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cHAPrER FOUR

The Gardens of lndia *

Prabhakar B. Bhagwat

India is one of the few nations to have other country or city except perhaps had a continuous civilization from about Athens, could have surpassedthis level 3000 B.C. It is interesting to know that of development. King Ashoka (270- the Indians were aware of the nation' s 250 B.C.) not only loved trees and cultural heritage. This had an important parks but gave royal orders to plant trees and develop gardens aIl ovei bis impact on successive developments. Information available about the earlier kingdom. As they were Rock Edicts, period is very limited and ,oftenone has these instructions are still available to to guess the type of development that us. Instructions were given regarding might have existed. the location and composition of parks. The earliest information we have is Bach park was expected to have water from the Harappa Civilization, i.e. pools, creeper arbours and shaded around 2500-2000 B.C. Trees were walks. The design was more informaI considered important and to protect than formaI, the emphasis was on shade them they were given reljgious values. and the cooling effects of water; and Even at this early period, there were trees, shrubs and creepers were given trade and cultural contacts with Central preference for their fragrance, and their Asia. fruits, etc. Around 1200to 1000B.C.,lndiahad Another example of the sameperiod a developed art of town planning. Irri- is also very intersting. Menander (180- gation systems were also developed 160 B.C.) was the Indian-born Greek and were in use. Some information is king. Ris capital, Sagola (present day available about parks and gardens. Sialkot), had extensive parks and gar- However, it was not till the time of Lord dens. Many of these gardens and parks Buddha, (563 to 483 B.C.), that we had lakes and tanks with shadedwalks. have sufficient information about the From the wall paintings, sculptures, developmentof parks and gardens.Lord and rock-cut temples and from Sanskrit Buddha was born in a park. During that literature, one can get a fairly accurate period more emphasis was on wood- idea of garden development from the lands and parks rather than on gardens. lst to the 5th century A.D. From the point of view of cultural Kalidasa and other poets give us and artistic development, the Mauryan detailed information about the gardens. period (322 to 185 B.C.) could be Kalidasa (Malavikagnimitra Drama) considered as one of the 'bestperiods in has described a machine which is simi- the history of India. It is said that no lar to our present-day water sprayers.

54 The Gardens of India

There were water-cooled garden pa- oped further. Indian influence was vilions and bathing tanks. Gardens were clearly seenin Persia,Greece and Rome. watered from the main tank by weIl laid Traders from Central Asia, out water channels. The pools had particulary Arab traders, were regular fountains. The concept of a pleasure visitors to India, and some ofthem even garden with use of water was fully settled down, generally in the coastal developed and utilizled. In the literature areas. nearly thirty different types of lily Ideas were exchanged in a friendly pools have been described. manner. ln the early part of the 8th According to information about the century there was conflict between In- Chola kings (around the 10th and 11th dian and Islamic traders. Around the century A.D. ) in South India their cities lOth century A.D. Arab traders were were weIl developed with weIl planned attacked by pirates near Sind. The king gardens.The great South-Indian tem- of Sind did not take any action and ples, gems of Indian architecture, usu- therefore Mohamed-bin Kasim attacked ally had water tanks in their com- and captured Sind. This can also be pounds with gardens attached to them. called the beginning of the interaction Invariably, such gardens were called of Indian (Hindu) art and culture with "Nandanvaruun" (heavenly gardens). that of Islamic conceptions and culture. Similarly, on the western coast, some Regarding the art of Arabs, Rawlinson 80 kms. to the north IDfthe present city makes a very important statement, of Ahmedabad was Anhilvad, capital which has some bearing on the devel- of the Solanki King:s of Gujarat (961 opment of Indo-Islamic art. He says, A.D). We not only have information "The early Muslim conquerors of about the gardens, the pools and the Hindustan were bigots but they were at fountains, but also about what plants the sametime men of considerable taste were grown at that time:. But now the and patrons of art and literature". Ref- city lies in ruins erence has been made to the short-Iived Al-Biruni (around 1020 A.D.) au- splendors of the Court of Gazani during thor of Kitab-u-Hind :andthe "Chronol- its brief period of prosperity .The Arabs ogy of Ancient Natiot1s" has given us a had no art of their own and Islamic art gooddescription of the developmentof is largely an adaptation to the require- tanks and reservoirs. He says, "In this, ments of the Mohammedan religion Indians have attained a very high de- and of indigenous elements borrowed gree of art, so that when ourpeople see from the various nations which they them, they wonder at them and are overcame. This was the case in India". unable to describe them, much less to However, the Turki invaders from construct anything like them". the north brought with them important An ambassador from the kingdom new ideas, the arch, the dome and mina- of the Pandya was stationed in Athens ret and combined themwith the art of around 20 B.C. But it was not till the this country. ln this they were aided by lst century A.C. that there was any Hindu craftsmen and by the fact that in exchange of ideas between the West many casesthey either refashioned ex- and India. Trade and cultural contacts isting Hindu temples or used them as which India had developed with Cen- quarries for new buildings. Indo- Islamic traI Asia not only continued but devel- architecture, then, is a fusion of Central ~ 55

