RACING, REGION, AND THE ENVIRONMENT: A HISTORY OF AMERICAN MOTORSPORTS By DANIEL J. SIMONE A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2009 1 © 2009 Daniel J. Simone 2 To Michael and Tessa 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A driver fails without the support of a solid team, and I thank my friends, who supported me lap-after-lap. I learned a great deal from my advisor Jack Davis, who when he was not providing helpful feedback on my work, was always willing to toss the baseball around in the park. I must also thank committee members Sean Adams, Betty Smocovitis, Stephen Perz, Paul Ortiz, and Richard Crepeau as well as University of Florida faculty members Michael Bowen, Juliana Barr, Stephen Noll, Joseph Spillane, and Bill Link. I respect them very much and enjoyed working with them during my time in Gainesville. I also owe many thanks to Dr. Julian Pleasants, Director Emeritus of the Samuel Proctor Oral History Program, and I could not have finished my project without the encouragement provided by Roberta Peacock. I also thank the staff of the Samuel Proctor Oral History Program. Finally, I will always be grateful for the support of David Danbom, Claire Strom, Jim Norris, Mark Harvey, and Larry Peterson, my former mentors at North Dakota State University. A call must go out to Tom Schmeh at the National Sprint Car Hall of Fame, Suzanne Wise at the Appalachian State University Stock Car Collection, Mark Steigerwald and Bill Green at the International Motor Racing Resource Center in Watkins Glen, New York, and Joanna Schroeder at the (former) Ethanol Promotion and Information Council (EPIC). I must also mention racing historians and motorsports participants who helped along the way and provided me feedback during my project—including Marty Little, Bert Kramer, Robert Coolidge, Roy Morris, Brian Pratt, Lynn Paxton, Amy Konrath, Venlo Wolfsohn, Pete Daniel, Randal Hall, Tom Helfrich, Ed Davis, Jeff Simmons, Eric Mauk, Hugh Reno, Mel Anthony, Dave Argabright, Ralph Capitani, Bob Trostle, Earl Krause, Allan Brown, Gordon White, Steve Zautke, Bruce Boertje, Rodger Wade, David Hoska, Gene Fechter, Bob Mays, Steve Barrick, and Jake Bozony. I also would like to single out Don Radbruch, who passed away on New Years Day, 2007. Don 4 was a good racer, but a great historian, and many of us in the auto racing history community benefited from his generous assistance. Most of all, I thank my parents, Sam and Christine, my brother Michael, his wife Kristen, my godson Michael, and my niece Tessa. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...............................................................................................................4 ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................7 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................8 2 PLACES, SPACES, AND RACES: THE BEGINNING, (1895-1918) .................................26 3 MINOR LEAGUES, FUEL, AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION, (1919-1944)...................50 4 IF YOU BUILD IT, THEY WILL RACE (1945-1955).........................................................78 5 SUPERHIGHWAYS, SPRAWL, AND SUPERSPEEDWAYS (1956-1969).....................110 6 RESURGENCE AND INSURGENCE, (1970-1979) ..........................................................131 7 PETROLEUM AND POLLUTANTS, (1970-1979)............................................................150 8 PLACES, SPACES, AND RACES: REDUX, (1980-2005) ................................................179 9 ENVIRO-MOTORSPORTS & THE GREENER ERA .......................................................210 LIST OF REFERENCES.............................................................................................................234 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................................244 6 Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy RACING, REGION, AND THE ENVIRONMENT: A HISTORY OF AMERICAN MOTORSPORTS By Daniel J. Simone August 2009 Chair: Jack E. Davis Major: History This dissertation is a comprehensive environmental study of motorsports and defines, discusses, and analyzes the reciprocal relationship between auto racing on one hand and the cultural, regional, ecological, and geographic environments on the other. It explains how environmental issues and geographic dimensions served as catalysts for continuities and discontinuities in the course of local, regional, and national motorsports development by exploring how track owners, promoters, drivers, and motorsports entities organized themselves around the environment. This study provides a better understanding of regional motorsports development by studying the relationship between auto racing and topography. It investigates how environmental issues and questions over public and private space affected motorsports and devotes specific attention to explaining how suburbanization impinged on motorsports and influenced speedway construction and demolition. This dissertation also outlines the degree in which environmental and ecological concerns have affected auto racing in selected areas of the country. Finally, this study shows how some auto racing entities have embraced or have been forced to assume specific responsibility for the environment by mandating alternative fuels and setting eco-friendly regulations. 7 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The environment has always influenced the course of automobile racing, and this comprehensive study provides both an understanding of the history American motorsports, while placing auto racing in the greater contexts of sport history and environmental history. Nature provided the first track surfaces and determined the aesthetic of racing. Geography and demography dictated the location, construction, and destruction of racetracks. Speedways were created environments and most American auto racing facilities occupied private space, while others existed on state or county property. Oval tracks, where cars raced in a counter-clockwise direction on either dirt or asphalt, were most common in the United States. Ovals one mile or longer in circumference became known as superspeedways. In addition, permanent road courses and temporary street circuits consisted of twists, turns, and elevation changes and the vehicles raced in either direction (usually on pavement). Drag strips were one-quarter or one-eighth-mile paved straightaways. Over time, humans conquered both natural and constructed environments with speed, and racecars eventually had to be slowed down because vehicles became too fast for the tracks, and safety became a concern. The environment fostered and impeded speed and played a critical role in the aesthetic of speed. Wind, sunlight, cloud cover, and humidity all affect the performance of a racecar. To maximize performance, engineers must find the correct balance between the car and the environment, and drivers have to master track conditions, which change with the changing elements. The most successful competitors were most in-tune with the environment. Many memorable races occurred when unexpected climatic conditions affected the racetrack and the racecars—countless upset winners prevailed in rain-shortened races. Factories, teams, and 8 drivers spend millions of dollars every year to overcome environmental obstacles presented by the racetrack and its surroundings. Since the earliest races, countless sanctioning bodies organized motorsports. Small, locally based sanctioning bodies were sometimes referred to as clubs. These entities brought organization and stability to the sport, and their functions changed little since the sport began. A sanctioning body’s main purposes usually included finding venues at which to compete, negotiating contracts with tracks, officiating races, and raising and distributing purse money. In some cases, they provided travel expenses for drivers and teams. Sanctioning bodies often required a sanctioning fee charged to the venue, which varied from track to track, and played a major role in promotion and public relations. Much like the environment, sanctioning bodies influenced and changed the sport throughout auto racing history. Although envisioned to foster stability, various sanctioning bodies clashed with drivers, racecar owners, and automobile companies in the earliest days of auto racing, and this remains the case today. Some sanctioning bodies were involved with only one type of racing while others incorporated different series or divisions. A few entities and types of racing rose from regional to national influence. Sanctioning bodies dictated the geographical, environmental, and ecological development of American motorsports, and a detailed account of auto racing must address the history and influence of these entities. Shifts in the organization of different types of racing tend to move quicker than other sports, due to constant splitting, forming, and fighting between sanctioning bodies. As there were a myriad of sanctioning bodies, numerous varieties of auto racing existed in America. The major distinction is that between open-wheel cars, stock cars, and dragsters. Top American divisions of open-wheel cars were commonly known as championship