955 doctoral thesis, nuances in approach between different academic Læstadianismen i Norge (Laestadianism in disciplines and also different insider perspectives on Norwegian Laestadianism. The article shows Norway), represents a milestone in the that there is a need for comparative research on research on Laestadianism in Norway. Laestadianism in Norway between different geo- The object of Sivertsen’s work was to col­ graphic regions and academic disciplines. lect and present all Laestadian activity in Nor­way, from when it came into being in This article provides an overview the 1840s right through to the 1950s. Prior and discussion of the research history of to this publication, Laestadian history had Laestadianism in Norway over the last comprised only geographically limited 60 years. Since articles on Norwegian accounts and ecclesiastical or Laestadian Laestadianism research produced earlier representations.2 The works that followed than 1960 and doctoral theses on the subject in the wake of Sivertsen’s doctoral thesis are presented elsewhere in this issue, this were still mostly limited in geographical article focuses solely on how Laestadianism in Norway is presented in journals, period­ icals, and books on reminis­cence or local 2 Examples include Hendriks Kvandahl’s art­ history after 1960. This means that research icle series Den Læstadianske vækkelse (The from other countries that in various degrees Laestadian revival, 1902, 1903); Hjalmar covers Laestadian practice in Norway is Weste­son’s Ödemarksprofetens lärjungar (The wasteland prophet’s pupils, 1922); P. C. 1 not discussed in this article. The aim is to Astrup’s ‘Bidrag til Finnmarkens kirkehis­ torie V. Læstadianismens særpreg’ (Contri­ 1 This excludes researchers like Pekka Rait­ bution to Finnmark’s church history V: the tila and Martti Miettinen in Finland, Lis characteristics of Laestadianism, 1927); and Mari Hjortfors and Eivind Torp in Sweden Ananias Brune’s Nogen ord om Læstadius og as well as Warren Hepokoski in the United Læstadianismen (Some words on Laesta­ States, just to mention a few. dius and Laestadianism, 1927).

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 74 and thematic terms, but what they all had relating to Laestadian preachers by, res­ in common was that she was cited in the pectively, Pekka Raittila (1967) and Roald list of references. Sivertsen’s thesis became E. Kristiansen (2004b). Both surveys cover a standard work that for a long time was Norwegian Laestadianism in a broad cited without any critical remarks. All sense. Kristiansen’s survey provides a short researchers of Laestadianism since 1960 biographical sketch of all the Laestadian have used Sivertsen’s doctoral thesis to preachers active in Norway from the 1850s varying degrees in narrating the first hun­ to the turn of the millennium. The sur­ dred years of Laestadianism in Norway. veys have been compiled with research Any challenges to her findings have tended on Laestadianism in mind and are handy to be as a result of new sources, and pre­ devices that highlight theo­logical dif­ sented even then as an extension of her ferences and the geographic­al spread research, rather than as a critique of her of Laestadianism in Norway. Kris­tian­ perspectives or sources. The church histor­ sen includes this schematic depiction of ian Kåre Svebak is the only researcher that Laestadianism in Norway, providing a has challenged Sivertsen’s thesis in a separ­ concise overview of the fragmentations ate work (1986). Questioning Sivertsen’s that have led to the various offshoots of idea that the Laestadian movement served Laestadianism in Norway (see Fig. 1). This as an impedence to the establishment of figure gives an impression of the numer­­- free churches in northern Norway, Svebak ous varieties of Laestadian groups in detects several weaknesses in Sivertsen’s Norway. thesis. Another work that highlights the Two short histories of Norwegian breadth of Norwegian research on Laestad­ Laestadianism have been published ians is the University of Tromsø’s publi­ since Dagmar Sivertsen’s­ doctoral thesis; cation Vekkelse og vitenskap. Lars Levi Læs­ both written by theologians. These are tadius 200 år (Revival and science: Lars Levi Læstadianerne. Fra Nordkalottens kirke­ Laestadius 200 years), edited by Øyvind his­­torie (The Laestad­ians: from the church Nordarval and Sigmund Nesset in 2000. history of North Calotte, 1977) by Olaf According to the Finnish researcher into Havdal, and a book by Per M. Aadna­ Laestadianism Jouko Talonen its publica­ nes, Læstadianismen i Nord-Noreg (Laes­ tion is a signal that the Norwegian research tadianism in Northern Nor­way, 1986). Both community occupies a leading position of them essentially follow Sivertsen’s line within Laestadianism research (Musta­ of research and are, respectively, straight­ kallio 2002).3 The anthology consists of forward accounts of Lars Levi Læstadius thirteen articles with contributors from and his followers, and popularized works social anthropology, philosophy, religious intended for study at an elementary level. Both books provide interesting depictions of Laestadianism of their own time that 3 In addition to Vekkelse og vitenskap extend Sivertsen’s time-frame and dem­ (Norder­­val and Nesset 2000), four further onstrate Laestadian opposition to ecclesi­ anthologies have been published which astical reform and new theological trends are broadly linked to Laestadianism and Laestadius; see Prismet 1993; Mellem and during the 1960s and 1970s. Viinikka-Kallinen 2001; Kristiansen 2002 Besides these historical depictions, and Norsk tidsskrift for misjonsvitenskap, two cadastral surveys have been pub­­lished 2–3, 2016.

