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Wiσter Iσ the Laσd Τf Rûmμ Komnenian Defenses Against the Turks in Western Anatolia

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Wiσter Iσ the Laσd Τf Rûmμ Komnenian Defenses Against the Turks in Western Anatolia WIσTER Iσ THE LAσD τF RÛMμ KOMNENIAN DEFENSES AGAINST THE TURKS IN WESTERN ANATOLIA A Master‘s Thesis by HUMBERTO CESAR HUGO DELUIGI Department of Archaeology İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University Ankara January 2015 To the memory of my grandfathers Simon van Nispen & Humberto De Luigi, Sr. WIσTER Iσ THE LAσD τF RÛMμ KOMNENIAN DEFENSES AGAINST THE TURKS IN WESTERN ANATOLIA The Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences of İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University by HUMBERTO CESAR HUGO DELUIGI In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS In THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY İHSAσ DτĞRAMACI BILKEσT UσIVERSITY January 2015 I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Archaeology. ---------------------------------- Dr. Charles Gates Supervisor I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Archaeology. ---------------------------------- Dr. Jacques Morin Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Archaeology. ---------------------------------- Dr. Eugenia Kermeli Ünal Examining Committee Member Approval of the Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences ---------------------------------- Dr. Erdal Erel Director ABSTRACT WIσTER Iσ THE LAσD τF RÛMμ KOMNENIAN DEFENSES AGAINST THE TURKS IN WESTERN ANATOLIA DeLuigi, Humberto Cesar Hugo M.A., Department of Archaeology Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Charles Gates January 2015 Castles constitute the most abundant group of Byzantine remains in Anatolia, and offer historians and archaeologists the opportunity to more fully understand both Byzantine settlement patterns and defensive systems through the ages. However, due to their inaccessibility, lack of distinctive construction techniques, and an absence of evidence for secure dating these monuments have often been neglected by Byzantinists. At the same time, historical sources of the eleventh and twelfth centuries make it clear that the Komnenian emperors Alexios, John, and Manuel all engaged in extensive fortification activities. This thesis seeks to critically unite the historical and archaeological evidence for Komnenian fortifications, with the goal of further understanding the Komnenian defensive strategy and evaluating its results. Following a historical overview of Turkish settlement in Anatolia and the Byzantine response, forty Komnenian castles are surveyed, half of them historically attested and the other half assigned to the period based on historical likelihood and, where iii possible, stylistic similarities with known Komnenian fortifications. The conclusion argues that while the Komneni were generally successful in dealing with the Selçuks diplomatically, they were unable to solve the problem of the nomadic Türkmen, against whom their fortification program was overwhelmingly directed. Keywords: Western Anatolia, Byzantine, Anatolian Selçuks, Türkmen, Alexios, John, Manuel Komnenos, Kılıç Arslan, Castle, Fortifications, Defense Strategy, Settlement iv ÖZET RÛM TτPRAĞIσDA KIΑμ BATI AσADτLU‘DA TÜRKLER KARΑISIσDAKİ KτMσEστSLARIσ MÜDÂFAASI DeLuigi, Humberto Cesar Hugo Yüksek Lisans, Arkeoloji Bölümü Tez Yöneticisiμ Prof. Dr. Charles Gates Ocak 2015 Kaleler, Anadolu‘da Bizans kalıntılarının en bol olduğu grubu teΒkil eder ve hem tarihçilere hem de arkeologlara, Bizans müdafaa sistemlerini ve yerleΒim desenlerini anlamlandırabilmek için bir fırsat verir. Halbuki kalenin ulaΒılmazlık, özgün olmayan inΒaat tekniği ve kesin tarihleme için kanıt eksikliği yüzünden bu yapılar, Bizans araΒtırmacıları tarafından ihmal edilmiΒtir. Aynı zamanda, M.S. 11. ve 12. yüzyıllara ait tarihi kaynaklar göstermektedir ki; Aleksios, Yannis, ve Manuel Komnenos tarafından kapsamlı bir tahkimat inΒa edilmiΒtir. Bu tez, Komnenoslar dönemindeki kaleler için tarihsel ve kazılardan elde edilen bilimsel kanıtları ciddi olarak birleΒtirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu Βekilde, Komnenoslar‘ın müdafaa stratejisi anlaΒılabilecek ve onun sonuçları değerlendirebilecektir. İlk Türk yerleΒimi ve Bizans müdahaleleri hakkında genel bir tarihsel taslaktan sonra, kırk adet Komnenoslar dönemine ait kale incelenmiΒtir. Yarısı tarihi kaynaklardan bilinirken, diğer yarısı da Komnenoslar dönemi tarihsel olasılık ve stilistik kriterler araΒtırılarak v elde edilmiΒtir. Sonuç bölümüν Komnenoslar‘ın Selçuklularla diplomatik açıdan iliΒkilerinin baΒarılı olduğunu fakat göçebe Türkmenlerle sorunlarının çözülemediğini ayrıca Komnenoslar‘ın savunma sistemini Türklere karΒı değil göçebe Türkmenlere karΒı olduğu gerçeğini