~ Prabhakar B. Bhagwal

Asian and Hindu concepts. Again. the poor, and the climate generany warm rise of Islam was largely responsible throughout the year, but not reaching for giving a new dimension to the age- the extremes. old trade connection of India with Cen- Four differentIslarnic dynastiesruled tral and Western Asia. At an early pe- Delhi before Babar came to the throne. riod Hindu art and science had astrong A Turkish slave Mohammed Ghory influence in the Arab kingdoms. par- established bis kingdom at Delhi, inau- ticularly in Baghdad. gurating the Slave Dynasty, ( in 1206 The chief feature of Hinduism. its A.D). Kutb-din Ibak (1210 A.D.) made power of assimilation. was also an im- an important contribution to architec- portant factor. Invaders like the Greeks. ture during bis time. Very little infor- Saka.Kushan and Huna were gradually mation about gardens is available. We absorbed into Hindu society. But the have some infonnation about the gar- Mohammedans with their strongly dens and garden pavilions built during marked religious characteristics re- the reign of queen Razia Begam (1236 mained apart; They lived as a garrison A.D.). However, ber rule was short in a hostile country. holdil11glittle or no lived. intercourse with their subjects. They Perhaps,the king best known for bis made comparisons with their home- love of gardens before Babar would be lands and tried to create a similar envi- King FirozShah (1351 A. D.) Contem- ronment in India. While doing this they porary historians have left a good record unknowingly usedIndian materials and of bis work. Sultan Firoz developed methods. thus changing the image they more than 1200 gardens in and around really wanted to create. Delhi. True, the gardens may have been Information available on gardens mainly fruit orchards, but recreation during the earlierperiod of Islamic rule. was no sman part of it. More use was that is up to the time of Babar , is rather made of running water in the gardens. limited. This is largely for two reasons. He developed forty-four gardens near First. there were very few historians or Chittor and eighty gardensnear Salaura. chroniclers present during this period. He was responsible for completing Secondly. time has taken its toll in this about 30 gardens which were started by tropical country and what was left. suc- Ala-ud-din (1296 A.D.). Most of the ceeding kings demolished. gardens bad irrigation channels, and For the purpose of this swdy .we can some bad fountains also. Sultan Firoz divide India into two regions. The Shah was a great builder. It is recorded lslarnic kingdoms in the North mostly that he established nearly 200 towns in around Delhi. Agra. etc. and Islamic addition to a new capital called Kingdoms. popularly known as Sultan- Firozabad. He also constructed thirty ates,in the South ofIndia. IClimatically reservoirs and fifty dams. Another im- andgeographically. these two regions portant engineering feat of bis time was differ from each other.The North. the that of transporting two monolithic pil- plains of Indus and Ganges. is mostly lars of the Emperor Ashok and erecting flat and fertile. The climate is hot and them in Delhi. This in itself deserves dusty during sumrner and pleasantly credit. cold duringwinter. In the South how- After the fan of the Tughlak dynasty , ever. the land is mostly hilly. the soil is by 1300 A.D., two important events