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 75 Figure 1. Laestadian movements in Norway. Translation of the figure in Kristiansen 2004b: 4. studies, theology, history, linguistics, edu­ puts forward the idea that the Laestadian cation and botany, who have collectively movement can be approached and under­ supplied a broad picture of Lars Levi stood in a variety of ways which this article Laestadius and Laestadianism in Norway. also intends to illustrate. Contributions in this anthology will be dis­ cussed consecutively in their own research Laestadianism research after 1960 fields below.4 One characteristic aspect is In addition to the master’s and other post­ that the authors to some extent adapt widely graduate dissertations listed below, several differing research models for their analysis. social science and church-history research­ Laestadianism is described here variously ers have written about Laestadianism in as a reaction against what is modern, as Norway. Historians Einar-Arne Drivenes being critical of the Church, as an element and Einar Niemi have observed that the of unrest in society, as a natural progression research in Norway has developed into of Christianity, fluctuating between a con­ three statement positions (Drivenes and servative and a dynamic movement, and as Niemi 2000: 158ff.): Firstly, as a culture- an extension of Sami traditional religious conserving and culturally-justifying theory, practice/shamanism. Thus, the anthology where Laestadianism is perceived as a political reaction and a response to threat­ ening tendencies in Norwegian society, 4 See the list of references in Andreassen and such as modernization and secularization Berglund 2000; Bolle 2000; Norderval and (Gjessing 1953; Paine 1965; Bjørklund Nesset 2000. 1985). Secondly, Laestadianism has been

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 76 analysed in terms of a conciliation theory ten in Tromsø. These works span over the rooted in religion, where added weight time period from the 1850s to the present is given to the religious dimension, and day. There are four particular fields within expressions such as ‘religious ethnicity’ which Laestadianism is meas­ured: ethnic­ are included in the explanations (Larssen ity, ecclesiastical affiliation, societal partici­ 1996). Finally, they point to a psychologiz­ pation and internal relationships. Many of ing theory, where Laestadianism, amongst these dissertations use a line of conflict as other things, is interpreted as ‘protection’ the linchpin in the analysis of such mat­ of Sami fellowship (J. I. Nergård 1994; J.–E. ters as the Laestadians in conflict with soci­ Nergård 2007; Meistad 1999). In the after­ ety as a whole and modernization, the state math of Drivenes and Niemi’s article some church, other Laestadians, and non-believ­ scholarly works have presented a fourth ers. One significant point in common is that statement position, where Laestadianism is the dissertations are linked to geograph­ presented as a ‘problem’ in the context of, ically limited areas, which means that it is for example, school policy, in local soci­ often local Laestadian congregations which ety and at an individual level (Leganger- are illustrated. Various periodizations are Krogstad 1995; Helberg Johansen 2000; employed, linked to the research questions Steinholt 2000; Norbakken 2012). This is a of a particular work, but which also indicate religious practice-critical theory, which also geographic­al vari­ations in Laestadianism’s finds a response in the earliest depictions presence in different communities. Con­ of Laestadianism as a deviation from social sequently, none of the master’s theses pro­ norms (see Roald E. Kristiansen’s article vide a complete picture of Laestadianism elsewhere in this issue). I adhere to these in Norway, something of which the authors positions in the classification of the research themselves are well aware. Against this according to academic disciplines to dem­ background it is evident that Lyngen onstrate aspects of Laestadianism research Laestadianism, in particular, has been dis­ since 1960. The bulkheads between aca­ cussed in the majority of these works, in demic disciplines are by no means water­ addition to the Firstborn of the Ofoten tight, but the overview shows clear dis­ area (see Figure 1). Very little research has tinctions in terms of academic approach. been done on the Alta movement, also The same is true of the statement positions called the Little Firstborn. An exception where Laestadianism is illuminated in the is Heid Leganger-Krogstad’s report from light of several theories. 1995, Læstadianske oppdragelsesidealer og skolekonflikten i Alta. Foreldrenes ønsker Master’s and other postgraduate theses, for opplæring og oppdragelse (Laestadianist and in-depth studies upbringing ideals and the school conflict The many master’s theses written on Laestad­ in Alta: the parents’ wishes regarding edu­ ianism in Norway have contributed to new cation), which describes an ongoing con­ knowledge about the impact of this revival flict from a religious education perspective. movement in northern Norwegian society. Several doctoral theses have also been writ­ As is evident from the appendix of this art­ ten about Laestadianism in Norway (these icle, master’s and other postgraduate theses are discussed by Bengt-Ove Andreassen in about Norwegian Laestadianism have been this issue). written within various academic disciplines. Several minor theological theses on The majority of these works have been writ­ Laestadianism have been written in the