kesin olarak ortaya koymaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Batı Anadolu Bölgesi, Bizans, Anadolu Selçuklular, Türkmenler, Aleksios, Yannis, Manuel Komnenos, Kale, Tahkimat, Müdafaa Strateji, YerleΒim vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my Thesis Supervisor Dr. Charles Gates for helping me to choose this topic and for his patience as I worked my way through it. Although I did not know the final conclusions I would reach Dr. Gates encouraged me to continue researching and expanding my knowledge of a period that was largely new to me when I began this project. I am also appreciative of my examining committee members Dr. Jacques Morin and Dr. Eugenia Kermeli Ünal for their helpful comments and insightful questions. I am extremely grateful to the rest of the faculty in the Department of Archaeology here at Bilkent, for creating an environment where scholarship and intellectual exploration is so thoroughly nurtured and encouraged. I also owe thanks to the Bilkent library staff, especially Füsun Yurdakul for her kind and prompt assistance with interlibrary loan requests. I also have to thank my friends and colleagues, past and present, in the Department of Archaeology, Burak Arcan, Bahattin İpek, Leyla Yorulmaz, Tom Moore, Andy Beard, Kasia Kuncewicz, Selim Yıldız, and σurcan AktaΒ, for their support, encouragement, and many interesting and productive discussions. I am especially grateful to Nurcan for providing me with so many pictures of the castle in Kütahya before I was able to go there myself. vii I want to thank my family for supporting my decision to pursue graduate studies and write this thesis, and in particular my brother Christiaan and my sister-in- law Dara for being my first introduction to Anatolia and its immense archaeological and cultural wealth. Finally I owe an immense debt of gratitude to Seçil Birkan, my constant travel companion, unfailing supporter, and best friend. Hayatımda en çok sana borçluyum, en fazla teΒekkürü de sana etmem gerekiyor. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………....……………iii ÖZET………………………………………………………………….……......…….v ACKστWLEDGEMEσTS…………………………………………......….……….vii TABLE OF CτσTEσTS……………………………………………………...……..ix LIST τF FIGURES………………………………………..........................………..xii CHAPTER 1: IσTRτDUCTIτσ…………………………………………..………...1 CHAPTER 2: ANATOLIA FROM THE FIRST TURKISH RAIDS TO THE FOURTH CRUSADE………………………………………………...8 2.1 Byzantium in the Eleventh Century…………………………..…….………...κ 2.2 Early Turkish Incursions in Anatolia……………………………..…………11 2.3 Romanos IV Diogenes and the Battle of Mantzikert………….………..…...13 2.4 Sources for the History of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries………….....17 2.5 Anatolia between the Byzantines and Selçuks 10κ1-1118: Alexios I Komnenos………………………………………...………24 2.6 Anatolia between the Byzantines and Selçuks 111κ-1143: John II Komnenos……………………………………………....…...35 2.7 Anatolia between the Byzantines and Selçuks 1143-1180: Manuel I Komnenos…………………………………………………39 2.8 Anatolia from the death of Manuel to the Fourth Crusade………..………...46 ix CHAPTER 3: KOMNENIAN FORTIFICATIONS: THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE………………………………………………..……….49 3.1 Previous Studies…………………………………………………..….……...50 3.2 Fortifications of Alexios I Komnenos…………………………….…....……η2 3.2.1 Didyma/Hieron (Didim, Aydın)……………………………….....……52 3.2.2 Korykos (Kızkalesi, Mersin)………………………………..……...….ηζ 3.2.3 Seleukeia (Silifke - Mersin)……………………………….....………..56 3.2.4 Kibotos/Civetot/Helenopolis? (Hersek, Yalova)……………………...57 3.2.5 Sidera…………………………………………………….…...……….58 3.2.6 Nikaia (İznik, Bursa)………………………………………….....…….ηκ 3.2.7 Adramytteion (Burhaniye, Balıkesir)…………………..……...………60 3.2.8 Possible Fortifications of Alexios…………………………..……...….60 3.2.8.1 Aizanoi (Çavdarhisar, Kütahya)………………………....……...61 3.2.8.2 Akrokos (Eğrigöz, Emet, Kütahya)…………………..….……...61 3.3 Fortifications of John II Komnenos…………………………..…..…………63 3.3.1 Laodikeia (Denizli)……………………………………..…..…………63 3.3.2 Apollonia Sozopolis (Uluborlu, Isparta)………………….…………...66 3.3.3 Lopadion (Uluabat, Bursa)…………………………………….....……6ι 3.3.4 Achyraous (Pamukçu, Balıkesir)……………………………………...6κ 3.3.5 Possible fortifications of John…………………………….…………...ι0 3.3.5.1 Pegadia (Bigadiç, Balıkesir)…………………………..……..….ι0 3.3.5.2 Sultan Çayir………………………………………….……..…...ι1 3.3.5.3 Trebenna and YarbaΒçandır Kalesi (Konyaaltı, Antalya)…….....72 3.3.5.4 Kalanoros/Ala‘iyya (Alanya)……………………….…..……….ιζ 3.3.5.5 KızılcaΒehir (τba, Alanya)………………………….…..………ιη 3.3.5.6 Pegai (Karabiga, Çanakkale)……………………...…………….ι6 x 3.4 Fortifications of Manuel I Komnenos…………………………….…………ιι 3.4.1 Malagina (PaΒalar, Sakarya) and Pithekas (Köprühisar, Sakarya) …...78 3.4.2 The Theme of Neokastra……………………………….........………...κ0 3.4.2.1 Chliara (Darkale, Soma, Manisa)………………………………..κ1
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