56 v

~ The Gardens of India

took place in the country: the end of was a pleasure house. Now only a few Delhi as a seat of political power in die tracesof the original gardens remain. ln country and secondly and of interest to the palace, there were fountains and us, the rise of independent Islamic tanks with coloured glass. Water used kingdoms in other parts of the country . to flow over the coloured glass tiles The Lodhi dynasty wbich ruled from which were lighted. 1450 to 1526 A.D. contributed greatly The gardens of this period were en- to architecture and to the art of gàrdens riched by introducing plants from other in India. It was Sikandar Lodhi who nations. As has been said earlier, there sbifted bis capital to Sidandra near Agra. were trade contacts with Central Asia. The place is now famous for Akbar's The traders used to visit various places tomb. Lodhi tombs in Delhi and other and bring back interesting goods as structures of this period speak of devel- presentsor for trade. We have evidence opment achieved during this time. that during the reign of Mahamud As has been said earlier, after the fall Khilaji, 1436-1469 A.D.,AdanonSonia of the Tughlak dynasty, independent Digitata, a plant of the East coast of kingdoms wereestablishedin otherparts Africa, was introduced at Mandu. of the country .Their contribution to the Anotherimportant kingdom was the art of Islamic gardens in India is of Baihmani kingdom (1347 to 1482 importance to us. lit might sound sur- A.D) in the south of India, which ulti- prising but some ofthese gardens were mately broke up to fonn several small more advanced for their time than the Sultanates.lmportant from our point of gardens developed by Babar in India. view are the City of Sultan Feroz Shah We will briefly dealwith these gardens. Bahmuny (1397 to 1422 A.D.) and the Let us consider the Malava kingdom Sultanate of Bidar (1490 to 1574 A.D.) (1297-1531 A.D.) in central India. The Feroz ShahBahmuny built a town called most interesting work of this period is Ferozabad on the banks of the river the Fort Palace atM:andu. Anyone who Bhima in the Deccan; The palace was has visited the site will be surprised by provided with water from a canal which the sheer location of the fort. not 10 was connected to the Bhima river. The speak of its archite,cture. Mandu was palace was divided into several court- known in the 8th to 13th century as yards. Many court yards had gardens belonging to Parmar kings. It was at- with water running through channels. tacked by Ala-ud-din Khilhji, Sultan of Similarly the Tomb of Quasim Barid Delhi in 1305 A.D. But it was not till who died in 1504 had a weIl laid out 1401 A.D. that it became the Islamic garden with paved paths etc. The same capital under king Dilawar Khan. The is true of the Tomb of Ali Barid who present city of Mandu was built by died in 1580 A.D. Hoshang 1405-1432 A.D. Coming to the gardens of Bidar, we ItwastoKingBaz-Bahadur,1555to have some interesting infonnation. The 1562 A. D. , that the honours must go for "RangaMahall" (literally: Ranga= col- the development of the art of garden- our, Mahall=pavilion, but it was actu- ing. The Reva Garden was square in ally a hall for recreation) had a court- shape vith a great tank or pool in the yard. This court-yard was developed as centre. The garden 'Nas set with trees a garden with a cistem. The cistem's and flowers. In the centre of the garden dimensions are: 2.90 m. long, 2.08 m. ~ 57 ~ :~:!:~! r,:;f! 1"r ,"' ,,":"

Prabhakar B.