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 77 context of theological education in Oslo.5 function of cultural preservation is empha­ These theses mostly focus on theologic­al sized by Ivar Bjørklund (1985). He argues questions. Even if they are minor theses, that the Kven and the Sami, through the they do however often discuss Laestad­ use of their mother tongue at their assem­ ianism in the light of new archive material, blies, and with the help of Laestadian doc­ which make them relevant for the research. trine, have organized themselves and estab­ The geographical focus of these works, too, lished an opposition to the policies of the is basically Lyngen and Firstborn/Ofoten- author­ities (pp. 320, 407–8). Serving as an related, although with some exceptions. extension to these perspectives, there are theories­ that claim that Laestadianism not Social anthropology and folkloristics only influenced cultural preservation, but Social anthropological and folkloristic also came to the rescue of the Sami and research have had a particular focus on the saved them from utter cultural annihila­ social dimension of Laestadianism. Robert tion. In this line of research, it was argued Paine’s social-anthropological study from a that the Laestadian ‘agitation’ may be linked Sami coastal settlement in Finnmark was to the shaman’s trance in Sami religion (J. I. the first scholarly work of its kind in the Nergård 1994; Meistad 1999: 56). The base­ 1960s (Paine 1965: 61ff.). Here it was main­ line argument is that Laestadianism is an tained that Laestadianism has a function of extension of the old religion of the Sami, as cultural preservation, in line with earlier was suggested by parish priest P. C. Astrup researchers such as Johs. Falkenberg, Ian in Lyngen during the 1920s, with clear Whitaker and Guttorm Gjessing. Recodify­ Social Darwinistic undertones (Astrup ing is particularly emphasized; for ex­ample 1928; Boreman 1954: 262). in the ideal of poverty, where material pov­ erty is regarded as spiritual wealth. There History is a further focus on the members of the In the field of history, too, there has been congregation forgiving one another’s sins a focus on Laestadianism’s social func­ in the church pew (the Office of the Keys). tions, especially at the intersection between The fellowship in the congregation was religion, ethnicity and politics. There is consequently especially significant, both therefore an evident danger in confusing socially and from a religious point of view. three positions: those of the researcher, The theory of recodifying has been raised, the preacher and the ethno-politician amongst other things, in the light of ethnic (Minde 1997). In 1974, Einar Niemi wrote and religious identity linked to political about Laestadianism and its significance activity, while the tenet of cultural preser­ for Finnish immigrants. He shows how vation has been used to show that popu­ Laestadianism seems, over a long period lar religious belief and Laestadianism have of time, to have contributed to a peace­ mutually influenced one another (Steinlien ful assimilation compared with what he 1984; Johnsen 1984: 79, 87). In the local later defines as a religion-based concili­ history account Fjordfolket i Kvænangen atory theory. The historical analyses dem­ (The Fjord people of Kvænangen), the onstrate the importance of social, cultural and linguistic communities, in addition to the obvious religious significance (Niemi 5 Examples in the list of references are Håkon­seth 1982; Braathen 1984; Skjesol 1974: 20ff.). One central theme among his­ 1995 and Jenssen 2011. torians has been the Norwegian authorities’

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 78 fear that Laestadian preachers were acting (see the list of references). Here he argues as a mouthpiece for Finnish nationalism that there is a distinction between the (Ryymin 2004: 295–323; Larsen 2010c). socio-religious and the religious fellowship; Surveys show that Finnish nationalism that is to say, between Laestadian practice did not receive support from Kven follow­ as an ethnic brotherhood community and ers of Laestadianism, who instead stressed the Laestadian faith, which is universal their obedience to the Norwegian author­ (Svebak 1983: 260). As an extension of this ities. The political and ethnic affiliations work, the question of how Laestadian the­ of the followers of Laestadianism have ology was developed to suit Sami culture been studied and although these have been and identity has been studied (Elgvin 1991; important, research shows that religious Sarre 2003). Faith and religious practice are belief was their main point of focus. This central themes in which Laestadianism’s is spelled out in Nordnorsk Kulturhistorie influence on the contemporary local com­ (A Cultural History of Northern Norway, munity is observed. This has been dis­ 1994), which indicates that there was no cussed by many researchers since the turn direct connection between the religious of the millennium. Although the studies are disruption and the political mobilization: thematically very different, they illustrate rather, the controversy focused on where Laestadianism in a power-critical perspec­ the distinction was to be made between tive compared to the religious practice-crit­ true Christians, conventional Christians, ical explanatory stance mentioned above. and unbelievers (Drivenes and Jernsletten In church-history terms, Laestadianism 1994: 225). Laestadianism’s foundational has been understood in light of the modern stance must first and foremost be under­ breakthrough by representing a desire for stood as part of the pietistic spiritual trad­ freedom, existing simultaneously with the ition in European religious history, not as movement’s pre-modern and directly anti- a reflection of Sami religion and mentality, modern aspects (Norderval 2006: 134). The nor as a forerunner of liberation theology Laestadians’ dual relationship with the state (Minde 1997: 182–3). The result of this is church is often evident: on the one hand as that Sami-ness in certain research areas has faithful followers, and on the other hand as survived in the twentieth century rather being highly critical of liturgical reforms despite Laestadianism’s existence than and Bible translations (Norderval 2000: because of it. It is precisely this last point 53). Laestadianism is described as, amongst that illustrates a practical-critical perspec­ other things, a reaction against a priest-led tive on Laestadian religious practice, com­ church that over time has itself become an pared to the religious practice-critical authority-led movement. The philosopher explanation model. Viggo Rossvær has countered this, show­ ing that there is an emphasis on subjective Study of religion and theology experiences in Laestadianism that entails Laestadianism’s religious and dogmatic an internal critique of the Church’s practice foundations have been discussed in study of Christianity, based on an understand­ of religion and theology. During the 1970s ing ‘that the everyday may be experienced Kåre Svebak commenced his works on as transformed’ (Rossvær 2000: 50). This Laestadianism’s presence in northern has also been discussed in Torjer Olsen’s Norwegian society, developing a theory (f. Berglund) detailed studies of Lyngen about Laestadianism as a religious ethnicity Laestadianism and its relationship with the

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 79 state church (Berglund 2000, 2002; Olsen the present day (Kristiansen 2004c: 1). It is 2004, 2010). Here both internal and exter­ precisely the illustration of this influence nal factors are illustrated that are linked to that seems to be at the heart of Kristiansen’s the religious identity. The internal frame­ Laestadianism research, primarily linking work is first and foremost Laestadian doc­ his research to the culture-justifying and trine, while the external factor is the state the religion-conciliation explanation model. church as an institution and framework Rolf Inge Larsen also associates himself (Berglund 2000: 120). with these explanation models in making The researchers in the ongoing research a comparative juxtaposition in which project ‘Læstadianisme Bokprosjekt’ Laestad­­ian theology and the view of the (Laestadianism­ book project, LaBo) at Church are discussed with regard to two the UiT The Arctic University of Norway, other revival groups (Larsen 2005). Since Bengt-Ove Andreassen, Roald E. Kristian­ then, Larsen has written about Laestad­ sen and Rolf Inge Larsen, have written ianism and the Norwegianization policy, several art­icles about Laestadianism in the use of minority languages, history Norway. Bengt-Ove Andreassen explains and memory, Lutheran dogmatics and the in his postgraduate dissertation how movement’s various geographic­al impacts Lyngen Laestadians created their own iden­ in the North (see the list of references). tity in relation to other Laestadian groups. Andreassen has written more recently about National history Laestadianism in which he discusses the Laestadianism in Norway is sparsely and present-day situation among Laestadians sometimes misleadingly presented in works in matters such as schooling, youth work of national history and church history, and and self-understanding (see the list of ref­ then often where Laestadians become for­ erences). His research largely falls within eign elements in terms both of the nation the religion-based conciliation theory, and the state church, based on their reli­ whilst in the question of schooling he also gious practices. This is evident in Torjer analyses Laestadianism from a religion A. Olsen’s study of scholarly portrayals of practice-critical perspective. Andreassen Haugianism and Laestadianism. He shows has also written two articles jointly with how researchers have influenced the view Torjer A. Olsen about Laestadianism of of these two revival groups through their the Lyngen community’s problematic rela­ categorization, where Haugianism has tionship with the state church (Andreassen been viewed as a nation-building people’s and Berglund 2000; Andreassen and Olsen revival group, whereas Laestadianism has 2004). The authors show that the division often been portrayed as an ethnic coun­ does not lie in dogmatic disagreement terculture (Olsen 2010: 150). Another linked to doctrine, rather that it lies in the example may be seen in Norsk historie way that the Christian life is to be lived 1814–1860 (Norwegian history 1814–60), (Andreassen and Berglund 2000: 118). where historian Tore Pryser (1999) refers Roald E. Kristiansen is far-reaching in the to Laestadianism as a sect. It is incorrect thematic impact of his articles (see the list of to define Laestadianism in Norway as a references). Kristiansen writes in the fore­ sect, since it has not broken away from the word to his survey about Laestadianism’s official state church, does not use a differ­ significant influence on large parts of ent confessional literature, and does not northern Norway both historically and in have any form of membership involving