wide, 0.76 m. deep. that is was a real garden city. The royal pavilion in the same pal- Perhapsit may be out ofplace, but is ace also had a fountain made of dark of interest to mention, that the predomi- horblende, octagonal in shape, with nantly Hindu Kingdom ofVijayanag~ cusps at the margin. The basin is 75 cms (1336-1565 A.D.) had weIl laid out across. Some traces do remain of intri- gardens. This has been reported by cate water channels. The kings were Domingo Peos,a Portuguese merchant, very fond of water, and runriing water in 1522 A. D. in particular .Then there is a Lalbagh or We wiIl now consider the final phase Ruby (red) garden, so called becauseof of the Islamic garden in India. The red flowers which may have been grown work of this period is best known as it in the garden. This garden is rectangu- is not only fairly weIl preserved as lar in shape, 125 meters by 64 meters. monuments, but is weIl documented in The pavilion which is in the centre has histories, biographies and miniature water channels beside it. A cistem of paintings. Unfortunately, similar infor- elegant design, built in the middle of a mat1on is not available for earlier gar- platformis 1.2m.highand 12rn. square. dens. Moreover,there was continuity The cistem itself is only, 1.02 rn. deep and stability during the Mughal period. having a fourteen-sidedoval shape,with It is generally believed that Babar intro- a black stone margin. A narrow chan- duced Islamic gardens, prior to Babar' s nel only 86 cms. wide, runs and joins arrival. One wiIl find this hard to be- another ci stem 18 ms. by 2.5 ms. with lieve. It is clear that there was a free fountains. Two small water cascades exchange of ideas between India and are also provided. The water for the Central Asian countries and also be- garden was lifted from wells. Then there tween various Islarnic rulers. Many In- is the Tarkash Mahall, with a garden dian artisansand craftsman were work - and cistern. ing in faraway places such as Baghdad These gardens were further modi- and Gazani. The concept of "Bostan" tied by the Mughal governors. (fruit orchard) and the "Gulistan" There is a reference to the Farh-bagh (flower garden) was an Islarnic con- garden being laid out by Mukhtar , cept. This being the case, it wiIl be Mughal Governor of Bidar in 1671' somewhat impractical to give alI the We will consideronly two more ex- credit to Babar .As has been said ear- amples before coming to the Mughal lier, infonnation about the Mughal pe- contribution. riod is readily available, and this may First, Mahmud Peghadra, King of lead one to believe that no other gar- Gujarat(from 1459to 1511 A"D.)built dens existed earlier. However, alI said an excellent palace in a lake aitSarkhej and done, Babar did give a very solid near Ahmedabad. No details of the gar- impetus to garden development in In- dens are easily available but contempo- dia. Babar was a shrewd observer and a rary works gi ve us some infonnation on very ambitious person. He tried to make the garden at that time. The second the best of every situation. His observa- example is also of the 15th century: tions of Indian plant life are remarkable Champaner, near Baroda, the Islamic in this respect. Babar laid out and im- Capital of Gujarat; whatever little in- proved many gardens around Kabul. formation is available goes to prove Important among these gardens is the 58

:,~",r l~f~., """JJ" ,~,. The Gardens of India

Bagh-i- Vifa (Garden offidelity) which dominant in garden planning. Paradise he developed with great care, planting had eight divisions and based on this trees and plants br,ought from India. In concept the gardens were divided into his memoirs he refers to this garden eight terraces.However, in some places, several times. the number seven was also chosen to When Babar came to Agra, he represent the seven planets. inmediately started bis first garden, ln these terraced pleasure gardens Char-Bagh. It is interesting to note his the main pavilion, the climax of the efforts in establishing this garden: design, was in nearly every case placed "Shortly after ,coming to Agra, I either on the topmost terrace from which passed the Jumuna with this object in one couldget a wide view, or else on the view, and examilJIed the country , to lowest terrace from where one could pitch upon a fit spot for a garden. The enjoy the garden with its background. whole was so ugly and detestable. that This system has been commonly used I repassed the river quite repulsed and in Kashmir . disgusted. In consequence of the want But it was not always possible to of beauty and the disagreeable aspect have a site where terraces were possi- of the country .Igave up my intention of ble. This led to the development of making a Char-Bagh; but as no better gardens on flat ground. ln suchgardens situation presented itself near Agra. I the main structure was raised suffi- was fmally compel1ed to make the best ciently high so as to achieve an impos- of this same spot. First of all I began to ing effect. Secondly, were eight ter- sink the large weIl which supplies the racesor seven terraces and if it were not baths with water; I next fell to workon possible two water channels were de- the piece of ground on which are the signed to form a cosmic cross. affibli (Tamarindus Indica). and the 00- Islamic gardens could be divided tagonal tank; I then proceeededto form into three types: the large tank and its enclosure; and a. gardens developed around a mauso- afterwards the tank and lalar .I next leum, finished the garden of the private apart- b. gardens developed as pleasure gar- ments, and the apartments themselves. dens, after which I completed the baths. In c. court yard gardens. this way. going on. without neatness The simple plan which was followed and without order.in the Hindu fash- in the plains could have been influ- ion, I. however. produced edifices and enced by Hindu mythology. The Hin- gardens which possessedconsiderable dus considered Mount Meru as the cen- regularity. In every corner I planted tre of the world, while from the four suitable gardens; in every garden I cardinal points holy springs the life planted roses and l1\arcissusregularly. giving springs used to flow, On the and in beds corresponding to each central mount stood the tree of knowl- other... edge and a temple. ln the Islamic con- The gardens developed by Bahar cept, which had a strong ideology of a .were usually constructed in a series of Paradise, the mausoleum replaced the terraces of sloping ground, which was temple. the usual Turki and Persian plan. The The gardens in the plains, and par- religious concept of Paradise was pre- ticularly around the mausolem, follow ~ 59 Prabhakar B. Bha$Wat

a very simple plan. Where possible, the nels were developed to water the gar- king used to develop the garden him- den. At suitable places, small tanks self, and after his death a mausoleum were constructed from which the water used to be built in the garden. was distributed. These tanks or basins Arnong mausoleumgardens we have: were carved in various shapes. Water 1. Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, (1556 falls and water chutes weredeveloped. A.D.), Water rushing over the carved chute 2. A:kbar's Tomb, Sikandra near Agra, was either thrown up in ripples or bro- (1605 A.D.) ken pearls or formed a sheet of water . 3. Jahangir' s Tomb, Shahadra,Lahore, There were water jets ofvarious types. (1627 A.D.) Perhapsthe most famous of terraced 4. The Taj Mahal, Agra, (1658 A.D.) gardens will be the Nishat Bagh in 5. Mausoleum for Rabi a Darauni. Kashmir, built by Jehangir. It hastwelve Arnong pleasure gardens"the impor- terraçes, rising higher and higher and tant gardens are the Nasim Bagh by reaching the mountain. The stream tears Akbar .Shalimar Achabal, Vernag and down these terraces in cascades enli- Nishat, builtduringthetimeofJahangir. vening each terrace by its movement. ThenduringShahjahan'stime, wehave An important feature of the NishatBagh the ChasmaShahi in Kashmir, Shalimar is the stone and marble thrones. Gener- at Delhi and also at Lahore and the ally one such throne is placed at the gardens of the Red Fort at Delhi. The head of every water fall. The Nishat Pinjore Gardens near present-day Bagh also has a tower at either end, Chandigarh are perhaps th,e only im- surveying thewhole landscape. But to portant gardensof Aurangzeb' s period. some the Shalimar, or Royal Gardens, Arnong court-yard gardens, we have are more interesting. They are truly the Anguri bagh, Agra fort, the Garden called Paradise in Paradise. The most of the Amber Fort and Udaipur Lake important feature is the black marble Palace. pavilion, surrounded by jets of water; The gardenaround Huma:yun' s tomb this pavilion in the Ladies' garden is the is perhaps the oldest garden of the climax of the whole design, and is the Mughal period to have preserved most best example of a Mughal "Baradari" of its original design. It is here we find open on all sides. that water was passedover small chutes Among court-yard gardens the with designs giving different patterns. Anguri Bagh is the finest example. This Up to the time of Akbar, the water gem of a garden lies in the Khas Mahall channels were somewhat narrow, with royal quarters, with ladies' quarters on broad pavements adjoining them. Wa- three sides. The garden isdivided into ter fans, or water sheets, and fountains four squares,which are laid outin beau- were not fully developed. But it was for tiful geometrical shapes. ln the centre Jahangir to utilize water fully as had there is a raised platform with a small been done in the gardens of Kashmir . tank and fountain. This is perhaps the The water was taken through narrow most intimate garden. or wide channels according to the de- Although the Hindu influence on sign. The channelswere generally shal- Islamic architecture has always been low and were filled up to the brim. strong, it was perhaps most prominent From the main channels, small chan- during Akbar' s times. The Anguri Bagh 60 I The Gardens of India