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 80 special affiliations.6 According to Pryser, ning of Laestadianism in Lyngen. Here she Laestadianism has particularly attracted refers to Hjalmar Westeson’s biographic­al common people opposed to the state reminiscence book Ödemarksprofetens lär­ church and the government. Pryser pre­ jungar (The wasteland prophet’s pupils, sents a depiction of mutual enmity between 1922) and a bibliographical notice in the Laestadian Kven and Sami on the one periodical Samenes Venn (The friend of hand, and the author­ities on the other hand the Sami) written by Adolf Steen (Sivertsen (Pryser 1999: 48, 52, 71). Pryser also pre­ 1955: 228, 477). Steen’s piece, based on sents this depiction in Gesellar, rebellar Westeson is written on the basis of prac­ og svermarar. Om “farleg folk” rundt 1850 tising Laestadians’ reminiscences (Steen (Journeymen, rebels and fanatics: on ‘dan­ 1945). None of these factors is discussed gerous people’ c.1850), where he devotes in her presentation. The Danish historian a whole chapter to what he calls reli­ Bernard Eric Jensen (2014: 7) distinguishes gious underclass movements such as Laes­ between the categories of scholarly history tadianism and the Mormons (Pryser and lay history, where the former is ‘the 1982). One example of the sparse inter­ one that is normalized among scholars, est in national church-history terms may whereas lay people use the latter in every­ be the fact of Lyngen Laestadianism – a day life’ (p. 11). Lay history on the topic large and significant grouping in a north­ of Laestadianism in Norway is primarily ern Norwegian society context – not based on various reminiscence accounts being discussed in several central works which, with their internal and external per­ on Norwegian church history (see Wisløff spectives and fictional contributions, pro­ 1971; Astås 1984; Oftestad et al. 2005). This vide an understanding of Laestadianist is in spite of the group being the only spe­ practice from an inside perspective where, cifically Norwegian variant of Laestadian­ for example, God for obvious reasons is a ism and the voluminous congregations­ part-taking actor in history. being among the very largest revival groups In the category of reminiscence ac­ in Norway. counts there are two very different con­ tributions which present a depiction of Lay history and depictions of Laestadianism Laes­tad­ianism as a whole. One is teacher after 1960 Reidun Mellem’s volume, intended for sec­ Some non-scientific texts have also had ondary school use, a short introduction to a strong influence on the depiction of ‘the most important movements’ linked Norwegian Laestadianism in the public to the author’s own experiences (Mellem domain, and at times on research as well. 1978). The other contribution is written by In this regard, Dagmar Sivertsen’s thesis the Laestadian preacher Andreas Esbensen, (1955) would warrant strong criticism for who in two small volumes (2000, 2001) her analysis being based in several places provides a good insight into the Lyngen on testimony from priests’ biographies, movement’s own understanding of history, internal Laestadian writings and conversa­ and provides religious-based explanations tions with preachers; as for example, in her from one who ‘has followed Christianity’ references to what she writes on the begin­ for seventy years (Esbensen 2001: 37). In the category of Laestadianist reminiscence 6 This is different from, for example, some accounts we also find Kurt Tore Andersen’s groups within Laestadianism in Finland. (2007) book Laestadianism in Tysfjord

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 81 before the Second World War, and a reprint in Sweden (Heith 2018) and Finland of a text about the congregational leader (Wallenius-Korkalo 2018) there has been Anton Sommerseth, written for a family no comparative research on Laestadianism gathering in Skibotn (Sommerseth 1988). represented in literature and popular cul­ The latter text provides a detailed and lively ture in Norway. depiction of the congregational leader and Laestadian congregations in Lyngen in the Discussion early twentieth century. The text combines Research subsequent to Dagmar Sivertsen’s reminiscence with religious beliefs. doctoral thesis has mostly concerned itself Laestadian faith is the basis for Roald with the Laestadian movement’s place in Bolle’s text on Laestadianism in modern society, in the present day as well as his­ society in Vekkelse og vitenskap (Bolle torically. Another set of circumstances 2000). The text provides an insight into illustrated in research literature since 1960 how a follower of Laestadianism thinks is Laestadianism’s inner life, particularly and how he views the development of soci­ that which is linked to ethnic identity. ety. One significant observation on Bolle’s Laestadianism in the light of Norwegian part is that Laestadianism is first and fore­ minority policy in the north is illustrated, most Christianity. By contrast, in the same amongst other things, by the use of religious anthology, Bishop Ola Steinholt (2000: dogma as a strategy and counter-strategy 128–9) describes Laestadianism as a noisy in a northern Norwegian context. Not until element in some local communities. Here after the turn of the millennium have there the bishop points to increased depression been works that have had a greater focus and stress in areas where Laestadian div­ on the actor perspective, linked to religious isions affect residents who are on different practice and the gender dimension. In sev­ sides of the religious conflict. The bishop’s eral of these depictions from research his­ text contains no references, while Bolle tory the authors operate with their own refers mostly to religious literature and to periodization. Dagmar Sivertsen. In addition, journalist The periodizations are linked to local Reidar Hirsti’s (2000) work has attracted congregations (see Fig. 2), and beyond this the attention of Laestadianism researchers to ethnic and minority political research and has contributed to setting an agenda issues, providing variations to the under­ for Laestadianism as social uprising, pri­ standing of Norwegian Laestadianism. It marily based on the author’s own recollec­ is nonetheless regrettable that the research tions and convictions. has mostly been directed towards Lyngen Since 1960, there have been many lit­ Laestadianism and the Firstborn in erary contributions which have described Ofoten, which means that attention has Laestadianism in practice and events that not been paid to large geographical areas have been linked to the movement.7 Unlike of impact including, amongst others, the

7 For example, Idar Kristiansen’s Korstog pol­itics, and have to some degree had an mot Kautokeino (The crusade against Kau­ impact on the narrative about Laestadian­ tokeino) and Olav Nordrå’s Rød høst (Red ism in Norway, without focusing on the fact autumn) both from 1970. Both novels, that the inhabitants from the neighbouring and Nils Gaup’s film Kautokeinoopprøret village who crushed the uprising in pend­ (Kauto­­­keino uprising, 2007), depicted ing of the Norwegian authorities also were the events of 1852 in the light of minority Sami and Laestadians.

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 82 Figure 2. Periodizations of Laestadianism

Alta movement and Laestadianism in east­ has written an overall presentation of the ern Finnmark (see Figure 1). Figure 2 also implications they represent. illustrates some similarities, particularly during the first period of Laestadianism in Conclusions Norway. This research overview since 1960 makes Another striking time-related fea­ it clear that Laestadianism has been illus­ ture of the research which is not visible in trated and discussed within numer­ Figure 2 is linked to what might be termed ous research fields. There have been few ‘preacher generations’. This is a significant critical discussions between the differ­ feature within Laestadianism with regard ent academic disciplines on the research to the preacher’s role in the congregation on Laestadianism in Norway; the clos­ as interpreter and mediator of the reli­ est is the discussion between the histor­ gious doctrine. These generations, which ian Henry Minde and folklorist Jens Ivar become apparent in the various research Nergård on the ethnic (Sami) influence in texts, more or less coalesce throughout Laestadianism (see above). As mentioned, the whole of Norway. Roughly speak­ Dagmar Sivertsen has presented an over­ ing, there have been four generations of all depiction of the rise of Laestadianism preachers since the death of Laestadius in in all regions in northern Norway up until 1861. The first generation comprised the the 1950s. Since then, her research has preachers who were appointed by Lars Levi been used as a source for Laestadianism Laestadius himself, or by his closest asso­ researchers, but without challenging the ciates. These preachers died around 1900. source material that she herself used. There The second generation of preachers con­ has been little in the way of review texts to sisted of those who were active up until the discuss Laestadian practices comparatively Second World War. In the post-war period, in Norway, something which also means there have been two further generations that the Laestadianism that is presented of preachers, with a generation shift at the in more recent research tends to refer to end of the 1980s. These generational shifts specific­ locations or regional expressions, have been extremely significant, and dis­ and not to the greater dynamic depiction of cussed by many authors, but to date no-one Laestadian practice in Norway, of which it

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 83 is also part. There is a need for compara­ Appendix 1. tive research on Laestadian practice in Postgraduate and master’s theses Norway, and one could also add a need with Laestadianism in Norway for comparative transnational research on as an analytical theme are listed as follows Laestadianism and Laestadians in Norway, (in chronological order) Sweden and Finland. Steinlien, Øystein: ‘Kulturell endring og Finally, this research overview shows etnisk kontinuitet. Læstadianisme som that a new explanatory position has been politisk samlingsverdi i en samisk kyst­ adopted with regard to Laestadian prac­ bygd’ [Cultural change and ethnic continu­ tice, especially since the year 2000, when ity: Laestadianism as a political assembly religious practice was seen as a problem, value in a Sami coastal village] (Sami stud­ rather than as a culturally-preserving, reli­ ies, University of Tromsø, 1984) gion-conciliating or ethnic continuation. The religious practice-critical position may Johnsen, Marit Anne Hauan: ‘Læstadianer be historically linked to earlier representa­ og runer – en nordnorsk folkemedisiner tions when Laestadianism was described i dag’ [Laestadians and a wizard: a north­ and analysed as socially deviant, and also ern Norwegian folk medicin healer today] to some lay history representations.  (Folk­loristics, University of Bergen, 1984)