at Agra, the Amber garden at Jaipur and swimming pool has been built in the the Lake Palace garden at Udaipur are middle of an old Mughal garden. There classical examples of this influence. are many other examples like this, some Another product of this influence was small, others big, but each example has development of moon-light gardens as its own impact. Even the Nishat and against sun-lit Islamic gardens. Shalimar gardens in Kahsmir have not Infonnation is available about the escaped from this destruction. The gar- plants used in Islamic gardens. Ground- dens themselves have suffered. During cover which was "clover" in Bahar' s reconstruction work, properthought was garden, was not used in Indian gardens. not given to them. ln some places, even Fruit trees like citrus spp. pomegranate, the existence of a garden was ignored or were commonly planted. Among forgotten. Fathepur Sikri, Akbar's shrubs narium spp., jasminum spp., capital, is one such example. British roses, hibiscus spp., were very com- gardeners also modified the plans of mon. Among seasonal plants., holly- gardens and introduced new plants. This hocks, carnations,narcissus, polyanthus must have been done in enthusiasm and and marigolds were common. unknowingly. The subject of Islamic gardens in The problem is enormous, but a so- India is in itself a wide one, covering lution has to be found. the following are nearly 1500 years and two different some of the suggestions for tackling the religions. ln this short paper, efforts problems: have been made to put forward the -complete survey of the existing gar- salient points, rather than a detailed dens and probable garden sites. description. -detailed study of each garden in terms Our present concem is two-fold: of design elements such as pavil- flfSt to preserve what we have and; ions, water channels, paving, secondly, to restore or reconstruct fountains, etc.; study of the evolu- wherever possible. lt is needless to say, tion of various forms. as every one will agree, that efforts -study of plant material so as to estab- must be made to protect and preserve lish a list of suitable plants which whatever little has been left. After the couldbe used in each garden. fall of the Mughal Empire and also -giving suitable training to Landscape during the British period, these monu- Architects in Archaeology, and to ments suffered a lot. If one goes through Archaeologists in Landscape design, the reports of Archaeological Survey, so that the process of conservation one will be shocked to read of old andxestoration can be safely carried monuments used as Military barracks, out. schools, railway stations, Govemment For the purposes of this paper, geographical and offices and what nolt. Three examples political boundaries are assumed. to be thosc of the 181hcentury i.e. during the Mughal period. of this misuse wouJd be sufficient to Bibliography illustrate the point: the Red Fort of Abul Faz1, 1873, Ani-i-Akbari. Translated by: Delhi, part of which is still used as a BlochmannJarret!. Calcutta. military garrison: a machine tool fac- AbulFaz, 1939,AkbarNama.TranslatedbyBeveridge. Calcutta. tory has been established right in front Babar,1922,BabarNama.TranslatedbyH.Beveridge. ofPinjore Garden, colmpletely destroy- London. ing the view. Elsewhere a modem Badoni, 1884.Mutakhabu Tawarikh. Translatedby Lowe. Calcutta. :r 61

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Prabhak~ B. Bhagwat il1~lt c'i~ l' ,:r c;'tr

,i!'!

Basham, A. L., 1967., The Wonder that was India. Calcutta. Beveridge, 1902, Humayan Nama. (Written by Guldaban Begum). London. Blochrnann and Jarrett, 1875-1891. Abul Fazl's Ain-

i-Akbari. Calcutta. Briggs, History ofthe Rise ofthe Mohamedan Power

in India by Ferishta. Bernier, F., 1914, Travels in the Mogul Empire A.D. 1657-1668 Translated by Constable. Oxford. Crowe (Sylvia) and Haywood (Sheila), 1971, The Gardens of Mughallndia. London. Eliot and Dawson, 1867, The History of India as told by its own Historions. London. Ikram., 1964, Muslim civilization in India. London. Leyden and Erskine, 1921,. The Memoirs of Babur.

Oxford. ViIliersStuart. C.M.,1913,GardensofGreat Mughals. London. Wilber. o. N., 1962,. Persian Gardens ,rJndGarden

Pavilions. Tokyo Welch. Stuart., 1964., The Art of Mughallndia. New

York. YazadaniG.,1936,Bidar, itsHistoryandJ\1onuments. London. Yazadani G., 1936, Mandu, London. Various Publications and Reports of Archaeological Survey of Indi11.New Delhi.

62 "

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