Rolf Inge Larsen is Elgvin, Lilly-Anne Østtveit: ‘Plante på Associate Professor of hjemlig jord. En studie av L. L. Læstadius’ History/History Didac- tics in UiT The Arctic liv og virke blant samene, med vekt på University of Norway. utformingen av hans forkynnelse’ [Plant on His academic interests home soil: a study of the life and work of include Laestadianism, L. L. Laestadius among the Sami, with an history didactics and emphasis on the design of his preaching] the uses of history. Among his recent publica- (Christianity Studies, University of Bergen, tions are ‘Minnehistorie og fortidsbruk. Minnene om han som tente lyset i Skibotn’ (History and 1991) memory, and the use of the past: commemora- tions of he who lit the light in Skibotn) in Väckel­ Johansen, Tove: ‘Forholdet mellom politikk ser som minnes- och meningsskapande narrative, og religion i et sjøsamisk område fra 1920– eds. Jakob Dahlbacka and Kim Groop (Åbo, 1970’ [The relationship between politics 2017) and ‘ABC-striden i Vadsø på 1880-tallet. and religion in a Sea Sami area from 1920 Confessio Augustana og fornorskningspolitikken i skolen’ (The ABC controversy in Vadsø during to 1970] (History, University of Tromsø, the 1880s: Confessio Augustana and the policy 1991) of Norwegianization in schools) in Historie – didak­tik, dannelse og bevidsthed (Aalborg, 2017). Antonsen, Jan: ‘Tre stammers møte i Kvænangen 1865–1900’ [Three tribes meet­ ing in Kvænangen, 1865–1900] (History, University of Tromsø, 1993)

Torp, Eivind: ‘Fra markafinn til same. Etnisk mobilisering i en læstadiansk kontekst’ [From Markafinn to Sami: ethnic mobil­ ization in a Laestadian context], Rapport,

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 84 30 (Umeå, Center for Arctic Cultural av hvordan ikke-læstadianere i Manndalen Re­­search) (Sami studies, University of forholder seg til læstadianismen’ [The pious Tromsø, 1994) have many sorrows, while the world’s fools laugh. A study of how non-Laestadians in Larssen, Halvard: ‘I verden men ikke av Manndalen relate to Laestadianism] (Social verden. Tilbaketrekning eller deltakelse i Research, University of Tromsø, 2005) samfunnet – et pietistisk dilemma i læsta­ dianismens kontekst’ [In the world, but not Larsen, Rolf Inge: ‘En salig røre. En under­ of the world: withdrawal or participation in søkelse av hvorfor vekkelsen i Tromsø på society. A pietistic dilemma in the context midten av 1800-tallet ble splittet i tre grup­ of Laestadianism] (Christianity Studies, per’ [A blissful touch: a study of why the University of Bergen, 1995) revival in Tromsø in the mid-nineteenth century became split into three groups] Eggen, Øyvind: Troens bekjennere. Kon­ (History, University of Tromsø, 2005) tinuitet og endring i en læstadiansk menig­shet [True believers’ faith: continu­ Karlsen, Tina C.: ‘Bedehuset i Skibotn. ity and change in a Laestadian congrega­ Harmonisk sameksistens eller ekskluderen­ tion] (Social Anthropology, University of ­de maktfellesskap?’ [The Skibotn prayer Tromsø, 1998) house: harmonious co-existence or exclud­ ing power community?] (Study of Religion, Berglund [Olsen], Torjer: ‘Men kirken er University of Tromsø, 2006) de helliges forsamling…’ Lyngenlæstadia­ nismens forhold til Den norske kirke 1941– Olsen, Inger Marie: ‘Kvinner tier ikke 1980 [‘But the church is the assembly of the lenger i forsamlingen. En studie av kulturell saints…’: Lyngen Laestadianism’s relation­ elastisitet i et kystsamfunn i Nord-Troms’ ship with the Church of Norway, 1941–80] [Women are no longer silent in the assem­ (Religious Science, University of Tromsø, bly: a study of cultural elasticity in a coastal 2000) community in northern Troms] (Social Research, University of Tromsø, 2006) Andreassen, Bengt-Ove: ‘Mellom Luther og Læstadius. Sjølvstediggjøringa av lyngen- Nergård, Jens-Eirik: ‘The two faces of læstadianismen 1900–1948’ [Between Læstadianism: understanding religious Luther and Laestadius: the self-realization con­version from Saami pre-Christian reli­ of Lyngen Laestadianism, 1900–48] (Study gion into Læstadianism’ (Polar Studies, of Religion, University of Tromsø, 2001) Uni­versity of Cambridge, 2007)

Fjellheim Sarre, Hege: ‘Den norske kirke Olufsen, Bodil Ballovara: ‘Når tradisjon – et etnisk felt. Samisk kultur og identitet i blir moderne: hva skjer når de unge henter Den norske kirke [The Norwegian Church: inspirasjon og tar i bruk tradisjoner de an ethnic field. Sami culture and iden­ eldre har begravd, og hvilke samfunns­ tity in the Norwegian Church] (Sociology, messige reaksjoner oppstår under en gene­ University of Tromsø, 2003) rasjonskonflikt som da oppstår?’ [When tradition becomes modern: what happens Vangen, Lisa: ‘De fromme har mange when young people draw inspiration from sorger, mens verdens dårer ler. En studie and apply traditions that the elders have

Approaching Religion • Vol. 10, No. 1 • May 2020 85 buried, and what social reactions occur ———2017a. ‘Nødvendig, ikke ønskelig. Ut­ during the generational conflict which then viklingen av ungdomsarbeidet i Lyngen- arises?] (Pedagogy, University of Tromsø, læstadianismen’, in Prismet, 1–2, pp. 95–113 ———2017b. ‘A review of theories on the Laes­ 2010) tadian rørelse: on the academic construc­ tion of something extraordinary and exotic’, Norbakken, Ellen: ‘Når ord mangler… Om in Acta Borealia, 34(1), pp. 70–89 seksuelle overgrep i luthersk-læstadianske Andreassen, Bengt-Ove, and Torjer O. Berg­ miljøer’ [When words fail… About sexual lund, 2000. ‘ “Jeg har kjæmpet”. Læstadianar­ abuse in Lutheran-Laestadian environ­ predikanten Erik Johnsen’, in Vekkelse og vitenskap. Lars Levi Læstadius 200 år, eds. ments] (Diaconia, University of Oslo, 2012) Øyvind Norderval and Sigmund Nesset, Ravnetrykk, 23 (Universitetet i Tromsø), Guvsám, Kirsti: ‘…og hele barneskaren pp. 98–122 omkring dere’. En analyse av læstadianske Andreassen, Bengt-Ove, and Torjer A. Olsen, brev [‘…and the whole flock around you’: 2004. ‘Mellom vekkelse og konflikt. Læsta­ dianismen i Nord-Troms’, in Kulturmøter i an analysis of Laestadian letters] (Christian­ Nord-Troms. Jubileumsbok for Nord-Troms ity Studies, University of Oslo, 2013) museum: 1978–2003, ed. Gørill Nilsen (Storslett, Nord-Troms Museum), pp. 80–9 List of references Astås, Reidar, 1984. Kirke i vekst og virke. All­ Aadnanes, Per M., 1986. Læstadianismen i menn og norsk kirkehistorie (Oslo, Gylden­ Nord-Norge (Oslo, Tano A.S.) dal Norsk Forlag) Andersen, Kurt Tore, 2007. Den læstadian­ Astrup, P. C., 1928. ‘Bidrag til Finnmarkens ske vekkelsen i Tysfjord fra 1850 til andre kirkehistorie V. Læstadianismens særpreg’, verdenskrig­ (Drag, Forlaget Báhko) in Norvegia Sacra 1928, pp. 155–63 Andreassen, Bengt-Ove, 2001. ‘Mellom Luther Berglund, Torjer O., 2000. ‘ “Men kirken er de og Læstadius. Sjølvstediggjøringa av lyngen- helliges forsamling…” Lyngenlæstadianis­ læstadianismen 1900–1948’, postgradu­ate mens forhold til Den norske kirke 1941– disseration in religious science (University 1980’, postgraduate dissertation in religious of Tromsø) science (University of Tromsø) ———2002. ‘Vekkelse med grenser: Lyngen- ———2002. ‘Hvor der læres purt og rent. læstadianismens utforming’, in Väckelsen Med Lyngen-læstadianismen fra pietisme utan gränser. Lars Levi Læstadius og den til ortodoksi’, in Väckelsen utan gränser. læstadianske bevegelsen. Rapport fra semi­ Lars Levi Læstadius og den læstadianske nar i Pajala, Sverige, 23–24 januar 2001, be­vegelsen. Rapport fra seminar i Pajala, ed. Roald E. Kristiansen, Stensilserie D 01 Sverige, 23–24 januar 2001, ed. Roald E. (Universitetet i Tromsø), pp. 31–48 Kristiansen, Stensilserie D 01 (Universitetet ———2003. ‘Where it leads: Læstadianismen i Tromsø), pp. 49–60 i et internasjonalt perspektiv’, in DIN. Bjørklund, Ivar, 1985. Fjordfolket i Kvænangen. Religionsvitenskapelig tidsskrift, 1, pp. Fra samisk samfunn til norsk utkant 1550– 56–64 1980 (Tromsø, Universitetsforlaget) ———2012. ‘Førstefødtlæstadianernes selv­ Bolle, Roald, 2000. ‘Læstadianismen i det representasjon. En analyse av to brosjyrer’, moder­­ne samfunn’, in Vekkelse og vitenskap. in Nordlit, 30, pp. 35–50 Lars Levi Læstadius 200 år, eds. Øyvind Nor­ ———2014. ‘Læstadiansk reaksjon på religion i derval and Sigmund Nesset, Ravnetrykk, 23 offentligheten. Etablering av egne skoler’, in (Universitetet i Tromsø), pp. 138–55 DIN. Religionsvitenskapelig tidsskrift, 2, pp. Boreman, Per, 1954. Læstadianismen (Stock­ 67–89 holm, Svenska kyrkans diakonistyrelses ———2016. ‘Læstadianske meldingsblader som bokförlag) kulturelt minne’, in DIN. Religionsviten­ Braathen, Leif, 1984. ‘Erik Johnsen og hans skapelig tidsskrift, 1, pp. 27–44 betydning for Lyngenlæstadianismens ut­­­-

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